Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The contents of this manual have been adapted from a number of sources including the previous
Primary Science Safety Manual and Queensland Safety Handbook for Schools — Science,
handbooks of other state education departments, and material from government agencies. These
sources are gratefully acknowledged.
All efforts were made to check that the information provided was accurate and current at the time
of publication. New legislation and regulations may be enacted from time to time. New information
regarding equipment and chemicals may become available. Emergency procedures may be revised.
It remains the principal's responsibility to check for the latest information regarding legislation,
regulations, policy and procedures that might affect a science activity.
These guidelines were prepared by the Education Services Directorate. Representatives from many
sectors of the department, tertiary institutions and professional associations have contributed to the
development of this document. Questions about this reference manual should be directed to the
Education Services Directorate, Education Queensland, PO Box 33, Brisbane Albert Street, Q
4002.
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CONTENTS Please Note: page numbering on this electronic copy may differ from the hard copy.
1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION ................................................................................ 8
1.1 Law ........................................................................................................................... 9
1.1.1 Workplace Health and Safety Act 1995
1.1.2 Teacher responsibility
1.1.3 Risk assessment and risk management
1.1.3.1 Risk management principles
1.1.3.2 Hazard identification
1.1.3.3 Risk assessment
1.1.3.4 Risk levels
1.1.3.5 Risk control
1.1.4 Implications
2. SCIENCE MANAGEMENT PROCESSES ............................................................ 14
2.1 Safety in science education ......................................................................................... 14
2.1.1 Introduction
2.1.2 Teacher’s role
2.1.3 Reducing the risks
• Understanding
• Preparation
• Organisation
• Supervision
• Experimental practices
• Correct labelling
2.1.4 Accident procedure
2.1.5 First aid
2.2 Fire ........................................................................................................................... 17
2.2.1 Nature of fires
2.2.2 Prevention of fires
• Sources of ignition
• Gas installations
• Flammable substances
• Flammable liquids
• Flammable gases
• Combustible solids
• Electrical fires
• Some teaching of science area practices
2.2.3 Action in case of fire
• Equipment
• Evacuation
2.3 Poisons ...................................................................................................................... 21
2.3.1 Introduction
2.3.2 Toxicity
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• Definition of terms
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2.3.3 Toxicity and fire hazards associated with certain acid anion compounds
2.3.4 Skin contamination
• Skin contamination — except phenolics
• Skin contamination — phenolics
2.3.5 Gas or vapour inhalation
2.3.6 Chemicals swallowed
• Treatment for an unconscious patient
• Treatment for a conscious patient
2.3.7 Toxicity of certain metals and metal compounds
2.3.8 Hazards associated with certain gases
2.3.9 Alphabetical list of poisons and first aid
2.4 Equipment ................................................................................................................. 31
2.4.1 Gas installations and inspections
• Portable gas bottles
• Permanent gas installations
• Isolation valves
2.4.2 Electrical outlets and equipment
• Electrical outlets
• Commercial electrical equipment
2.4.3 Eye washing and safety shower
• Eye washing
• Safety shower
2.4.4 Fume cupboards
• Mechanical
• Heat-induced convection
• Diffusion
2.4.5 Water stills
2.4.6 Penetrating objects carbon dioxide syphon bulbs
3. CHEMICAL MANAGEMENT .............................................................................. 35
3.1 Organisation .............................................................................................................. 35
3.1.1 Introduction
3.1.2 Prevention of personal injury
3.1.3 Chemicals used in schools for the teaching of science
3.1.4 Chemical stocks
3.1.5 Storage of chemicals
3.1.5.1 General handling and storage precautions
3.1.5.2 Storage of chemicals in plastic containers
3.1.5.3 Special handling and storage precautions
− Concentrated acids
− Flammable liquids
− Other solvents or liquids
− Powerful oxidising agents
− Incompatible substances
− Other chemicals (carbon disulfide, phosphorus, diethyl ether, sodium,
mercury)
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1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Workplace Health and Safety Act requirements, risk assessment and risk management policy, social
justice policy, and principles of effective learning and teaching all have an impact on the safe, effective
and accountable management of practical activities occurring in science activities.
Science activities involve the use of hazardous materials, which must be handled, stored, used and
disposed of carefully. In the interests of both safety and economy, efficient and responsible methods of
using and accounting for all substances and equipment in laboratories must be established.
This handbook contains information on aspects of safe and efficient management of practical science
activities, laboratories and other science activity areas, equipment and materials. The information is
useful for both primary and secondary teachers. Teachers from other teaching areas within the school
may need to refer to this manual for information that is pertinent to the safe use of science-related
materials within their teaching area.
This material has been abstracted from other documents, such as the Material Safety Data Sheets
(MSDS), which are the definitive documents on using and storing chemical products safely. Every care
has been taken to faithfully represent these other documents; however, reference should be made to
the original source for additional and/or current information.
Note: For teachers of science in a primary school setting: A significant amount of the information
contained in this publication relates specifically to a secondary school context. However, the issues of
science safety and management contained herein require close scrutiny and observation by all teachers,
regardless of the educational setting.
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1.1 LAW
1.1.1 WORKPLACE HEALTH AND SAFETY ACT 1995
Education Queensland is committed to provid ing and maintaining a healthy and safe work and learning
environment for all employees, students and others. The department has a statutory responsibility under
the Workplace Health and Safety Act 1995 to ensure the risk of disease or injury from the school or
workplace is minimised for all persons in contact with the school or other departmental workplace.
Principals, teachers, and all other employees and people at a school have an obligation for ensuring
workplace health and safety at the school. In particular, the Workplace Health and Safety Act 1995
places a statutory obligation on employees and other people at school to follow instructions for
workplace health and safety, use of personal protective equipment and, in general, for responsible
behaviour regarding workplace health and safety while at school or involved in school activities.
Obligations for workplace health and safety should be ensured by:
(a) identifying hazards;
(b) assessing risks that may result because of the hazards;
(c) deciding on control measures to prevent, or minimise the level of, risks;
(d) implementing control measures;
(e) monitoring and reviewing the effectiveness of the measures.
