BEYOND PREDESTINATION

52

Beyond Predestination and Free Will: Influences of Boethian Philosophy in Chaucers Troilus and the Canterbury Tales
Carlito P. Casaje Boethian Philosophy in Troilus Chaucers Troilus and Cressida was influenced by Boethius Consolation of Philosophy which Chaucer himself translated into English. Boethius work, discusses, among other things, the problem of how Gods foreknowledge is to be reconciled with mans free will. Troilus and Cressida reflects Chaucers concern with various types of love and their consequences. The question of what sort of love can best bring the individual lasting happiness is central. In this work, the fleeting happiness of physical love is contrasted with the eternal love of God.
God loves, and grants that love shall be eternal. All creatures in the world through love exist And lacking love, lack all that may persist.

The contrast between this divine love and the unhappiness that overtakes Troilus and Cressida underscores the fleeting nature of earthly attachments. Book 4 of this work treats the same matters of predestination, foreordination, and free will that Boethius considered. In fact, Chaucer incorporated whole arguments, including their examples, from The Consolation of Philosophy. Chaucer, however, rendered them into the first masterful work of English poetry.
I must suppose then, had I such a thought, That God ordains each thing that is to come Because it is to come, and for else naught! Why, then, I might believe things, all and some, From ages past, whateer they issued from, Are cause of Gods high power that before Hath known all things and nothing doth ignore!
LCCM Review

BEYOND PREDESTINATION

53

The Canterbury Tales The Canterbury Tales shows a similar interest in love and happiness. Despite the hilarity of the Wife of Bath, her story concerns the nature of lasting happiness and love. Likewise, the tales of the Knight, Miller, and Reeve all deliberate on aspects of love. In addition to considering ever-present questions of human happiness and free will, Chaucers technical and artistic perfection influenced later literary figures. On Courtly Love Most of the stories deal with the question of the proper attitude toward marriage, love, sex, and the connections between them. In Chaucers day, the upper classes, at least, held that it was a mans highest privilege to select a lady and lay his heart at her feet, counting her smile an ample reward for years of faithful service. This is what is meant by the ideal of Courtly Love. Perhaps some of us will remember the ice cream scene at the party at Twelve Oaks in the opening portion of the movie, Gone with the Wind. That is a mild version of the ideal, except that in earlier days, a lady as expected to pick out just one man, and concentrate on making life miserable. On the other hand, a wife was obliged to obey her husband, and this did not fit the pattern of the knight serving his lady, ready to risk his life to satisfy her slightest whim. Chaucer explores this problem through the stories told by his pilgrims. The Millers Tale is a light-hearted caper about a youth who has an affair with his landlords wife. It is followed by the Reeves Tale, with a superficially similar theme, but with themes of treachery and malice becoming explicit, as we are reminded that, quite aside from any religious prohibition, adultery has a way of turning out not to be just innocent fun-and-games. The Knights Tale deals with two noble warriors, each prepared to fight to win the hand of his lady in marriage. On My Favorite Woman and Tale, The Franklins Tale Should women obey their husbands all the time? Let me start off my defense for bestowing this tale as my favorite with the above intriguing question.

LCCM Review

BEYOND PREDESTINATION

54

The other stories, or most of them, deal in other ways with the question, What ought to be the relation between a man and a woman, or between husband and wife? In one story, a knight sets out on a quest to learn what is it that women want most, and arrives at the answer, What they want most is to have their husbands show them as much consideration after marriage as before. This premise is very much evident in the Franklins Tale. Personal Epilogue While The Canterbury Tales remains unfinished, the knights tale of courtly love, the parsons dry sermon on the Seven Deadly Sins, and all the tales in between give us a hilarious and unparalleled view into a world far away in time and yet so very, very close to who we are today. Dreams, Daydreams and Violence in Troilus and Cressida For a comprehensive narrative of the Trojan War, it is quite clear that Chaucers interest does not lie in warfare, which may occasionally be alluded to but which is never the focus of his text. In Troilus and Cressida, History or what happens to a nation, a people, or a community is evicted and replaced by the portrait of an individual.
Two double sorrow of Troilus to tell, Unhappy son of Priam, King of Troy, And how he fared, when first in love he fell, From woe to weal, then back again from joy, Until we part my time I shall employ.

These opening lines foreshadow the lyrical tone of the work and its concern with Troilus and his love rather than Troy and the Trojan people. This is primarily why the war is shoved into the background and does not constitute the story proper. As a matter of fact, even before the prologue to Book 1, the title bears testimony to this authorial intention: far from referring directly to Troy singles out two names and leaves the war unmentioned. Throughout the five books of the poem, the contrast between the scarce, sporadic allusions to Troilus as a warrior and the detailed characterization of the protagonist as a lover shows that Chaucer intends to focus on an individual destiny. As a logical
LCCM Review

