CULTURAL ADAPTATION

Culture can be defined as the manifestation of learned behaviour consisting of thoughts, feelings and actions (Hoft, 1996) formed under the influences of social, biological, psychological, economic and ecological environments over an extended period of time. But, as Hoft notes, culture is a complex subject encompassing many diverse concepts. By 1952, Kroeber and Kluckhohn (1963, p. 291) had already identified 164 definitions of culture, ranging from learned behaviour to ideas in the mind a logical construct, a statistical fiction, and a psychic defense mechanism and claimed that over 300 existed. Culture is a product of learning (Hoebel, 1971; Murdock 1965), changing over time and from place to place. Such changes are accelerated by various social exchanges, direct or indirect, among peoples. Creative processes or innovations diffuse through culture, so that times of rapid technological innovation are likely to see rapid cultural changes. Recently, the Internet has brought about a revolution in information technology, affecting many aspects of the personal, professional and social lives of those connected through it. From its roots in the USA, the Internet has spread rapidly in the past decade and is now accessible in most parts of the world (although not to most people in the world). The Internet is changing the way we do business, obtain an education and learn other skills, gather information, bank and invest, pay bills, listen to music, see movies, buy and sell things, exchange greetings and communicate with others, express views, participate in debates and are entertained. These changes are likely to affect cultures. But are all cultures being affected in similar ways, leading to greater cultural homogeneity (i.e. convergence)? Is the Internet a virtual cultural region, as Johnston and Johal (1999) suggest? Or are different cultural groups adopting this particular information technology in different ways consistent with their culture (i.e. divergence)? This study was designed to identify both the similarities and/or variations among national portals and attempt to explain these findings. More importantly, the results will establish a foundation for further research of this type. The results at this relatively early stage of Internet usage are mixed. While national portals show considerable similarity, a closer examination reveals some important differences that do reflect local cultures.

As the world becomes more connected through technology, two competing hypotheses have emerged regarding the effect of globalization on culture. These hypotheses are discussed in more detail by Webber (1969), Yang (1986), and Ronen (1986). One hypothesis, convergence, suggests that cultures will become more similar as they modernize because they must pass through a relatively fixed pattern of development (Coughlin, 2000, p. 422). In addition, the rapid growth of telecommunications and computing technology holds profound implications for possible societal convergence (Coughlin, 2000, p. 428). The Internet could play a key role in this process. The opposite hypothesis, divergence, suggests that cultures tend to resist assimilation and adapt technologies in culturally distinct ways. Furthermore, the cost of technological assimilation can be considerable, leaving have not cultures unable to participate to the same extent even if the population might wish to do so. One of the difficulties with convergence theory is determining where to look for it. For example, Coughlin (2000) identifies industrialization (including means of production, occupational

mobility and differentiation, increased emphasis on formal education, and growth of cities), stratification of class structures and occupational prestige, demographic patterns, family life, education, and the welfare state as areas of interest. Most quantitative research has been crosssectional, although longitudinal studies seem more appropriate (Williamson and Fleming, 1977). Most research on global or international information systems takes a divergence perspective, pointing out the problems that can occur when cultural differences are ignored. For example, Fernandes (1995) and Del Galdo and Nielsen (1996) provide guidance on user interface design. Both books point out problems that have occurred when user interfaces designed for one culture have been applied to another. More recently, researchers have been interested in cultural implications of global e-commerce issues (Davis, 1999). Hofstede (1980, 1991), based on extensive research, suggests that culture may be differentiated via five major dimensions. These dimensions are described in Table I. This research builds on the work of both Hofstede (1980, 1991) and Marcus and Gould (2000) by focusing specifically on national portals. Web portals are Internet sites intended to be the starting point (i.e. a virtual launch-pad) to locate information and services on the Web. Yahoo!, which began as a search engine in 1994, is perhaps the best known example. Full-service national portals are designed to appeal to a wide audience within a country or culture, typically offering a search engine, directories of links on a set of selected topics, news items (including weather, sports, entertainment, and stock market results), advertisements and shopping, and other services such as free e-mail services and Web pages. Thus, a full-service national portal is a platform for a collection of activities that are enabled by the Web technology and that serve its intended audience (or culture).