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1.1.4 IMPLICATIONS
The Duty of Care has implications for the teacher in the following situations:
(a) the supervision of students undertaking practical work both during the teaching of science at
school and in the field;
(b) the performance of demonstrations in front of students;
(c) allowing students to assist with class demonstrations;
(d) students involved in extracurricular science-related activities;
(e) sending students on errands to other parts of the school to bring back chemicals or
equipment;
(f) transport of chemicals, biological materials (including animals), glassware or equipment
within laboratories or around the school by teachers, scientific assistants, other school
personnel or students;
(g) preventing, as far as possible, unauthorised access to hazardous materials;
(h) the formulation, publication and enforcement of laboratory rules; and
(i) maintenance of up-to-date safety procedures.
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2. SCIENCE MANAGEMENT
PROCESSES
2.1 SAFETY IN SCIENCE EDUCATION
2.1.1 INTRODUCTION
Work practices in every industry and every occupatio n today are controlled by the Workplace Health
and Safety Act 1995, other Government legislation and related regulations.
Safety at work is a very high priority in today's workforce and this degree of importance needs to be
reflected in the management of equipment and chemicals, organisation of preparation rooms and
laboratories and the demonstration of safety in learning/teaching experiences.
Safety in science education involves more than just not exposing students to unnecessary risks.
Teachers have a responsibility to develop a safety consciousness in students, as well as displaying
appropriate safe behaviours.
Safety in science education includes:
(a) the provision of a safe working environment for staff and students;
(b) the adoption of safe working practices and other measures to minimise the risks associated
with hazards encountered in a science laboratory;
(c) an awareness of the need to behave safely;
(d) knowledge of hazards in the laboratory and at home;
(e) skills to handle hazardous chemicals, equipment and situations; and
(f) an appropriate attitude towards safety and safe practices.
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Understanding
An example of understanding can be shown with toxic chemicals. Toxic chemicals can only be
harmful if they are allowed to enter the body. Chemicals may enter the body by inhalation, absorption
and ingestion.
Preparation
The following points should be considered when planning any science activity:
(a) class size;
(b) experience of the class;
(c) laboratory space available;
(d) number of student groups desirable;
(e) number of sets of equipment available;
(f) previous experience of the same, or similar, experimental procedures;
(g) hazards associated with the equipment or chemicals being used;
(h) prior demonstration of appropriate safe handling techniques; and
(i) emergency procedures.
Organisation
The risk level of an activity can be reduced by appropriate organisation of:
(a) the area for the teaching of science, e.g. laboratory, classroom, or outside location;
(b) materials used for the activity; and
(c) location and movement of people involved in the activity.
The following examples indicate how organisation contributes to lowering the risk level of a science
activity.
(i) Equipment and chemicals should be stored in a systematic, orderly and neat manner. The
scheme adopted for storing materials should be known to all school personnel who need
access to science materials. (Refer to Section 3.1.5, Storage of chemicals, for specific
instructions.)
(ii) In schools with many teachers, systems must be established for the distribution and return of
equipment and chemicals. All equipment borrowed from a preparation room, store room, or
storage area must be returned to its assigned place.
(iii) Teaching areas, preparation rooms and laboratories should be kept uncluttered with no
equipment protruding over benches or wires dangling or trailing across the floor.
(iv) Movement around the area for the teaching of science, laboratory or preparation room
should not be obstructed by furniture or equipment stored on the floor.
(v) Benchtops should be kept clean. Any spillages should be wiped up immediately.
(vi) Reagent bottles or dropping bottles used by students should be clearly labelled and filled
regularly so that there is no need for any group to ‘borrow’ any reagent from another
group because its bottle is empty. Unnecessary and frequent movement of students in a
laboratory can lead to accidents.
(vii) Sinks should not be allowed to become blocked with wastes of any kind. Separate waste
bins should be provided for broken glass, paper, cloth etc. and solid chemical residues which
are to be discarded (see Section 3.1.7, Disposal of chemicals). Broken glass must be
wrapped before disposal.
(viii) All water outlets should be in good working order.
(ix) Gas turrets on the benches should be kept in good working order. Loose turrets, or taps with
parts missing, should be reported to the local Supervisor, Department of Public Works and
Housing.
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(x) Bunsen burners may be left attached to gas turrets, if considered desirable. Gas tubing
should be no longer than 600mm, and a 300mm square sheet of AC sheet (non-asbestos
fibro) can be placed under the bunsen burner to minimise the heating effect on the
benchtop.
(xi) Power outlets and swit ches must be kept in safe working order. Checks should be made to
ensure that cover plates on switches and outlets do not become broken or cracked,
accidentally or otherwise.
(xii) Time must be allowed for cleaning up and returning equipment and chemicals.
Supervision
Student behaviour during the teaching of science needs to be considered when assessing risk levels.
Increased teacher supervision is needed for higher risk level activities. Increased teacher supervision
is likely to reduce risk levels.
Supervision of students may vary depending on their age and their experience of the particular activity.
In practical situations, supervision needs to be continuous and vigilant so that unauthorised/inappropriate
behaviour does not lead to accidents resulting in physical injury, fires or other conditions dangerous to
the health and safety of others involved in the activity.
A list of student rules should be drawn up, setting out the behaviour expected. Infringements of these
rules should not be permitted. Rules that outline general principles are useful but not explicit and are
thereby incomplete. Lists of ‘Do's and Don'ts’ should be prominently displayed and copies may be
given to students.
Such a list of rules for safety in science activities might include at least the following:
(a) Long hair must be confined by hair nets or tied back if it is likely to be a fire hazard or come
in contact with chemicals or equipment in use.
(b) Ties should be tucked in.
(c) Loose, flowing clothing must be confined, where it constitutes a hazard.
(d) Synthetic garments (e.g. nylon parkas), should be recognised as potential fire hazards.
(e) Rings, earrings, metal bands and other loose jewellery must be removed if they present a
safety hazard.
(f) Footwear must completely cover the feet and protect them from spilt corrosive or hot
liquids.
(g) Teachers should be aware of students who wear contact lenses. Students must wear safety
goggles when chemicals are being handled.
(h) Protective clothing (gloves, aprons, eyewear) must be worn whenever the hazard dictates.
(i) Students should not be permitted to enter any laboratory unless a teacher is present. To
ensure that such a situation does not arise, laboratory doors should be locked when the
laboratory is not occupied. This is the responsibility of all teachers of science.
(j) Students must not be permitted to enter a preparation room or store room unless a teacher is
present.
