02 MT 12

Motion - I
Selection of a Sensor/Transducer Resistive Position Transducers Capacitive Transducers
Sensor/Transducer
Selection of a sensor/transducer (S/T) typically requires a consideration of Operating Range (e.g. +/-100 rad/s) Sensitivity (e.g. 0.01 V/rad/s) Speed of Response (e.g. Bandwidth of 50 Hz) Environmental Conditions (e.g. -10 to +80 deg C) Accuracy (e.g. 3% FS)
Measurement Lab 11 Mar 2003
Note: this material may be copyright protected and may only be used for personal use.
Resistive Position Transducers

The principle of the resistive position transducer is that the measured quantity causes a resistance change in the sensing element. A common type of resistive displacement transducers uses a resistive element with a sliding contact linked to the object being monitored (a contact type transducer). For this purpose, a variant of the voltage divider called a potentiometer (or simply a pot) can be used. Linear Displacement A voltage divider can be equipped with a sliding contact which is linked to the object. The resistance of the potentiometer now varies linearly with displacement, as shown below:

Let the fractional displacement be defined as r = x/x. Then, the corresponding resistance across which the output voltage is taken is R.r where R is the total resistance of the potentiometer. Using the voltage divider equation, we find the output to be
Full output slider position

R (1 r )
E R r x'
Slider
x
E out
E out
R r = E = rE R
Zero output slider position
The resistive track element may be a wire-wound track or a film of conductive plastic.
Measurement Lab 11 Mar 2003 Note: this material may be copyright protected and may only be used for personal use. 5