BEYOND PREDESTINATION

55

consequence, warfare violence, when evoked, is not mentioned as a part of the history of Troy but is meant to contribute to the portrait or the story of the eponymous hero. For instance, compared to his single-stanza death, Troilus ascension to the eighth sphere and his final cathartic laughter is given due attention because it leads to a generalizing address to lovers. Strategically placed as they are at the beginning of the poem, the two stanzas about Troy and Troilus could not be any clearer about the poets purpose. This is not to say that the war plays no part whatsoever in the story of the lovers. The foremost example is that of Cressidas departure from Troy and subsequent estrangement from Troilus, which is shown as the consequences of the war bargain between the Greeks and the Trojans, the latter preferring to sacrifice one of their citizens to get back Antenor, a warrior. This episode evokes the violence inflicted to individuals by the diverging interests of a community and its members. For Chaucer, the war is less a question of Greeks against Trojans than it is a matter of society versus individuals. Nor is downright violence absent from the poem, but, in Chaucers particular narrative perspective of the Trojan War, violence in Troilus and Cressida can be said to be, like its hero, subsumed into the story of Troilus double sorrow. As a consequence, warfare is replaced by the violence of love, whether it is the intensity of the individuals feelings, or the appalling consequences of such a maddening passion. For the lovers and for Chaucer too, true violence is not situated on the battlefield it lies in the lovers ill-fated passion. The Violence of Love It is my contention that the violence of love is expressed in the lovers dreams. This specific violence, which reads mental distress and torment, surfaces within the two protagonists most solitary moments because their dreams or daydreams are the key stages in the inexorable unraveling of the story towards its ending. This is alluded to in a seemingly trivial detail inserted by the narrator at the beginning of Book 2. As Pandarus calls on his niece with the view to breaking the news of Troilus love, Cressida tells her uncle
LCCM Review

BEYOND PREDESTINATION

56

that she dreamt three times of him the night before. This visit, which is Pandarus first attempt to talk to his niece into accepting Troilus love service, might well be considered useless to some of us. However, this small talk unobtrusively enables Chaucer to hint that the occurrences of the dream motif in Troilus and Cressida do represent landmarks in the completion of his purpose announced in Book 2. Cressidas Dream After the oblique preliminary statement that dreams constitute indispensable episodes because they drive the plot towards its ending, Chaucer develops his point with the first dream narrative in his poem Cressidas eagle dream. Short as it is, the eagle dream is the climax of Book 2 because nowhere is there sheer physical violence even greater. A defenseless prey, Cressida can only endure the eagles brutal attack on her body. The bird of preys sharp talons standing for its indomitable will power tear Cressidas heart out of her breast and the bird gives her its own instead. As the dream is being told, Cressida gradually disappears from the narrative and is replaced by a sole reference to her heart. At the same time, from a linguistic point of view, Cressida becomes the grammatical object of the sentences in other words, a helpless victim of her assailant whereas she used to stand up for her freedom. By substituting its own heart for Cressida, the winged herald of love has forcibly instilled passion in the heroine. These narrative choices especially the dream and the exchange-of-hearts motifs convey the underlying meaning of the episode. Love is violence because, like a dream, it has nothing to do with ones free will. Reason, discretion and will power are useless weapons against the overwhelming force of love that swoops down on Cressida in the guise of an eagle. From now on, Cressida is deprived of the power to steer her life and destiny. The Falconer and His Game In such a construction of the episode, Troilus is shown as the falconer and Cressida as his game. However, although the exchange of hearts is a traditional feature of courtly poetry which symbolizes the lovers mutual affection, Chaucers double substitution within the motif that of the eagle for Troilus and that of the attack for the exchange makes Cressidas awakening to
LCCM Review

BEYOND PREDESTINATION

57

love a traumatic experience that precludes her freedom of will. Also, and quite paradoxically, if we admitted the association between Troilus and the eagle, the exchange of hearts indicates that Cressida is now as much the owner of Troilus heart as he is master over her feelings. De amore, the Latin word amor is said to derive from hamare to catch, to hook. In the context of Troilus and Cressida, Chaucers sophisticated courtly aesthetics hints that both the hero and the heroine are at the same time hunters and game, assailants and victims. The context in which this event crops up reinforces the very violence of the dream and makes its conclusion more decisive Cressidas freedom as a lover and as a lady is denied. The sudden appearance of the eagle at the conclusion of this carefullyconstructed sequence comes as a sharp answer to Cressidas irresolution and as a rebuttal of her lengthy plea for freedom. In a single stanza, the dream decides her case and seals Cressidas destiny against her will. This free lady in her own words is turned forcibly into what she dreaded most to be a woman in love. A Necessary Violence Violence in Troilus and Cressida is first and foremost the overwhelming force of necessity that deprives the protagonists of their freedom to respond to what happens to them. In such a context, Troilus remark whose phraseology refers to Boethius The Consolation of Philosophy lays stress on one of the major ideas of the poem the eponymous heroes absence of free will. Lastly, this short survey of dreams in Chaucers poem would not be complete without a reference to Troilus continual daydreaming. In fact, despite what has been said up to now about his ominous dreams in Book 5, Troilus is a character who does not sleep, who cannot sleep. This is not to say that Troilus does not spend many an hour alone in his bedroom. On the contrary, his bed, which should be the very place to find rest and relief from his suffering, becomes the paradoxical symbol of his sleeplessness. Like Troilus dreams, this contributes to his characterization as a dissatisfied lover.
LCCM Review