(k) Practical classes should be conducted only by teachers with the appropriate knowledge
and/or experience. Should a teacher be called away from a practical class or demonstration,
the students must not be left unsupervised. If a teacher is not available to supervise the
class, then students should be required to leave the laboratory and some other arrangement
should be made for their supervision.
(l) Unauthorised experiments by students must not be permitted.
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Experimental practices
Teachers of science undertaking experimental procedures should:
(a) minimise or eliminate direct contact between the skin and chemicals that can be absorbed or
cause irritation through the use of mechanical devices and protective garments, e.g. pipette
fillers and gloves;
(b) reduce the risk of inhalation of chemical vapours by isolating the experiment in a fume
cupboard or by using small quantities of chemicals and ensuring good ventilation in the
room; and
(c) prevent students from tasting chemicals.
Students should have the manipulative skills to successfully and safely complete a particular science
activity. Some of the science activities that may require a practical demonstration by the teacher
include:
(i) lighting and use of a bunsen burner;
(ii) heating of liquids or solids in test tubes;
(iii) heating large volumes of liquids;
(iv) handling glassware containing hot liquids;
(v) carrying glassware;
(vi) handling of reagent bottles;
(vii) diluting concentrated acids; and
(viii) inserting glass tubing in rubber stoppers.
Correct labelling
The use of the correct labels e.g. toxic, poisonous, irritant, etc., can assist in developin g good practice
and in maintaining a safe environment. (See Section 3.3 for further details.)
2.2 FIRE
2.2.1 NATURE OF FIRES
Fires in school areas for the teaching of science may arise from any of the following causes:
(a) chemical reactions;
(b) electrical faults;
(c) gas leakages; and
(d) poor laboratory procedures.
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The speed with which the fire can spread will depend on the nature of the burning substances and the
materials in the immediate vicinity of the fire. Fires of solids propagate slowly. Fires of liquids spread
relatively rapidly. Gas, vapour or dust fires propagate so rapidly that they seem to explode.
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Flammable liquids
No sources of ignition should be used near flammable liquids. Some common flammable liquids are
listed below.
Flammable gases
(a) All sources of ignition should be extinguished when handling flammable gases. If ignition
tests of gases are being demonstrated, use only small quantities. The source of gas should
be closed off or well removed from the demonstration.
(b) If the combustion of substances in an oxygen-rich environment is being demonstrated, only
small quantities should be used and all participants should be prepared for the substance to
flare and burn rapidly.
(c) Many propellant gases in pressure cans are flammable.
(d) Some fluorescent lights, electrical switches and transmitting devices (radios and mobile
telephones) may be sources of ignition.
Combustible solids
(a) Most combustible solids will not present a great fire hazard unless they are ground into a
powder. Powders of combustible solids can be explosive when dispersed in air. Metals in a
finely divided form, e.g. zinc dust, may ignite easily.
(b) Unstable solids may decompose explosively if heated or subjected to friction. These include:
• potassium chlorate;
• sodium nitrate;
• potassium nitrate; and
• powdered metal and sulfur.
(c) Strong oxidising agents must be kept away from organic substances as the combination may
lead to spontaneous ignition.
(d) Some solids will react spontaneously and exothermally with water or air. These include
lithium, sodium, potassium, calcium, hydrides, nitrides, sulfides, acid anhydrides and
concentrated acids and alkalis. Use only small quantities. Small narrow-necked containers
should never be used. Appropriate procedures to avoid contact with these substances and
their products should be followed.
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Electrical fires
(a) The electrical wiring in science laboratories and other activity areas should be adequately
protected against overloading by circuit breakers. Repairs should be done only by a qualified
electrician.
(b) Wiring should not be overloaded by using appliances or equipment whose current rating is
greater than that of the power outlet. General purpose outlets (GPOs) were usually rated at
10 amps. Some GPOs may be rated at 15 amps.
(c) The use of double adapters should be avoided. Portable power boards (multiple -point power
boards), especially those with circuit breakers, should be used.
(d) All power leads must be in good condition, of the appropriate current rating for the
appliance(s) being used, and of the minimum length necessary for practical use.
Some teaching of science area practices
(a) Appropriate storage, handling and disposal procedures for chemicals should be followed as
indicated in Section 3: Chemical management.
(b) Good ventilation should be maintained in laboratories and science activity preparation rooms
to minimise the chances of flammable vapours or gases building up.
(c) Procedures which release flammable vapours would normally be carried out in a fume
cupboard or an appropriate outdoor location.
(d) Large quantities of flammable liquids should not be stored in the laboratory. Bulk quantities
should be stored in a preparation room or appropriate store room.
(e) Flammable liquids should not be stored or used near sources of ignition.
(f) Flammable liquids should only be heated on water baths using electrical hotplates, not
bunsen burners.
(g) Apparatus to be used in heating must be carefully checked for defects, such as small cracks
or uneven thickness.
(h) All fires and hazardous occurrences must be reported in the appropriate manner.
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2.3 POISONS
IN ALL CASES, CONTACT A DOCTOR OR
POISONS INFORMATION CENTRE
BRISBANE METROPOLITAN 3243 8233
CALLERS OUTSIDE BRISBANE (008) 177 333
2.3.1 INTRODUCTION
Speed of treatment is essential. In all cases, the Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for the substance
should be consulted for the first aid information in the first instance. In any case of poisoning, the
nearest Poisons Information Centre or doctor should be contacted. The MSDS for the substance
should accompany the person to the treating agency. Contact details must be displayed in appropriate
locations.
While immediate first aid is being administered, transport (either ambulance or private car) to
appropriate medical facilities should also be organised. The poison should be identified and/or the
container collected and/or the vomitus collected and provided for the doctor.
Ensure that the patient’s airway is clear.
An unconscious patient should never receive any solids or liquids by mouth. Medical aid, a doctor or a
hospital should be sought as quickly as possible. The patient should be kept warm and quiet.
2.3.2 TOXICITY
Definition of terms
TOXICITY Toxicity is the capacity of a substance to cause harm. All substances should
be considered as toxic to some degree. The toxicity of a substance is
determined by the quantity of that substance required to cause harm. It is
usually reported as an LD 50 oral rate, i.e. the lethal dose that will kill 50% of
a sample -rate population if administered orally.
