THE EFFECT OF INTENSIVE SALES TRAINING EXPERIENCE UPON SALESMAN-CANDIDATES*

VICTOR W. EIMICKE City College^ School of Business and Civic Administration, New York City of the cfTect of salcs training experience upon the abilities and personality characteristics of salesman-candidates is of special importance to the business and indtistrial psychologist in the area of sales personnel selection. The objective of the "present-einployee method" of personnel selection' is to find measuring instruments that wili differentiate between two criterion groups (chosen from present employees of the organization)those individuals considered satisfactory and, those individuals considered generally unsatisfactory. Futtire applicants for employment who have test results most similar to the test results of the satisfactory group are the applicants hired. The "present employee m,ethod," as applied in the sales field, assumes that the abilities and personality characteristics of salesman-candidates do not change with experience in salesmanship. Oil the other hand, btisiness spends niiilions of dollars per annum on sales training, assuming that the salesman post-training is in some way or ways different from the salesman pre-training. Prior to this study, the investigator found that scientific evidence to substantiate these assumptions, which are so basic to personnel selection, to student selection, and to educational and vocational gtiidance, was lacking.
* Tliis article is z review of the research conducted in partial fuifiilmer.t ol tbe requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. ' See C, H, i.awshe. Principles of Personnel Testing (New York: McGraw-Hiil Book Co,, 11948),

P^urpose

The purpose in the investigation, was to (i) study the effect of intensive sales training experience upon the measured abilities and personality characteristics of salesman-candidates and (2) determine if this intensive sales training experience will result in post-training measured abilities and personality characteristics which resemble the measured abilities and personality characteristics of successful salesmen more closely than do the pre-training measured abilities and personality characteristics of salesman-candidates, A salesman-candidate is a candidate for the job of salesman. The term "salesmen" includes salesmen of insurance, real estate, automobiles and boats, and all salesmen engaged in wholesale trade.Sales training experience is 450 hours of controlled experience in salesmanship within the Sales Training Unit of the Intensive Busiiie.ss Training Program of City College School of Business and Civic Administration, New York City. It is essential to note that the sales training is planned to give the trainee experiences that he would have as a neophyte salesman in the btisiness field; however, it is experience within the school, not on-theiob training. ,4 successful salesman, for purposes of the study, was defined as a salesman, who has been in tbe sales field a manimum of
' See United States Eniploymciit Service Job Analyses and Information Secdon, Division oi Standards and Research, Dictionary of Occupational Titles and Codes, Part I' (Washington,, D, C: Center tor Psychologicai Service, 1949). ' Hereafter referred to as Intensive Sa'ies Training Program.

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THE EFFECT OF INTENSIVE SALES TRAINING two years and is earning approximately 14,000.00 to $5,000.00 per year as a minimum.
PROCEDURE

EXPERIENCE

261

The methods utilized for getting evidence in the study are described in this section. Experimental Groups Two experimental groups were utilized. Experimental Group I consisted of: 113 saiesman-caiididates who had no experience in salesmanship prior to the beginning of the sttidy and who enrolled in and completed, the Intensive Sales Training Program prior to the end of the study. ,Experinientai Group II consisted of thirty-totir salesman-candidates who also had no experience in salesman.ship prior to the beginning of the investigation and who enrolled in and completed the Intensive Sales Training Program prior to the end of the investigation. Experimental Group 1. pre-training, did not differ from Experimental Group II, pre-training, in central tendency on any of the instruments. Eighty per cent of the scales did not differ in variance. The investigator recognized the five significant differences in variance as limitations at all points where thev were pertinent to the interpretation of his results. Control Groups Two control groups were utilized in the sttidy. Control Group I was the genera! population. Test restxlts on the several tests used in the study for the same general

