Primates in fragmented habitats face: restricted/smaller ranges Lafferty & holt 2003; McCallum & Dobson 2002; Both

h in Gillespie & Chapman2008 o for example a studies on Blue-black eyed lemurs (Eulemur flavifrons) in Sanhamalaza in Madagascar, showed they had higher densities, smaller home ranges in fragments, suggesting low suitability of fragments for the long term survival of the species Schwitzer et al 2007a, b 2010 in Schtitzer, Glatt, Nekaris & Ganzhorn, 2011) Higher densities of individuals (Irwin et al 2009 in/and ( Schtitzer, Glatt, Nekaris & Ganzhorn, 2011) increased crowding Lafferty & holt 2003; McCallum & Dobson 2002; Both in Gillespie & Chapman2008 Loss of food resources Irwin et al 2009 in/and ( Schtitzer, Glatt, Nekaris & Ganzhorn, 2011) Reduced mineral/protein/lipid intake o For example, there is evidence showing that protein/lipid/mineral uptake in redtail monkeys was lower in fragmented forests (rede et al 2006) and studies have shown that they were limited by sodium also (rode et al 2003 and 2006) in chapman et al 2010) Loss of sleeping/ hiding places Irwin et al 2009 in/and ( Schtitzer, Glatt, Nekaris & Ganzhorn, 2011) changes in species interactions e.g. increased aggression o studies on Propithecus diadema have shown increased aggression between individuals in fragmented forests rwin 2006 2008a,b in Schtitzer, Glatt, Nekaris & Ganzhorn, 2011; arroyo-rodriguez and mandujano 2009 Increased intra and inter specific completion for resources like food (Friedman & Lawrence, 2002 in Mbora & McPeek 2009) (Diad and strier 2000; Rose et al 2002; Stevenson et al 2000 in arroyo-rodriguez and mandujano 2009)

changes in group composition/ social organisation arroyo-rodriguez and mandujano 2009 Increased predation pressure/risk o e.g. a study on red colombus showed that removing trees reduced canopy pathways and increased their risk of predation (gebo and chapman 1995) in chapman et al 2010) o e.g. Ludwig et al 2007 showed Alouatta caraya was at increased predation risk by cougars (Puma concolor arroyo-rodriguez and mandujano 2009) Increased pressure from invasive species Irwin et al 2009 in/and ( Schtitzer, Glatt, Nekaris & Ganzhorn, 2011) lower/reduced genetic diversity/inbreeding and an associated reduction in evolutionary potential (in williams, Bolitho and fox 2003)

as seen in studies on howler monkeys (e.g. Alouatta palliate) Arruo-Rodriguez et al 2008b and arroyo-rodriguez & Dias 2010)

higher stress levels Schtitzer, Glatt, Nekaris & Ganzhorn, 2011 o as seen in studies on howler monkeys (e.g. Alouatta pigra)Martinez-mota et al 2007 and arroyo-rodriguez & Dias 2010 lower immunity and hence an increase in infections is likely Schtitzer, Glatt, Nekaris & Ganzhorn, 2011 (Friedman & Lawrence, 2002 in Mbora & McPeek 2009); o Data on Eulemur flavifrons show they were under stress, possibly due to high fragmentation and degration of their habitat, which may have led to hugher parasite burden compared to undisturbed forest (in 7) lower body mass o as seen in studies on Propithecus diadema Irwin 2006 2008a,b in Schtitzer, Glatt, Nekaris & Ganzhorn, 2011) Altered sex ratios; Peres 2001, martine 2005, in pyritz, buntge, Herzog, Kessler 2010

Changes in activity patterns ( e.g. proportion daily time spent resting, feeding, moving) arroyo-rodriguez and mandujano 2009 o For example a study by Clarke et al 2002a partial deforestation caused 10 adult mantled howler monkeys to increase feeding from 18-22.3% in response to more limited food arroyo-rodriguez and mandujano 2009 Suppressed reproduction o e.g. seen in studies on howler monkeys (Seniculus Terborgh et al 2002 in arroyorodriguez and mandujano 2009_ Decline in birth rates Umapathy and kumar 2000b

The flexibility of animals to future climate change by movement across the landscape is constrained by human habitation and agriculture (Chapman, laws and eely 2006). If primates are limited in dispersal, they are at increasing risk that species will experience further loss of suitable local climatic conditions and will not be able to move to cope Williams et al 2007 in In erhart and overdorff 2008a Mbora and mcpeek 2009

Surrounding fragments typically, are cattle pastures, croplands and settlements ( mandujano et al 2004 2006 In arroyo-rodriguez & Dias 2010. Primates that live near the edges of fragments are increasingly likely to be to be harassed by people (for example people preventing primates invading crops) and increased risk of other animals. For example there are reports dogs killing colombus monkeys Schtitzer, Glatt, Nekaris & Ganzhorn, 2011). In fragments edges, increased temperature has been shown to inhibit torpor in C. major ; in m. murinus and C. medius Ganzhorn and Schmid 1998 Petter et al 1977 in arroyo-rodriguez and mandujano 2009)

Predicted in the future there will be an increase in the number of fragemtns, decrease in fragment sizes, increase fragments isolation March 2003. It is predicted that primates may disappear/become extinct over time due to small size of fragments and limiting rescourses (chapmane et al 2003 As fragmentation advances, increase in the number of isolated fragments and semi isolated fragments will be more common. Also an increase in inter patch distance will be common. arroyorodriguez & Dias 2010. Removal or loss habitat expected to reduce dist range and pop size of given primate species (metapopulation theory Hanski 1999; island biogeography MacArthur & SWilson 1967 in arroyo-rodriguez & Dias 2010

Habitats continually changing, failture to adapt to changes may result in extinction of primates Page 3 find ref

If primates elimaintated from firests will be long term impact future forst composition Wright et al 2011

Agriculture crops high nutritional value page 19 Human-primate conflict due to crop rading

Fragmentation typically modifies the climate around and within fragments. For example edges of fragments generally experience: higher desiccation risks (due to increased temperatures and decreased moisture); higher solar radiation; increased tree mortality; pioneer species replacing old growth species; changes in plant composition Gascon et al 2002, Malhi et al 2008 in Schtitzer, Glatt, Nekaris & Ganzhorn, 2011). Mbora & McPeek 2009); saunders et al 1991, in arroyo-rodriguez & Dias 2010

Primates agfected either bu loss particular plant sp or changes in phonological cycles plant communities Chapman, laws, eeley 2006