Web evaluation common features

Table II lists the common features present in most national portals, including Yahoo! which was taken as a standard in our research. Almost all of the national portals have layouts similar to Yahoo! (i.e. multicolumn directory/subdirectory with links, occasional frames and animated objects) except in few cases where the layout is unique (e.g. go-jamaica which appears to be aimed partly at tourists). Using Yahoo! as a standard, extra features are those that a national portal includes but Yahoo! does not, while missing features are those found in Yahoo! but not the national portal (see Table IIIa, Table IIIb and Table IIIc).

Among the various visual effects offered by national portals, we focused on colour and layout. Colours reflect strong cultural values, much deeper than mere appearance. For example, green is generally considered an Islamic colour, saffron yellow as Hindu/Buddist, and red-blue-white-gold are colours of the Judeo-Christian West (Marcus and Gould, 2000). They identify colour as an important new issue for global Web user interface design, and suggest that the use of colour could be related to Hofstedes uncertainty avoidance dimension. Colour could either provide redundant cues (to reduce ambiguity for high uncertainty avoidance cultures) or be used to maximize information without redundancy (for low uncertainty avoidance cultures). Colours were visually inspected to determine which was dominant by counting patches of colour and the number of distinct colour blocks. This provides some indication of the colourfulness of the portals.

HOFSTEDES CULTURAL DIMENSIONS

Hofstede's (1980) cultural dimensions serve as the most influential culture theory among social science research (Nokata and Sivakumar, 2001). In addition, Hofstede's cultural framework has also received strong empirical support (Sondergaard, 1994). The framework was generated through the most extensive examination of cross-national values ever undertaken, with 116,000 respondents and across 40 countries. The results were consistent with findings in 38 other studies (Nokata and Sivakumar, 2001). Hofstede (1980, 2001) described a number of dimensions that distinguish cultures. Among these are masculinity, power distance, and long-term orientation. A further dimension is uncertainty avoidance, which refers to how much people feel threatened by ambiguity, as well as the felt importance of rules and standards. People with an orientation low on uncertainty avoidance prefer situations that are free and not bound by rules and regulations. Other studies have identified a similar dimension, showing its robustness (Chinese Cultural Connection, 1987; Hofstede and Bond, 1988). This cultural difference is examined in the proposed e-commerce adoption model as a key moderator. In doing so, this paper represents one of the first efforts at applying Hofstede's work into the study of e-commerce adoption.

NEW

Hofstedes (1980) initial research resulted in the identification of four cultural dimensions: 1. 2. 3. 4. (1) power distance; (2) individualism-collectivism; (3) masculine-feminine; (4) uncertainty avoidance.

A fifth dimension was subsequently added (Hofstede, 1991) relating to long-term versus shortterm orientation. Hofstedes (1991) tables on power distance (Hofstede, 1991, p. 26), individualism (Hofstede, 1991. p. 53), masculinity (Hofstede, 1991, p. 84), uncertainty avoidance (Hofstede, 1991, p. 113) and long-term orientation (Hofstede, 1991, p. 166) were combined to create Table IV. However, the long-term orientation dimension has not been included in our analysis because of the lack of available data from Hofstedes research related to the cultures reviewed in our research project. Power distance The first of Hofstedes dimensions to be employed to analyze our data is power distance. This dimension relates to a cultures willingness to accept a difference in power over other members of the culture. Thus, high power distance cultures tend to be willing to accept differences in the distribution of power across cultural members. However, low power distance cultures will strive for an equal distribution of power. Examples from our data include the Philippines and Costa Rica (see Table V).