Collecting Data Tlie data -svere collected by the investigator, by qualified psyclioinetrists under the direction oi the investigator, and by businessmen-judges under tlie supervision of the investigator dtzring the period of nine months. Materials Utilized Two batteries were utilized in the investigation. Battery 1 consisted of the Modified Alpha Examination, Form g, bv F. L, Wells;-' the George Wasliington Social Intelligence Test, Industrial Form, by E. A. 'jilos.s, T. Hunt, and K. T. Oniwake;"' the Kuder Preterence Record, Vocational, by G. F. Kuder;'' the Bernreuter Personality Inventory bv R, G, Bernreuter;^ and the Allport-Vernon Study of Values by G. W, Allport and P. E. Vernon.* The Modified Alpha Examination, Form q, purports to measure Iiow "sveil one remembers, thinks and carries out ivhat he is told to do. The George Washington Social Intelligence Test, Industrial Eorm, contains two parts: Jtidgment in Social Situations and Observation of Htitnan Beha\'ior, The Ktider Preference Record, Vocational, was designed to measure interests in the folioiving areas: mechanical, computational, scientific,
* See F, L, Welis, Manual oi Directions for Modified Alpha Examination, Form p {New York; The Psychological Corporatiori), '.See F, A, Moss,, T, liunt, and K. T, Omwake, Manual for Social Intelligence Test (Washington, D, C: Center for Psythoiogica! Service, 1349), 'See G, I'. Kuder, Revised Manual jar the Kuder Preference Record fChicago: Science Researcii .-Associates, 5946), 'See R, G, Benreuter, Manual 'or the Personality hiventory (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1055). ' See G, \V, .rVlIpori and V. E, Vernon, Atanual of Directions for a Study of Values (Xew York; Hough, ton Miffiin Company,

population were not available: however,

test results for a general population for each of the tests were available. Control Group II consisted of forty-two successful salesmen.

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TFIE JOURNAL OF MARKETING 8. Experimental Group II took Battery II, post-training. 9. Standardized sales situation recordings (Battery II) were evaluated by judges for Experimental Group II, pretraining and post-training, and for Control Group II.
TREA,TMENT OF DATA

persuasive, artistic, literary, musical, social service, and clerical. The Bernreuter Personality Inventory purports to measure neurotic tendency, self sufficiency, introversion-extra version , dominance-submission, cotifidence in oneself, and sociability. The Allport-Vcrnon Study of Values purports to measure the relative prominence of six basic interests or motives in personality: the theoretical, economic, aesthetic, social, political and religious. Battery II was a standardized sales situation which xvas recorded. The recordings were evaluated by a group of businessmen-judges experienced in salesmanship for the following factors which were considered important for differentiating between skillful and unskillful salesmen: approach, buying motives, objections, presentation, and the close. A statistical procedure was utilized to make the rating,s of the judges comparable. Steps in the Collecticm of the Data The collection of the data was effected by tbe following steps: 1. Battery 1 was administered to Experimental Group I, pre-training. i. Battery I was administered to Experimental Group II, pre-training.** 3. Battery I was administered to Control Group II. 4. Expjerimental Group II took Battery II, pre-training. 5. Control Group II took Battery II. 6. Experimental Group I took Battery I, post-training,, 7. Experimental Group II took Battery I, post-training.
' T h e pre-training testing of al: salesman-candidates was administered in .such a way ihat the trainees did not expect post-training testing. This was done to miriimize discussion of the testing by the trainee,s in an attempt on, their part to "do better" on the post-training testing.

The following steps were taken in tiie treatment of the data collected in the investigation: 1. The measured abilities and personality characteristics of successful, salesmen. Control Group II, were compared with those of the general adult male population. Control Group I, to determine if a typical pattern of abilities and personality characteristics exists for successful salesmen. 2. The measured abilities and personality characteristics of salesman-candidates. Experimental Group I and Experimental Group II, pre-training, were compared with those of the general adult male population. Control Grotip I, to determine if a typical pattern of abilities and personality characteristics exists for salesman-candidates. 3. The measured abilities and personality characteristics of salesman-candidates. Experimental Group I and Experimental Group II; pre-training, were compared with those of successful salesmen. Control Group II. 4. The measured abilities and personality characteristics of salesman-candidates. Experimental Group I and Experimental Groi,ip II, post-training, were com.pared with those of successful salesmen, Controi Group IL 5. The measured abilities and personality characteristics of salesman-candidates. Experimental Group I and. Experimental Grotip II, post-training, were compared with those of salesman-candi-

TFIE EFFECT OF INTENSIVE SALES TRAINING dates. Experimental Group I and Experimental Group II, pre-training, to determine if any changes took place during the intensive sales traitiing experience.
SFECIFIC