The following values are approximate indicators for ingestion:
very toxic: LD50 ≤ 25 mg/kg body weight;
toxic: 25 < LD50 ≤ 200 mg/kg;
harmful: 200 < LD50 ≤ 2000 mg/kg.
The risks of injury associated with any particular chemical relate directly to
the route of entry, i.e. ingestion, inhalation or skin contact. A substance that
may be very toxic by ingestion may be quite safe to handle if it is not to be
ingested.
CORROSIVE Corrosive substances are those which cause severe skin damage. How
corrosive a substance is depends on the length of time taken for the damage
to occur.
The following are approximate indicators of corrosiveness:
highly corrosive: causes visible severe skin damage at site of contact
in less than 3 minutes;
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Bromides The inorganic bromides produce depression, emaciation and in severe cases psychoses and
mental deterioration. Organic bromides are volatile liquids of relatively high toxicity. When
strongly heated, alone or with strong acids such as concentrated sulfuric acid, they emit
highly toxic fumes.
Chlorates The principal toxic effect of chlorates is the destruction of the red blood cells, leading to
kidney irritation. They constitute a dangerous fire hazard in contact with flammable
materials so solid chlorates should never be placed in rubbish bins. They are powerful
oxidising agents and when contaminated with oxidisable material, they are particularly
sensitive to friction, heat and shock. When mixed with combustible material, they can form
explosive mixtures. The reaction with concentrated sulfuric acid can be violent. The
preparation of oxygen using potassium chlorate and manganese dioxide as a catalyst may
cause an explosion.
Chlorides Toxicity varies widely. When heated strongly, alone or with concentrated sulfuric acid,
they can emit highly toxic fumes.
Chromates, dichromates These compounds have a corrosive action on skin and mucous membranes. Because they
are strong oxidising agents, they could cause fire by a chemical reaction. Hexavalent
chromium compounds are known to be carcinogenic.
Ferricyanides Ferricyanides as such are of low toxicity since the CN is bound. However, when they are
strongly heated or come in contact with acids or acid fumes, highly toxic fumes are
liberated.
Ferrocyanides Ferrocyanides as such are of low order of toxicity, but highly toxic decomposition
products can form on mixing them with hot concentrated acids. When strongly heated they
emit highly toxic fumes.
Hypochlorites These compounds are corrosive. When heated or on contact with acids or acid fumes, they
emit highly toxic fumes. They form a moderate fire hazard by chemical reaction with
reducing agents and organic matter.
Iodates Toxicity is variable, producing effects similar to those produced by chlorates. They are a
dangerous fire hazard because they are powerful oxidisers. In contact with flammable or
even combustible materials they can start fires.
Iodides Similar in toxicity to bromides. When strongly heated they emit highly toxic fumes.
Nitrates Large amounts taken by mouth may have serious or even fatal effects. Practically all
nitrates are powerful oxidising agents and, as such, constitute a moderate fire hazard by
chemical reaction. Nitrates may explode when exposed to heat or flame or by spontaneous
chemical reaction. Ammonium nitrate has all the properties of the other nitrates but is also
able to detonate by itself. On strong heating, nitrates emit toxic fumes.
Oxalates Oxalates are corrosive and produce local irritation. When taken by mouth they have a
caustic effect on the mouth, oesophagus and stomach. The soluble oxalates are readily
absorbed from the gastro-intestinal tract and can cause severe damage to the kidneys.
When strongly heated they emit toxic fumes.
Permanganates Highly toxic compounds with irritant properties. They are strong oxidising agents and
constitute a moderate fire hazard when reacting with reducing materials. Metallic
permanganate may detonate when exposed to high temperatures or shock. The reaction
with concentrated sulfuric acid can be violent.
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Peroxides Toxicity of these compounds is variable. They may cause injury on contact with skin or
mucous membranes. They represent a moderate to dangerous fire hazard by chemical
reaction with reducing agents and contaminants. They are strong oxidising agents. Contact
with water may cause violent decomposition.
Phosphates Variable toxicity. When strongly heated they can emit highly toxic fumes.
Sulfates Variable toxicity. In general, the toxic quality of substances containing the sulfate radical is
that of the material with which this radical is combined. On strong heating, emits highly
toxic fumes.
Sulfides Variable toxicity. The sulfides of potassium, calcium, ammonium and sodium are similar in
action to the alkalis. They cause softening and irritation of the skin. If taken by mouth
they are corrosive. Sulfides of the heavy metals are generally insoluble and hence have little
toxic action except through the liberation of hydrogen sulfide. They constit ute a moderate
fire hazard when exposed to flame or by spontaneous chemical reaction. Many sulfides
ignite easily in air at room temperature. Others require a higher temperature or the
presence of an oxidiser. Many powerful oxidisers on contact with sulfides ignite violently.
Sulfites Fairly large doses of sulfites can be tolerated since they are rapidly oxidised to sulfates,
although if swallowed they may cause irritation of the stomach by liberating sulfurous
acid. When heated strongly or on contact wit h acids they emit highly toxic fumes.
Thiocyanates Severe toxicity will occur with doses of less than 1g. When strongly heated or on contact
with acids or acid fumes, they emit highly toxic fumes.
Thiosulfates Most of the thiosulfates have low toxicity. When heated strongly, they emit highly toxic
fumes.
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(b) If the patient is not breathing, pulse is absent and eyes are dilated, start expired air
resuscitation (EAR)/cardio-pulmonary resuscitation (CPR).
(c) If patient is not breathing, but pulse is present, start expired air resuscitation (EAR).
(d) If patient is breathing but unconscious, place patient flat on the floor, roll him/her onto right
side, remove dentures and clean mouth of mucus and vomitus. Keep the patient’s chin well
up and forward by pushing on the angle of the jaw. Keep the patient warm.
(e) Do not give anything by mouth to the unconscious patient.
(f) If conscious, encourage the patient to take a series of rapid and deep breaths, then gradually
bring him/her into a sitting position. Make certain he/she does not get up and walk around.
Make patient lie flat if he/she feels faint.
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Aluminium Aluminium itself is not generally regarded as a poison. The toxicity of any compound will
be determined by the nature of the anion with which the metal is combined.
Barium The soluble barium salts such as the chloride and sulfide are poisonous when taken by
mouth. The insoluble sulfate used in radiography is non-poisonous. The usual result of
exposure to the sulfide, oxide and carbonate is irritation of the eyes, nose and throat and
skin.