BEYOND PREDESTINATION

58

In spite of its lack of military combat, of clattering swords and of battlefields strewn with dead bodies, Chaucers poem depicts a violent world. However, violence in Troilus and Cressida is seldom a matter of interpersonal aggression. On the contrary, it lies deep within each protagonists self, as is shown by the importance of dreams and daydreams in the plot. Violence is first exemplified by the heros and the heroines tormenting indecision which eventually drives Troilus along the path of his destructive love affair and untimely death. It is also the violence inflicted by both story and history to individuals deprived of their free will. This is the main message that the protagonists dreams convey throughout the poem. The Wheel of Fortune The Wheel of Fortune (Rota Fortunae) was a concept in medieval and ancient philosophy referring to the capricious nature of faith. The wheel belongs to the goddess Fortuna who spins it in random, changing the positions of those on the wheel some suffer great misfortune, others gain windfalls. The Face of Fortune in Troilus Lady fortune: Friend or Foe? Lady Fortune and her Wheel are two of the most enduring symbols in mankinds history. Witness the popular game show, Wheel of Fortune. While it may seem silly, it proves that something of this concept has stayed within our psyche, even today. The question of fortune is paramount in Troilus and Cressida. Chaucer gives us characters with completely conflicting ideas of Lady Fortune and her effect on their lives. By examining Boethius Consolation of Philosophy, we can hope to find an answer for these differing views on fortune. Boethius influence on Chaucer and the persona of Fortune that he presents must be examined. Once this is established as a benchmark, the reader can fully rectify the misconceptions Troilus has regarding fortune.

LCCM Review

BEYOND PREDESTINATION

59

The Wheel of Fortune in the Monks Tale I know how fortune is ever most friendly and alluring to those whom to deceive, until she overwhelms them with grief beyond bearing, by deserting them when least expected Are you trying to stay the force of her turning wheel? Ah! Dull witted mortal, if fortune begins to stay still, she is no longer Fortune. (Boethius, Consolation of Philosophy) On Lifes Uncertainties (or the Temporality of Earthly Things) We live, and have always lived, in uncertain times. The current global financial crisis; climate change situation; rising and ageing population concerns; natural disasters; more so with the unpredictability of earthquakes, among others, make us very vulnerable to these ever changing phenomena happening around us and the universe, so much so that even if we examined ourselves closely in simple terms of cause and effect, we are still reminded by this classic metaphysical paradox between predestination and free will. Then we begin to question. How much of these phenomena are predestined and how much of these are consequences of our free will? Please remember that as the world turns, the omniscient One, the almighty God is watching over us, since the beginning of time. He sees everything and yet respects our gift of freedom to either rule and/or ruin our lives, our nature and the universe. And in that respect, we remain responsible and accountable for all our actions. Yet at the same time, Our God knows what will happen to us in the long run because he can foresee the path that we are going to tread. So if one is insightful enough, one could probably decide to surrender his total self and being to our Creator and the universe. And that could be done through meditation and / or prayer depending on the spiritual tradition one is more attuned and comfortable with. So for as long as these seemingly contradictory facts of life converge and diverge as the cases vary and as the constants and variables fluctuate and change, life in this planet will always remain unpredictable and uncertain.

LCCM Review

BEYOND PREDESTINATION

60

The State of Our Universe But one thing is sure about the state of our universe that it will always conjure a prevailing sense of mystery. And once we are ready to accept its mysterious character, we can always remain riding along its cosmic consciousness. The secret? Commune with the cosmos; always be wary of the signs of the times. Be sensitive with mystical signs and symbols, the language through which the universe is communicating to us. Attune yourself to the higher levels of consciousness and of being. In other words, always be on the level of the mystique. And before you know it, we will feel the total surrender and not think at all of these concerns, for we already have become one with our Creator and the universe. References Chaucer, G. (n.d.). The canterbury tales and other poems. Retrieved from http://www.everypoet.com/archive/poetry/ Geoffrey_Chaucer/chaucer_poems_TROILUS_AND_CRES SIDA.htm Green, M. (1962). The consolation of philosophy. (Boethius, Trans., n.d.). New York: The Bobbs-Merill Company. Hieatt, K., & Hieatt, C. (1990). The canterbury tales by Geoffrey Chaucer. New York: Bantam Books. Jefferson, B. L. (1917/1887). Chaucer and the consolation of philosophy of Boethius. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. Retrieved from http://infomotions.com/ etexts/archive/ia341018.us.archive.org/1/items/chaucercons olati00jeffuoft/chaucerconsolati00jeffuoft_djvu.htm Parry, J. J. (1941). The art of courtly love. (Capellanos, A., Trans., n.d.). (F. N. Locke, Ed.). New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing.

LCCM Review