Thus, according to Hofstede, the Philippines is considered to be a high power distance culture, and members are willing to accept a difference in power distribution. Evidence of this is found on the Philippines portal relating to the extra features noted in our data. That is, this national portal provides the unique service of shopping for Filipinos working abroad. It should be noted that a vast number of Filipinos work outside of the Philippines and gain economic power through salaries that are significantly higher than those paid within the Philippines. Indeed, it is not uncommon for university trained Filipinos to work as domestic helpers throughout Asia. Costa Rica, however, is a low power distance culture on Hofstedes dimension, and members will strive for an equal distribution of power within the culture. Once again, evidence of this is found in the extra features section of the Costa Rica portal. Links are provided to information about Costa Rican culture and history. These links represent evidence of the countrys willingness to equally share the information about itself. Individualism-collectivism Within this dimension, Hofstede suggests that members of individualistic cultures will tend to be independent and will feel responsible for looking after themselves. Collectivist cultures, however, will include members who maintain a series of close interpersonal relations and who feel a social obligation to do so. These relationships and obligations are most often manifest in extended families. Australia and Indonesia represent interesting examples from our data (see Table VI). As an individualistic culture, Australians would tend to act more independently. Evidence of this action is found in our data, which lists those items not included on their portal. That is, items such as womens issues, religion, and personals are noted as absent on the Australian portal. These items, in general, represent ways of bringing people together. Thus, Australians, according to this Hofstede dimension do not feel the necessity to provide these group-oriented services on their national portal. Indonesia is considered a collectivist culture from the perspective of Hofstedes dimension and members will attempt to maintain strong family ties. Evidence of this is found in the extra features section of our data. Here a link is provided for childrens stories. This represents evidence of an attempt to provide, via their national portal, a family oriented activity. Masculine-feminine This dimension, Hofstede suggests, relates to the quality, rather than quantity, of life. Thus, masculine cultures emphasize assertiveness and achievement, while feminine cultures emphasize harmony and caring. Contrasting cultures are Japan and Sweden (see Table VII). An example from our data is discussed below. Uncertainty avoidance

Hofstede suggests that cultures will vary according to the members willingness to deal with uncertainty. Thus, strong uncertainty avoidance cultures will adopt strict rules and codes of behaviour in order to reduce the uncertainty encountered in daily activities. However, weak uncertainty avoidance cultures will adopt a less controlled approach. Examples form our data, as above include both Japan and Sweden (see Table VIII). In both the dimensions of masculine-feminine and uncertainty avoidance, Japan has been rated as masculine and strong uncertainty avoidance. Thus, according to Hofstede, the Japanese culture would include members who would tend to emphasize achievement within relatively strict codes of behaviour. Evidence of this is found in the extra features section of our data. Here, specifically, the Japanese portal lists such links as personal finance, real estate, and marriage planning. These links represent the presentation of a common approach to what could be considered the most important activities an individual will engage in throughout their lives. The portal is suggesting a common approach to these important activities. Another perspective that can be employed to analyze the data is by topic. This results in the emergence of two topic themes relating to sports and erotica. National portals with sports links include Malaysia, The Netherlands, and Spain. These cultures when viewed using Hofstedes dimensions all score quite highly masculine on the masculine-feminine dimension. In general, sports are associated with more masculine activities. National portals containing erotica links include Argentina, Belgium, Germany, and The Netherlands. In this case, these cultures are ranked relatively high (in comparison to the other dimensions) on Hofstedes power-distance dimension.

Cross-cultural dimensions of Internet portals

The Authors

Sajjad Zahir, Sajjad Zahir is based at the Faculty of Management, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, Canada Brian Dobing, Brian Dobing is based at the Faculty of Management, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, Canada M. Gordon Hunter, M. Gordon Hunter is based at the Faculty of Management, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, Canada
Abstract

When new technologies become available and cultures adopt them, the result can be either convergence, cultures becoming more similar as a result, or divergence, when cultures adopt technology in different ways that maintain or even further accentuate their differences. An analysis of full-service national Web portals from different countries, typically offering a search engine, directories of links on a set of selected topics, news items (including weather, sports, entertainment, and stock market results), advertisements and shopping, and free e-mail, shows

evidence of both trends. While most national portals closely resemble the basic structure of Yahoo!, the original free full-service portal, there are also differences in appearance and features offered that can be attributed to cultural variations based on Hofstedes framework.
Article Type:

Research paper
Keyword(s):

Internet; National cultures; Convergence.

Journal:

Internet Research: Electronic Networking Applications and Policy

Volume:

12
Number:

3
Year:

2002
pp:

210-220

Every culture is extraordinarily complex and subtle. A culture is defined, in part, by behavior, speech and gestures, music and art, family, socio-economic systems, values-and more. Culture is often mistaken for the fine art that appears in museums; some include the folk art which reflects a peoples traditions or handicrafts work. Yet both these notions obscure culture, by separating it from peoples daily activities and livelihood. The social and economic conditions of craftwork, for instance, are often invisible. A culture therefore includes how people, labor, create and make life choices. [Wallestein, 1983]