Boron Boron itself is not highly toxic. However, instances of accidental poisoning have been
reported due to boric acid, oral ingestion of borates and absorption of boric acid from
wounds and burns.
Calcium Generally speaking, calcium compounds should be considered toxic only when they
contain a toxic component. Calcium oxide and calcium hydroxide have caustic reactions and
are therefore irritating to the skin and respiratory system.
Chromium Chromic acid and its salts have a highly corrosive action on the skin and mucous
membrane. Chromate salts are recognised carcinogens.
Cobalt The toxicity of cobalt itself and most cobalt salts is low. The toxicity of the compound
will depend upon the anion with which cobalt is combined.
Copper Copper chloride and sulfate have been reported as causing irritation of the skin and
conjunctivae. Copper oxide is irritating to the eyes and upper respiratory tract. The
ingestion of large amounts of copper sulfate can have fatal effects.
Lead Lead poisoning may occur: (a) by inhalation of dusts, fumes, mists or vapours; (b) by
ingestion of lead compounds introduced into the mouth on food, tobacco, fingers etc.; and
(c) through the skin, particularly in the case of organic lead compounds. Lead is a
cumulative poison. Increasing amounts build up in the body and eventually a point is
reached where symptoms and disability occur. Of the various compounds, the carbonate,
the monoxide and the sulfate are considered to be more toxic than metallic lead or other
lead compounds.
Magnesium Poisoning can result from prolonged exposure to fumes or dusts.
Mercury A number of mercury compounds can cause skin irritation and can be absorbed through the
skin leading to mercury poisoning. Mercury compounds and the metal itself may enter the
body as vapours of fumes or dusts. Some can cause kidney damage while others can cause
irreversible damage to the central nervous system. Mercuric compounds are generally more
toxic than mercurous compounds.
Nickel Nickel and most salts of nickel are generally not considered toxic. Nickel (II) compounds
are carcinogenic.
Potassium Toxicity of the compounds is variable. The potassium ion is practically non-toxic; hence,
the toxicity of potassium compounds would depend upon the anion involved.
Silver The silver ion is intensely corrosive to tissue.
Sodium Toxicity varies with the compound. The sodium ion is considered non-toxic. The toxicity
of sodium compounds is frequently due, though not always, to the anion involved.
Strontium The strontium ion has a low order of toxicity. It is chemically and biologically similar to
calcium. The toxicity of the compounds is considered to be dependent upon the anion
involved.
Zinc Zinc is not inherently a toxic element. Small doses of soluble zinc salts cause nausea and
vomiting. Larger doses cause violent vomiting and purging. Zinc chloride, because of its
caustic action, can produce skin ulcers.
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Ammonia, anhydrous Extremely irritating gas. Flammable in the Do not prepare ammonia in open room. Use
presence of sufficient oxygen. fume cupboard.
Carbon dioxide Simple asphyxiant.
Carbon monoxide Very toxic. Can cause unconsciousness due Do not prepare carbon monoxide in open
to combination of the gas with haemoglobin room. Use fume cupboard. Reduce metallic
in the blood. Death can occur from carbon oxides by passing carbon monoxide over the
monoxide inhalation. heated oxide.
Chlorine Very toxic. Can react to cause fires or Do not prepare chlorine in open room. Use
explosions upon contact with turpentine, fume cupboard. Direct combination of
ether, ammonia gas, illuminating gas, chlorine and hydrogen in bright light or
hydrocarbon, hydrogen and powdered ignition of the mixture by lighted taper or
metals. Dissolves readily in water, forming electric spark. Avoid reactions of chlorine
highly corrosive solution. with metals, solid non-metals, hydrocarbon.
Use small quantities only.
Hydrogen Do not allow direct combination of hydrogen
and chlorine in bright light or ignition of the
mixture by lighted taper or electric spark.
Ignite a jet of hydrogen issuing from a
delivery tube. Reduce metallic oxides by
passing hydrogen over the heated oxide.
Hydrogen chloride, Corrosive. Do not prepare hydrogen chloride in open
anhydrous room. Use fume cupboard.
Hydrogen sulfide Both an irritant and an asphyxiant. Do not prepare hydrogen sulfide in open
room. Use fume cupboard. Igniting a jet of
hydrogen sulfide issuing from a delivery tube.
Liquid helium and Colourless and odourles s liquid gas. Liquid Only experienced and properly trained people
liquid nitrogen causes rapid freezing on contact. should use this product.
Avoid contact with escaping liquid and gas. Do NOT expose to skin, eye, inhale or
Skin may freeze to surfaces cooled by liquid swallow.
and be torn on removal. Liquid can cause
Obtain specialist advice before operating
tissue freezing or frostbite.
cryogenic liquid equipment.
LP gas (bottled gas) Simple asphyxiant. Consists of propane Do not search for a gas leak with a lighted
(approximately 95%) together with varying match or lighted taper. Use a soap solution.
proportions of butane, propylene and
butylene. A rank-smelling compound is
added so that the presence of the gas can be
easily detected. Incomplete combustion
yields carbon monoxide.
Natural gas Simple asphyxiant. Consists of methane Do not search for a gas leak with a lighted
(approximately 90%) together with varying match or lighted taper. Use a soap solution.
proportions of ethane, propane, butane,
nitrogen and carbon dioxide. A rank-
smelling compound is added so that the
presence of the gas can be easily detected.
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Methylated spirits Give water. Induce vomiting if > 15 minutes from a hospital.
Methyl ethyl ketone Give water. Do not induce vomiting.
Millon’s reagent Give water. Induce vomiting.
I-naphthol (alpha) Do not induce vomiting.
Nickel sulfate Induce vomiting.
Nitric acid Do not induce vomiting. Give 120-240mL water or milk.
Octanol Give water. Induce vomiting if patient is not drowsy.
Oxalic acid Give milk or water. Give calcium as milk, weak lime water, chalk to
precipitate oxalate. Do NOT induce vomiting.
Pentanol Give water. Induce vomiting if patient is not drowsy.
Perchloric acid Do not induce vomiting. Give 120-240mL water or milk.
Pentan-1-ol Give water. Induce vomiting if patient is not drowsy.
Petroleum ether Do not induce vomiting. Give 120-240mL water or milk.