Example: A linear resistive displacement transducer has a shaft stroke of 5 cm, total resistance of 3k, source voltage of 6V. When the slider contact is 2 cm from the zero output position, what will be the output voltage? Given that x = 5 cm, x = 2 cm, E = 6 V, the output voltage will be
Eout =
Rotary Displacement
2 6 = 2.4 V 5
If the resistive element and a contact is arranged in a rotary manner, the resistance change can be related to an angular position of the contact.
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no moving parts
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no sliding contact
Series HRS100 Hall Effect Rotary Position Sensor is a direct replacement for potentiometers in circuits that require an analog voltage. The HRS100 offers cost-effective longlife precision control in harsh environments.
Capacitive Transducers
A typical capacitor is comprised of two parallel plates of conducting material separated by an electrical insulating material called a dielectric. The plates and the dielectric may be either flattened or rolled. The purpose of the dielectric is to help the two parallel plates maintain their stored electrical charges. The relationship between the capacitance and the size of capacitor plate, amount of plate separation, and the dielectric is given by
C = K
A d
d is the separation distance of plates (m) C is the capacitance (F, Farad) K is the dielectric constant K = 0 r 0 = 8.854 pF / m : absolute permittivity of vacuum r : relative permittivity A is the effective (overlapping) area of capacitor plates (m2)
Note: this material may be copyright protected and may only be used for personal use. 8
Material Vacuum Air Paper Mica Glass Ceramic Relative Permittivity 1.0 1.0006 2.5 5.0 7.5 7500
In this type of transducers, the measured quantity causes a change in the transducers capacitance, which can be achieved by changing d, A, or K .
If the displacement x causes the plate separation to increase by x, the capacitance of the sensor becomes K A C= d+x which shows the nonlinear relationship between the capacitance C and the displacement x. If the displacement x causes the effective area to decrease by ax, the capacitance of the sensor becomes
C=
which is linear in x.
K ( A ax ) d
10
If the displacement x changes the amount of dielectric material inserted between the plates, the total capacitance of the sensor can be approximated as the sum of two capacitances; one with area A1 and dielectric constant K1 , and the other with A2 and K2. If A1 = ax and A2=a(l-x), where a is the width and l the length of the plates, then which is linear in x.
C=
x
a {K 2l (K 2 K 1 )x} d
x x
d
K1 K 2
a
Dielectric material
K
Note: this material may be copyright protected and may only be used for personal use. 11
Motion II
- Inductance
Motion - II
There is a variety of transducers whose operation is inductive. For motion measurement applications, a change in the quantity to be measured must be converted into a change in inductance (and then to voltage using a circuit). We first review ``inductance briefly.
13
Inductance
A magnetic field can be visualized by lines of magnetic force. The entire group of magnetic field lines is called magnetic flux. One Weber (Wb) equals 108 such lines (1 line = 1 maxwell). Magnetic field lines are practically unaffected by nonmagnetic material such as air, vacuum, paper, glass, wood and plastics. However, when a magnetic substance like iron is placed in the field, the magnetic field lines become concentrated. This ability of a substance to concentrate magnetic flux is called permeability. A magnetic field can be created by a permanent magnet or an electromagnet, which is a looped coil of conducting material wound on a core many times.
14
Inductance
The (self) inductance L is an indication of the ability of a coil to oppose any change in current flowing through the coil. The inductance L of a cylindrical coil is given by 2
L=
where L
n A l
n A l
is the inductance [Henry, H] is the permeability of the core [Wb/A-t-m] is the number of turns of coil [1] is the cross sectional area of core [m2] is the length of core [m]
15
Inductance
Core with lower permeability Core with higher permeability
Flux lines
Current Coil with n turns, length
Current
l , and cross sectional area
The relative permeability is the ratio of the permeability of a material to that of a vacuum, which is
vac = 4 10 7 Wb/A t m
= 12.57 107 Wb/A t m
The permeability can be written, therefore, as = vac
16
Inductance
Material
Transformer iron Nickel Air Aluminum Wood
Relative permeability
5500 50 1.0006 1.00000 0.99999
[Extra note: In the electrical circuit shown below, an electromotive force (emf) drives a current through an electrical resistance, and the magnitude of the current is governed by
volts of emf = current resistance
A simple magnetic circuit, also shown below, consists of a core of ferromagnetic material and a coil of n turns which carry a current I and are wound on the core.
Inductance
(When the length is much greater than its width, the coil is called a solenoid.) By analogy, we can regard the coil as a source of magnetomotive force (mmf) which drives a flux through the magnetic circuit . The magnitude of the flux is determined by
ampere - turns of mmf = flux reluctance
I n turns
Thus, the reluctance limits the flux in a magnetic circuit, just as resistance limits the current in an electrical circuit, and is the opposite of permeability. The inductance L of the coil is related to the reluctance R by L = n2/R.
Inductive Sensors
An inductive sensor is designed such that the quantity to be measured alters the (self) inductance of the sensors coil to produce either a change in current through the coil or a change in the voltage across the coil. One of the most common ways of producing such a change is to use a movable core which moves back and forth inside a coil, where a permeability is varied as the core is displaced within the coil. The core is usually made of a highly permeable material such as ferrite and iron.
19
Inductive Sensors
Consider a uniform coil with length l, area of inside core A, and n turns. If a core of some different material is inserted into the coil, the permeability will depend on how far the core is inserted. If an iron core is inserted by length x, its total inductance can be found (approximately) by dividing the coil into two separate portions. Let r be r=x/l. The left portion of the coil has n(1-r) turns, air core, and length l(1-r), giving the inductance of
Lair = air vac
n 2 (1 r ) 2 A n2 A = air vac (1 r ) l(1 r ) l

n2r 2 A n2 A = iron vac r lr l
20
The right portion has nr turns, iron core, and length lr , giving
Liron = iron vac

Inductive Sensors
An approximate total-inductance is the sum of the two above, as

