Mozart Nuzul Aprilliza AM H2A 009 144 Kelas C

Pregnancy in cows and heifers Conception

Fertilisation of the ovum (oocyte) takes place in the oviduct. The blastocyst arrives in the uterus at around day 5.

Gestation
Gestation in cattle lasts on average for 280 days (279-290d) 1. Embryonic phase (1- 42d of pregnancy)

View images of the embryonic phase

2. Foetal phase (42d to term)

Proper corpus luteum function is essential for maintenance of pregnancy as this ensures sufficient levels of progesterone.

Recognition and maintenance of pregnancy

In order to sustain the corpus luteum and maintain pregnancy, the pregnancy has to be recognised. This means that the developing embryo has to produce a specific signal to prevent luteolysis which would otherwise be triggered towards the end of the oestrus cycle. It has been demonstrated that early bovine and ovine embryos produce and release a specific pregnancy protein interferon-T (INF- T) (Farin et al., 1989; Mann et al., 1999). The mechanism of luteolysis inhibition by INF-T is now well established:

inhibition of oxytocin receptors on the uterine luminal epithelium induction of a prostaglandin synthesis inhibitor

In cattle, mRNA for interferon-T is first detected in the trophoectoderm, its principle site of production, at approximately 12 days. Maximum levels are reached between days 15 and 16 (Farin et al., 1990). Interferon-T can is first detected in significant amounts in uterine flushings at 14-16 days, this is when embryo elongation begins.(Mann et al., 1998).

Failure of pregnancy recognition

If embryonic development is retarded or if the embryonic growth and the progress of the maternal oestrus cycle are not synchronous (eg due to. delayed ovulation or late insemination) insufficient or delayed INF-T production results. Luteolysis and embryo loss follow. The main reason for impaired secretion of INF-T by the embryos resulting from fertilisation of oocytes from delayed ovulation is supposedly an ageing process in the oocyte associated with prolonged follicular dominance. It has been argued that due to the prolonged period of follicular dominance and delayed ovulation precocious maturation changes take place in the oocyte, which in turn decrease its fertilisation and developmental capacity. Poor embryonic development in turn is associated with low interferon-T production, failed inhibition of luteolysis and embryo loss (Mann et al., 1996, Man et al., 1998) For more on failure of pregnancy recognition.

Importance of early luteal function in pregnancy recognition

It has been long established that sufficient concentrations of progesterone during early pregnancy have a marked effect on the outcome of insemination. Numerous studies revealed lower concentrations of progesterone in milk (Lamming et al., 1989; Mann et al., 1995) and plasma (Mann et al., 1995, 1996; Buttler et al., 1996; Mann et al., 2001) in cows that fail to maintain pregnancy. Moreover, low progesterone concentrations much earlier in the cycle have been indicated as possible reasons for pregnancy failure. In the study of Mann et al. (2001) it was demonstrated that the degree of embryo development was closely related to the maternal progesterone environment. Cows with poorly developed embryos on day 16 after the first insemination that produced little or no INF-T exhibited both a delayed increase in progesterone concentrations after ovulation and had a lower luteal phase plateau than cows with well developed embryos.

Gestation:

Period

from

Fertilization

to

Parturition

Table 1. Length of Gestation Species Sow Ewe Cow Mare A. Average Length of Gestation (days) 113 147 283 336 Periods in Development of Conceptus 1. Cleavage - process of cellular division without an increase insize of conceptus a. bovine 1. stage of gestation - fertilization to day 12 2. 16-32 cell embryo (morula) passes from oviduct to uterus at day 3.5 3. Zona ruptures to release blastocyst on day 9 2. Differentiation - process of forming specific organs in the body of the embryo a. bovine 1. stage of gestation - day 13 to day 38 2. day 13 - gastrulation is the process by which the young embryo acquires the three germ layers 3. day 38 - placentation occurs when the embryo position becomes fixed and establishes physical contact with the uterus Germ Organ Layer Endoderm Digestive system, liver, lungs Vascular system, muscle, bone, reproductive Mesoderm system; Wolffian ducts: male; Mullerian ducts: female Ectoderm Skin, nervous system, mammary glands

4. Types of Placental Attachment Placental Structure Placental Shape Species Epitheliochorial Diffuse Mare Epitheliochorial Cotyledonary Cow Syndesmochorial Cotyledonary Ewe 5. fetal cotyledons project villi that fuse with maternal caruncles to form placentomes 2. Growth - process of increase in size of fetus a. bovine 1. stage of gestation - day 39 to day 293 Fetal Growth Rate Day of Gestation 45 to 75 223 to 283 2. just before parturition: i. fetal fluids - 15 kg ii. fetal membranes - 4 kg iii. uterus - 10 kg B. Twinning 1. Twins - up to 5% of all births in cattle a. dizygotic twins (fraternal) - produced by double ovulation b. monozygotic twins (identical) - originate from a single fertility 1. occur in humans and cattle 2. only 1 in 1000 cattle births are identical twins 2. Chimera - multiple embryos a. membrane fusion of adjacent embryos Species Swine Sheep Cattle Chorion No Yes Yes Allantois No No Yes Common Circulation No No Yes Weight Change 6 to 72 grams 18 to 40 kg % Change 100 100

a. common circulation in twins of opposite sex results in free marin heifers (bovine) due to exposure of the female to Anti-Mullerian Hormone produced by the male co-twin Parameter Gamete Longevity (hours) Species Cattle Sperm 30-48 Ovum 20-24 2-cell 1 4-cell 1.5 8-cell 3 Blastocyst 7-8 Hatching 9-11 Hours 72-84 Cell Stage 8-16 13-21 22 278-290

Embryonic Development (days)*

Blastocyst transport to uterus Blastocyst elongation (days) Initial Placentation (days) Birth (days) *Days after ovulation

Horse 72-120 6-8 1 1.5 3 6 8 140-144** Blastocyst NE*** 37 335-345

Sheep 30-48 16-24 1 1.3 1.5 6-7 7-8 66-72 8-16 11-16 15 145-155

Swine 34-72 8-10 .6-.8 1 2.5 5-6 6 46-48 4 11-15 13 112-115

**Unfertilized ova remain in the oviduct ***No elongation occurs to form filamentous blastocysts