EXPERIENCE

263

The folloxving results were obtained from a comparison of the measured abilities and personality characteristics of successful salesmen. Control Group II, with those of the general adult male population. Control Group I: 1. The successful-salesmen group did better than the general adult male population on the Modified Alpha Examination, Form 9. 2. The successful salesmen, performed at the same level on the George W'as.hington Social Intelligence Test as the general adult male poptilation. 3. There were no differences between the two groups on, the theoretical, social and religious scales of the .4Ilport-Vernon Study of Values. The sticcessful-salesmen grotip had mean scores on the economic and political scales wliich tended to be greater than the mean scores on these scales for the general adult mate popuiation. Successful salesmen tended to perform lower on the aesthetic scale than the general adult male population. 4. Successful salesmen had higher persuasive, literary, and musical interests than the general adult male population; the successful salesmen had lower mechanical, comptuational, scientific, and clerical interests than the general adult male poptilation. The siiccessftil-salesmen grotip was more homogeneous on the scientific, persuasive, and social service scales than the general adult m,ale population. 5. The successful-salesman grotip had
'"Throughout this section emphasis is on differences: if no statement is made regard-ng a given scale it is to be understood that no sigiiiiicant difference was found.

better emotional balance, was more confident, ^vas more extraverted than introverted, was more dominant than submissive, and was more sociable and gregariotis than the general adult male population. The sticcessful salesmen v.-ere more homogeneous on the introversion-extraversion scale than the general adult male population. 6. The pattern on the Ktider Preference Record found by the investigator for the sticcessiul salesmen was similar to the patterns on the Kuder Preference Record found by Ktider for securities salesmen and agents (except to consumers). The folio^s'ing results were obtained from a comparison of the mea,sured abilities and personality characteristics of salesman-candidates, Exijerimental Group I and Experimental Group II, pretraining, with those of the general adult male poptilation. Control Group I: 1. Salesman-candidates, pre-training, tended to score higher than the general adult male population on the Modified Alpha E,xami!iation, Form g. S. The salesman-candidates, pre-trainiiig, tended to store at about the same level on, the George Washington Social Intelligence Test as the general adult male population, 3. There were no differences betu'een the salesmaii-candidates, pre-training, on the theoretical, social, and religious scales of the Allport-^'ernon Study of \'atues. Salesman-candidates, pre-training, had mean scores on the economic and political scales which tended to be greater than the mean scores on these scales for the general adult male population. Salesmancandidates, pre-training, had mean scores on the aesthetic scale v, hich tended to be loH'er than the mean score on the aesthetic scale for the general adult male population.

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THE JOURNAL OF MARKETING 2. Salesman-candidates, Experimental Group II, pre-training, had greater variance on the standard sales situation interview than successful salesm,en. 3. Salesman-candidates, pre-training, did less \vell on the standard, sales situation interview than successful salesmen. 4. l l i e means on the iristrtiments in Battery I for successftxl salesmen did. not difier from the m,eans on the instruments for salesman-candidates. Experimental Group II, pre-training. 5. One of the salesman-candidate groupsExperimental Group Idid less well on tlie Social Intelligence Test; and these salesman-candidates tended to seek advice of others more readily than successful salcsinen. Also, these salesmancandidates tended to be more sociable and gregarious than successful salesmen. The following results were obtained from a comparison of the measured abilities and personality characteristics of salesman-candidates. Experimental Group I and Experimental Grroup II, post-training, with those of successful salesmen, Controi Group II: 1. Salesman-candidates, Experimental Group II, post-training, and successful salesmen had a conimon variance for the instrtiments in. Battery I and for the stari,dard sales situation interview. 2. Salesman-candidates, Experimental Group I, post-train ing, were more homogeneous on the numerical scale of the Modifi,ed Alpha Examination, Form 9, and on the political scale of the AllportVcrnon Study of Values. Salesman-candidates, Experimental Group I, post-training, were more heterogeneous on, the social service scale of the Ktider Preference Record than succssful salesmen. 9. Salesman-candidates, Experimental Group II, post-training, did better on the standard sales situation interview than successful salesmen.