Phenyl thiourea Give water. Induce vomiting if > 15 minutes from a hospital..
Phloroglucin Give milk or water. (Give 30-60mL of castor oil.)
Phosphorus pentoxide Do not induce vomiting. Give 120-240mL water or milk.
Phosphorus white Give water. Do not induce vomiting.
Potassium carbonate anhydrous Do not induce vomiting. Give 120-240mL water or milk.
Potassium chromate Give milk or water. Give 1g Vitamin C.
Potassium dichromate Give milk or water. Give 1g vitamin C.
Potassium hydrogen oxalate Give water. Give calcium as milk, weak lime water, chalk to precipitate
oxalate.
Potassium hydroxide Do not induce vomiting. Give 120-240mL water or milk.
Potassium iodide Give water. Induce vomiting.
Potassium nitrate Give water. Induce vomiting.
Potassium permanganate Do not induce vomiting. Give 120-240mL water or milk.
Potassium thiocyanate Give water. Induce vomiting.
Propanol Give water. Induce vomiting if patient is not drowsy.
Isopropyl alcohol Give water. Induce vomiting if patient is not drowsy.
Pyrogallol Give milk or water. (Give 30-60mL of castor oil.)
Quinine sulfate Give water. Induce vomiting.
Resorcinol Give milk or water. (Give 30-60mL of castor oil.)
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2.4 EQUIPMENT
2.4.1 GAS INSTALLATIONS AND INSPECTIONS
Portable gas bottles (9kg or less)
The school is responsible for maintaining and filling these cylinders, and for having them tested after
they are ten years old. It is illegal for a refilling station to refill cylinders older than 10 years that have
not been retested.
Permanent gas installations
These include laboratories supplied with large 45kg cylinders of LPG or connected to natural or town
gas.
Sales and Distribution Services (SDS), formerly Q. P. & S. and Edmart, arrange for contracts for
‘refillers’ and servicing of installations. All permanent installations should be serviced annually. In
this service, turrets, control valves and cylinders are checked for correct operation and leaks. The age
of cylinders is also checked. If they are found to be out of date, the contractor will check with the
school for the date of the last refill. If the cylinders have not been refilled for some time, the school will
be asked to organise a refill whether the cylinders are empty or not.
Cylinders may be refilled on site or replaced. It is the refiller’s responsibility to check the date on your
cylinder and provide ones that are current. The Regional Manager of Department of Public Works and
Housing can advise which company has the contract to refill a school's gas cylinders.
Isolation valves
All gas should be turned off when not in use. Areas for the teaching of science with permanent gas are
fitted with isolation valves. These may be manual or electronic.
New science facilities are being provided with electronic key-pad controlled isolation valves. All
personnel, whether involved in a practical activity or not, who are using rooms equipped with reticulated
gas supply should familiarise themselves with the various methods of isolating gas when not in use.
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Diffusion
A fume cupboard may have a simple flue which allows dispersal of gases and vapours by
molecular diffusion. This type of unit cannot be used to disperse gases that are heavier than air.
They will accumulate in the bottom of the unit and slowly leak back into the classroom.
These units are not acceptable for use in gas dispersion.
Australian Standards, AS 2243.8 Fume Cupboards and AS 2243.9 Recirculating Fume
Cupboards, detail certain testing and maintenance that must be carried out by a competent person on
fume cupboards at 6– and 12–monthly intervals.
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3. CHEMICAL MANAGEMENT
3.1 ORGANISATION
3.1.1 INTRODUCTION
All aspects of packaging, labelling, recording, storing, handling and disposing of chemicals are governed
by the following codes:
(a) the National Code of Practice to Control Workplace Hazardous Substances;
(b) the Australian Code for the Transport of Dangerous Goods;
(c) the Workplace Health and Safety Act and Regulations; and
(d) the Poisons Regulations of 1973; and
(e) the Sewerage and Water Supply Act 1949-1982.
The information contained here is in accordance with the regulations of the above codes and complies
with recommendations of the Hazardous Waste Unit of the Division of Environment and Occupational
Health, Queensland Government Department of Health and the Government Chemical Laboratory.
School personnel can refer to the information provided to ascertain the specific hazard associated with
particular substances, the appropriate handling procedures, and the necessary action required in case of
spills. The first source of reference, however, should be Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS).
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If schools currently hold stocks of chemicals that are not on the direct delivery list, they should contact
the distributor, manufacturer or the Regional Occupational Health and Safety Adviser to obtain hazard,
spill and disposal procedures for those substances.
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ASPECTS OF S CIENCE M ANAGEMENT
or near other ‘traffic areas’ because they might explode or release poisonous gases during a
fire.
(b) Shelving must be strong enough to bear the weight of materials stored; deep enough to allow
safe placement without the risk of containers being accidentally dropped; appropriately
spaced so that labels are readily seen and containers can be reached safely; and of
sufficient number to prevent overcrowding of containers. Usually, shelving would be of solid
wood (not particleboard), with chemicals arranged in alphabetical order.
(c) All containers should be marked with their date of receipt at the school.
(d) Containers of chemicals should be rotated on the shelves so that old stocks are used first.
(e) Metal containers and/or metal lids should be avoided as they can corrode over time.
(f) Chemicals, especially solvents, should not be stored above eye level. This avoids the
possibility of spilling chemicals while removing them from the shelves.
(g) Concentrated acids and alkalis should be stored at floor level and standing in a tray large
enough to contain a substantial spill. Some schools have a specially made lead-lined trough
to accommodate all acids, alkalis and solvents. Others use a tray that is lead-lined or a
plastic tote box.
(h) Flammable liquids must be stored well away from sources of heat. Fireproof cupboards are
desired specifically for the safe containment of flammable liquids. Highly flammable liquids
may be stored in refrigerators provided the refrigerators have been modified to prevent
internal sparking.
Safety is a key word when handling chemicals.
A. Some basic handling procedures
(a) All reagent bottles should be properly sealed and they should be picked up by the body of
the bottle.
(b) When removing a glass stopper, twist it as the lifting force is applied, holding the base firmly
to the table.
(c) When pouring liquids, ensure that the label is at the top. This prevents the destruction of the
label by the excess liquid that often moves across the lower outside surface of the bottle. It
also minimises skin contact with any leakage on that side of the bottle.
