D3 HUMAN EVOLUTION D.3.1.

Outline the method for date rock and fossils using radioisotopes, with reference to 14 C and 40K. Fossils and rocks can be dated using radioisotopes (radioactive isotopes of chemical elements). When an atom of a radioisotope decays, it changes to another isotope and gives off radiation. The rate of decay (half-life) is different for different radioisotopes. C14 and K-40 are the two radioisotopes most commonly used. In radiocarbon dating the percentage of surviving C-14 atoms is measured. The half-life is 5730 years so it can be used to date samples between 1000 and 50,000-60,000 years old. In K-40 dating the proportions of K-40 atoms to Ar-40 atoms is measured. The half-life of K-40 is 1.26 billion years so it is useful for dating samples over 100,000- 1 million years old. Comparison: 14C is more appropriate for dating younger samples while 40K is more appropriate for older samples. Also, 14C only works for fossils not rocks (only organic material has carbon!) D.3.2. Define half-life. The amount of time it takes for the radioactive to fall half of its original level. D.3.3 Define the approximate age of materials based on simple decay curve for a radioisotope.

D.3.4. Describe the major anatomical features that define humans as primates. Vision: binocular, stereoscopic vision provides over-lapping fields of vision and good depth perception. Color vision. Face shape and snout: snout is shorter, so sense of smell is less good. Teeth shape/Dental arrangement: generalized dental plan so primates can have an omnivorous diet. Brain size and specialization: brain is large and complex than other mammals. Collarbone: has been retained allowing a flexible shoulder joint. Posture: erectness in upper body, associated with walking, sitting, leaping, standing. Hands and feet: Nails are found on some digits. Climbing is achieved by grasping (not using claws) and is aided by tactile pads at the end of digits. Hands and feet are flexible and have a lot of prehensility (grasping ability).

Reproduction: longer gestation period than other mammals allows for efficient fetal nourishment. Single births are the norm. Social organization: infant dependency is prolonged with large parental investment in each offspring. D.3.5. Outline the trends illustrated by the fossils of Ardipithecus ramidus, Australopithecus including A. afarensis and A. africanus, and Homo including H. habilis, H. erectus, H. neanderthalensis and H. sapiens. Knowledge of approximate dates and distribution of the named species is expected Trend: migration out of Africa Trend: increased adaption to bipedalism Trend: decreasing relative size of face, jaw, teeth, esp. canines; increasing relative size of brain case, forehead Trend: increase in brain size Ardipithecus ramidus: 5.8 to 4.4 million years Distribution: Eastern Africa Australopithecus afarensis: 3.9 to 2.5 million years Distribution: Eastern Africa Australopithecus africanus: 3 to 2.3 million years Distribution: southern Africa Homo habilis: 2 to 1.6 million years Distribution: Eastern and possibly southern Africa Homo erectus: 1.8 to .3 million years Distribution: Africa, Asia, Indonesia, and Europe Homo neanderthalensis: 150,000- 30,000 years Distribution: Europe and western Asia Homo sapiens: 160,000 to 60,000 years Distribution: Africa and western Asia D.3.6 State that, at various stages in hominid evolution, several species may have coexisted. Example: H. neanderthanlensis and H. sapiens D.3.7.Discuss the incompleteness of the fossil record and the resulting uncertainties about human evolution To become a fossil an organism needs to have hard parts, die and be buried in an anaerobic environment very quickly, and then be preserved through geological time, without being destroyed by tectonism or metamorphism, or removed by erosion. These are pretty rare circumstances, so fossils are very rare. It is hard to find complete fossils of hominid ancestors or find all the missing links. It is unclear how the various hominid species are related. There are few fossils of savanna- or forest-dwelling hominids D.3.8 Discuss the correlation between the change in diet and increase in brain size during hominid evolution. Large brains require more energy, more calories. Change in diet from mostly vegetarian to more omnivorous diets corresponds to the increase in brain size. Eating meat increases

supply of protein, fat and energy, making larger brain growth possible. Hunting and killing prey on savannas is more difficult than gathering plant foods, so natural selection might have favored larger brains with greater intelligence