Ltotal = Lair + Liron = vac n2 A { air + ( iron air )r} l
which shows that the total-inductance changes linearly with r. Ex. Find the total inductance of a coil shown below:
3 turns, 1 cm 6 turns, 2 cm
Area =
5 104 m2
Movable iron core
Air
Assume negligible air gap
21
Inductive Sensors
Since r = 2/3, n = 9, l = 0.03m, A = 5 x 10-4 m2, vac = 12.57 x 10-7, air = 1.0006, and iron= 5500, it follows that
Ltotal =
12.57 107 9 2 5 104 0.03
2 1.0006 + (5500 1.0006) = 6.2227 mH 3
Note that the inductance due to the air-core part is only 5.66H and negligible compared with that to the iron-core part, which is 6.22215mH.
22
Inductive Transducers
Consider a set of two coils sharing the same core; i.e., a transformer basically. Note that one of the coil (primary coil) is driven by a power source, while the other (secondary coil) produces a voltage induced from the primary coil. The voltage on the secondary coil depends on mutual inductance between the two coils. If the core is made movable in response to the displacement of a target object, the mutual inductance will change, resulting in a voltage change in the secondary coil.
Primary Coil Air Core Primary Coil Iron Core
Eex
Eex
Eout
Secondary Coil
Eout
Secondary Coil
23
The above device can be extended to a linear variable differential transformer (LVDT), whose principle operation is the same, but with two secondary coils. These are wound in opposite directions such that if the core moves to either direction, the voltage in one of the secondary coils increases while it decreases in the other, generating a nonzero voltage output. When the core is located at the center, the output is zero.
Secondary Coil 1
E1
Phase-sensitive Electronic Circuits
Primary Coil
Eex
E1 E2 E2
Eout
Eout
Secondary Coil 2
24
A rotary variable differential transformer (RVDT) is for measuring angular displacements, and operates in the same manner as a LVDT.
Primary Secondary 1 Secondary 2
Primary
Secondary 1
Secondary 2
25
Applications
Let's say you take a coil of wire perhaps 6 feet (2 meters) in diameter, containing five or six loops of wire. You cut some grooves in a road and place the coil in the grooves. You attach an inductance meter to the coil and see what the inductance of the coil is. Now you park a car over the coil and check the inductance again. The inductance will be much larger because of the large steel object positioned in the loop's magnetic field. The car parked over the coil is acting like the core of the inductor, and its presence changes the inductance of the coil. Most traffic light sensors use the loop in this way. The sensor constantly tests the inductance of the loop in the road, and when the inductance rises it knows there is a car waiting! Usually you use a much smaller coil. One big use of inductors is to team them up with capacitors to create oscillators.
Why do bikes get stuck at red lights?

Traffic signal sensors are essentially metal detectors buried in the road surface. These "inductive loop" sensors are easy to spot because they have a circular, square, or diamond-shaped saw cut in the pavement just before the intersection. They're meant to pick up the presence of large masses of metal - like cars and trucks - sitting still over the detector loop. Most modern bikes ( ) don't have enough inductive
material in their frames to trip the sensor, and what they have tends to be oriented vertically above the loop (making it harder to sense) so we get stuck. The (product name deleted) is a powerful permanent magnet that can be attached to the bottom of practically any bike, so that when that bike is in motion crossing a detector loop, the Trigger sets up a voltage signal in the loop. When the control computer sees that signal, it knows someone's there, and the biker gets a green light, just like everyone else.

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Motion - I

Selection of a Sensor/Transducer Resistive Position Transducers Capacitive Transducers

Measurement Lab 11 Mar 2003

Resistive Position Transducers

Measurement Lab 11 Mar 2003

Resistive Position Transducers

Measurement Lab 11 Mar 2003

Resistive Position Transducers

Measurement Lab 11 Mar 2003

Resistive Position Transducers

Full output slider position

Zero output slider position

Resistive Position Transducers

Measurement Lab 11 Mar 2003

But, the digital revolution is taking over:

Measurement Lab 11 Mar 2003

Measurement Lab 11 Mar 2003

Measurement Lab 11 Mar 2003

Measurement Lab 11 Mar 2003

Measurement Lab 11 Mar 2003

Current Coil with n turns, length

l , and cross sectional area

The permeability can be written, therefore, as = vac

Measurement Lab 11 Mar 2003

volts of emf = current resistance

ampere - turns of mmf = flux reluctance

Measurement Lab 11 Mar 2003

Lair = air vac

n 2 (1 r ) 2 A n2 A = air vac (1 r ) l(1 r ) l

Liron = iron vac

An approximate total-inductance is the sum of the two above, as

Movable iron core

Assume negligible air gap

Measurement Lab 11 Mar 2003

12.57 107 9 2 5 104 0.03

2 1.0006 + (5500 1.0006) = 6.2227 mH 3

Measurement Lab 11 Mar 2003

Phase-sensitive Electronic Circuits

Measurement Lab 11 Mar 2003

Primary Secondary 1 Secondary 2

Measurement Lab 11 Mar 2003

Why do bikes get stuck at red lights?

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