(d) The exterior of a reagent bottle should be cleaned of spilt liquid after use.
(e) All reagent bottles must be clearly labelled.
(f) Solid reagents should be taken from the container with a spatula, tongs or other suitable
device. Shaking of materials from bottles usually results in wastage.
(g) Screw tops should be tightened to prevent the free access of air, as some reagents will react
with oxygen and/or water vapour and/or carbon dioxide in the air. Some tops have the
added security of self-adhesive plastic tape around the cap. This should be replaced after
use if damaged, and after its adhesive property has diminished.
B. General safety rules for chemicals
(a) Never touch a chemical; gloves should be worn especially when handling bottles of
poisonous or corrosive chemicals; goggles should be worn when heating chemicals or
whenever there is danger of ‘spitting’, as, for example, when making a dilute solution of
sulfuric acid.
(b) Never directly inhale over an opened container. Instead, fan some of the vapour with the
hand towards the nose.
(c) Volatile liquids should always be handled in the fume cupboard, taking care not to expose
the skin to the vapour. Many volatile liquids are extremely flammable and should not be
uncorked near an exposed flame.
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(d) Always handle chemicals with tools. Never allow the skin to come into direct contact, as
some materials are absorbed through the skin.
(e) Wash your hands after handling chemicals and when leaving the laboratory.
(f) Never leave unlabelled chemicals in any position. Partially completed experiments should be
labelled.
(g) When pouring liquids from a bottle hold the bottle by its side to avoid the danger of burns
from skin contact with chemicals.
(h) Never look down over a container to observe a reaction, as spitting may occur.
(i) If possible, always add the more reactive material to the less active material.
(j) Do not eat food in the laboratory or preparation room.
(k) Be familiar with the position and contents of the first aid kit, and the procedures to follow in
case of accident.
C. Reactive combinations requiring special precautions
Some reactive combinations requiring special care or complete avoidance have been outlined
below. A comprehensive list of incompatible chemical combinations can be found in Section
3.1.5.3, in Incompatible substances. Also keep in mind that reactions are generally more vigorous
when the materials are finely divided.
(a) Carbonates, nitrites, sulfides and sulfites react vigorously with acids, producing gases such
as carbon dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide, and sulfur dioxide. Because of the
poisonous nature of such gases any such reactions should, in general, be carried out in a
fume cupboard. Although carbon dioxide, in the quantities that usually are prepared, is not
dangerous, the reaction between powdered carbonates and acids is often extremely
vigorous.
(b) Concentrated sulfuric acid and concentrated or dilute nitric acid react vigorously with metals
to produce poisonous sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen respectively. Such reactions must
be performed in a fume cupboard.
(c) Concentrated sulfuric acid mixed with chlorides, bromides or iodides produces poisonous
irritating gases. Such reactions should be carried out in a fume cupboard.
(d) Potassium, sodium, lithium, calcium, lithium hydride, the oxides of sodium, potassium or
calcium (quicklime), the chlorides of phosphorus and calcium carbide with water should be
avoided.
(e) Potassium, sodium, lithium, calcium, magnesium powder, aluminium powder with acids
should be avoided.
(f) Powdered aluminium or powdered zinc with alkalis should be avoided.
(g) Oxidising and reducing agents ground together in a mortar should be avoided.
D. Safe storage of chemicals
Some of the points listed below will be reiterated in a later section pertaining to science facilities
and equipment. Some crucial general points to be noted are:
(a) All dangerous or poisonous chemicals and materials must be stored in locked cupboards in
preparation rooms, or in locked store rooms.
(b) In general it is unwise to keep chemicals in laboratory display cupboards or on side benches
except for the following purposes:
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For the latter, reagents should be placed on racks which can be removed or locked away
after a lesson. Check also with the Head of Department on the special problems associated
with handling such chemicals.
(c) Here are a few ‘Don’ts’
(i) Do not store flammable chemicals in cupboards above benches where heating
devices such as bunsen burners are used. Store flammables below bench level.
(ii) Do not use any flammable chemicals on a bench on which a heating device such as a
bunsen is being used.
(iii) Do not store oxidising agents near ‘oxidisables’ (i.e. reducing agents), and be careful
to choose a cool place to store oxidising agents.
Oxidising agents hydrogen peroxide; nitric acid, sulfuric acid, lead IV oxide
(peroxide); lead II, III, IV oxide (red lead), manganese IV oxide (dioxide), any
chlorates, chromates, dichromates, iodates, nitrates; permanganates (manganate VII),
iodine, bromine, cylinders of oxygen or chlorine.
Oxidisables (reducing agents) carbon; carbon compounds such as wood, paper,
cotton, sugars, starch, and any organic solvents, e.g. alcohols; metals, nitrites;
phosphorus; sulfur, sulfites, thiosulfates; chlorides, bromides, iodides.
(iv) Do not stand bottles of concentrated acid on wood shelving. Store bottles of
concentrated acids on lead-lined shelves at floor level. If lead-lined shelves are not
available, store bottles of concentrated acids at floor level, preferably on sheet lead.
Do not store metals near acids.
• Do not store ammonia bottles near hydrochloric acid bottles as gases from these
interact.
• Do not store iodine bottles with other chemicals unless the iodine bottles are
placed inside a larger sealed jar, as iodine vapour is very corrosive of metal lids
and metal fittings.
• Do not store methanal (formalin) solutions in the same cupboard as hydrochloric
acid as the vapours of the two solutions interact to form a carcinogen.
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Incompatible substances
The following mixtures are some of the chemical combinations which can be dangerous, either at
room temperature or when heated. Do not allow contact between Group A and Group B
substances except under the specific conditions outlined in the following table.
Group A Group B
Alkali metals —Ca, K, Na H 2O, CO2, halogenated hydrocarbons, mercury, acids (use pieces of metal less than half pea-
size when reacting Na with H2O).
Acetic acid Chromic acid, nitric acid, perchloric acid, peroxides, perchlorates and permanganates.
Aluminium dust Oxides or oxidising agents, chlorinated hydrocarbons, sulfur, alcohols, silver nitrate.
Acetone Concentrated sulfuric acid and nitric acid mixtures and oxidising agents.
Acetylene Cop per (tubing), fluorine, bromine, chlorine, iodine, silver, mercury or their compounds.