4. Salesman-candidates had higher persuasive, literary, and musical interests than the general adult male population. Salesman-candidates had, lower mechanical, coniptitational, scientific, and clerical interests than, the general adult male population. One of the salesman-candidate groups (Experimental Group II) had lower artistic interests than the general adult male poptilation. One of the salesman-candidate grotips (Experimental Group I) was more homogeneous than the general adult male poptilation on the mechanical, persuasive, and literary scales of the Kuder Preference Record. Experimental Group II, pre-training, was more homogeneous than the general adult male population on the persuasive scale. 5, Salesman-candidates, pre-training, were more emotionally stable, were more extraverted than introverted, were more dominant than submissive, were more sociable, and sought advice more freely than the general adult male population. One of the salesman-candidate groupsExperimental Group Iwas more confident than the general adult male population. One of the salesman-candidate groups Experimental Group I, pre-trainiag was more homogeneous than the general adult male population on the BjN. BoS, F2S, and B4D scales of the Bernreuter Personality Inventory. The following results were obtained from a comparison of the measured abilities and personality characteristics of salesman-candidates. Experimental Grotip I and Experimental Group II, pre-training, with those of successful salesmen. Control Group IL. 1. Salesman-candidates, pre-training, and successful salesmen had common variances for the instruments in Battery I.

TFIE EFFECT OF INTENSIVE

SALES TRAINING

EXPERIENCE

26.5

4. Salesman-candidates, Experimental Grotip I, post-training, had higher aesthetic values than the successful salesmen. The following results were obtained from a comparison of the meastired abilities and personality characteristics of salesman-candidates, pre-training, with their measured abilities and personality characteristics, post-training. 1. Salesman-candidates, Experimental Group II, did better on the standard sales situation interview post-training than pre-training. 2. Both experimental groups had greater means on the numerical, verbal, and total scales of the Modified Alpha Examination, Form 9, post-training than pre-training, 3. Both experimental groups were more emotionally stable, more readily ignored the advice of others, were more extraverted than introverted, and were more confident post-training than pretraining. 4. One of the experimental groupsExperimental Group Ihad lower computational, literary, and clerical interests post-training than pre-training; this same group had higher aesthetic and political values and lower social values post-training than pre-training. .'\lso, this group did better on the Social Intelligence Test post-training than pre-training,
CONCLI;S1ONS ,'\ND GENERAL RESULTS

The following conclusions and general results are based on the specific results of the investigation: I. ,.4 typical pattern of abilities and personality characteristics exists for successftil salesmen, ij. Salesman-candidates who have had no experience in salesmanship differ from the general adult male population in much the same wav as successful sales-

men ditTer from the genera! adult male poptilation. 3. Whenever differences in variances occur between the general adult male population and successftil salesmen or between the general adtilt male poptiiation and salesman-candidates the smaller variance (indicating greater homogeneity) is in the successful salesmen group or the salesman-candidate group, 4. Salesman-candidates, pre-training, and successful salesmen have common variances for the instruments in Battery I, 5. Salesman-candidates. Experimental Group II, post-training, and successful salesmen have common variances for the instruments in Battery I. The larger of the fivo salesman-candidate grotips-Experitnental Group I--differs from the successful salesmen in variance on only three of the twentv-fi\'e scales. 6. Successfti! salesmen do not difFer in central tendency on the instruments in Battery I from salesman-candidates, pretraining. 7. Siiccessftil salesmen differ in central tendency on only one of the scales in Battery I (aesthetic scale of the .'\llport-\'ernon Study of Values) from the salesmancandidates, Plxperimental Group I, posttraining,, 8. Salesman-candidates, pre-training, do less well than successful salesmen on the standard sales situ3,tion interview; but sale.man-candidates, post-training, do better than successftil salesmen on the standard sales situation interview, 9. Changes in the pattern of abilities and personality characteristics ias measured by Battery I) occur during the period of training, 1 o. The changes that take place d aring training tend to be in the direction oi' the pattern of measured abilities and personality characteristics of successful salesmen.

266 The answer to the question under investigation may now be given: The effect of intensive sales training experience is upon the ability of the salesman-candidate to handle a sales situation interview (a sale). .Although the post-training pattern of abilities and personality characteristics of salesman-candidates (Battery I) tends to be an accentuation of: the pattern of abilities and personality characteristics of successful salesmen, tests of

TFIE JOURNAL OF MARKETING significant differences indicate that intensive sales training experience does not result in measured abilities and personality characteristics (Battery I) which resemble the measured abilities and personality characteristics of successftil salesmen more closely than the pre-training measured abilities and personality characteristics of salesman-candidates resemble them.