Ammonia, anhydrous Mercury, halogens, calcium hypochlorite, hydrogen fluoride, perchloric acid and silver.
Unused ammoniacal silver nitrate solutions should not be allowed to stand. The silver should
be precipitated with NaCl. Do not put ammoniacal silver nitrate in with silver residues.
Ammonium nitrate Acids, metal powders, flammable liquids, chlorates, nitrates, sulfur and finely divided
organic substances or combustible substances.
Bromine Ammonia, acetylene, butane, hydrogen, turpentine, and finely divided metals, acetone, ether,
ethanol.
Chlorates Ammonia, ammonium salts, acids, metal powders, sulfur, finely divided organics or
combustibles, carbon.
Chromic acid Acetic acid, naphthalene, camphor, alcohols, glycerine, turpentine and other flammable
liquids, organic substances and sulfur, finely divided metals.
Chlorine Ammonia, acetylene, petroleum fractions, hydrogen, turpentine and finely divided metal or
powders.
Hydrogen peroxide Copper, chromium, iron, most metals and their respective salts, flammable liquids and other
combustible materials, aniline, acids.
Nitric acid Acetic acid, chromic acid and hydrocyanic acid, aniline, carbon, hydrogen sulfide, flammable
substances or substances already nitrated, organic substances.
Oxygen Oils, greases, hydrogen, flammable liquids, solids and gases. (Grease should be kept away
from cylinders of oxygen and their fittings.) If it is desired to demonstrate the burning of
hydrogen at the end of the delivery tube from a flask of acid and zinc, protect the whole
apparatus with a wire gauze or plastic safety screen.
Oxides and strong Magnesium or aluminium powders, finely divided organic substances, flour, sugar, powdered
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Group A Group B
Perchloric acid Acetic anhydride, bismuth and its alloys, alcohol, paper, wood and other organic materials,
oils, greases or ammonia.
Potassium permanganate Glycerine, sulfuric acid, organic substances, metals, sulfur, phosphorus, hydrogen peroxide.
Silver Nitric acid -ethyl alcohol mixtures. Ammoniacal silver nitrate solutions should not be allowed
to stand. The silver should be precipitated with NaCl. Do not put ammoniacal silver nitrate
solutions in with silver residues.
Finely divided organic Strong oxidising agents (use only small quantities as in reaction of sugar with concentrated
substances, flour, starch, acid).
sugar, milk powders
Sodium peroxide Any oxidisable substance, methanol, acetic acid, acetic anhydride, carbon disulfide, glycerine,
ethyl acetate, carbon, organic substances, fine metals.
Other chemicals
• Carbon disulfide
Carbon disulfide is an extremely dangerous chemical since it can undergo ignition in air, not
only from a spark or naked flame, but also from a hot object (e.g. a tripod stand). Rooms in
which carbon disulfide is being used should be well ventilated and free from naked flames and
any hot objects.
• Residues should not be poured into the sink, but burnt in small quantities in an open flat dish in a
fume cupboard with forced ventilation.
• Phosphorus (yellow/white)
Phosphorus should be stored under water, in a wide -mouth glass bottle with a glass stopper or
screw lid. The bottle should be placed in an open vessel containing sand and kept well away
from flammable liquids and heat-sensitive solids. If the phosphorus has been supplied in a metal
tin, then it must be transferred into a glass container. Fill the container two-thirds with water;
then use tongs to transfer the phosphorus with minimum exposure to air. The level of fluid in
the bottle should be checked periodically. Before handling phosphorus, prepare a dilute solution
of copper sulfate (30 g in a litre of water) in a shallow non-metallic dish. If yellow phosphorus
touches the skin, immerse the affected part immediately and scrape off any obvious pieces of
phosphorus. Cover the injury with a wet dressing and seek medical attention.
When cutting:
(a) Use tongs to transfer a piece of phosphorus to a dish containing about 10 cm of water.
(b) Use the tongs to steady the phosphorus and cut it under water with a knife. A piece no
larger than half the size of a pea should be used.
(c) Do not handle with the fingers.
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When burning:
(a) Because the phosphorus pentoxide gas produced when phosphorus burns in air is quite
toxic, the piece of phosphorus should be transferred to a gas jar or similar container by a
deflagrating spoon as soon as possible. Avoid breathing the gas and conduct the
experiment in a well-ventilated area or fume cupboard.
(b) Dry phosphorus ignites spontaneously when exposed to the air.
• Diethyl ether
Diethyl ether is an extremely dangerous chemical since it can undergo ignition in air, not
only from a spark or naked flame, but also from a hot object (e.g. a tripod stand). Diethyl
ether, in contact with air or direct sunlight for an extended period of time can form
peroxides which are unstable and can explode due to friction. For this reason, diethyl ether
should be stored in an amber glass bottle away from direct sunlight and should be disposed
of after three years.
• Sodium
Sodium should be stored under kerosene or paraffin oil, in a wide -mouthed glass bottle with
a glass stopper or screw lid. The bottle should be placed in an open vessel containing sand
and kept well away from flammable liquids and heat-sensitive solids. If the sodium has been
supplied in a metal tin then it must be transferred into a glass container. Fill the container
two-thirds with kerosene; then use tongs to transfer the sodium with minimum exposure to
air. The level of fluid in the bottle should be checked periodically. If sodium falls on the skin,
remove the metal quickly and flood the area with water for several minutes. Seek medical
attention. In the event of a fire from sodium, cover the sodium with dry sand, remove it on a
spade to waste ground and ignite it or allow it to react completely with water. Sodium
tarnishes on exposure to air and reacts violently with water and water vapour.
When cutting:
(a) Use tongs to transfer a piece of sodium to a dish containing about 3 cm of kerosene.
(b) Use the tongs to steady the sodium and cut it under kerosene with a knife. A piece no
larger than half the size of a pea should be used.
(c) Do not handle with the fingers.
When demonstrating the reaction between sodium and water, students should be at least
one metre away from the container in which the reaction is to take place or a very small
piece of sodium (match-head size) may be placed in a 1 L beaker which can be covered
with a gauze mat.
• Mercury
Mercury must not be heated.
Occupational poisoning by mercury and its inorganic compounds is usually of the chronic
type, and the vapour of metallic mercury is the most common source of exposure. Mercury
gains access to the body mainly through the respiratory tract. The volatility of mercury,
which vaporises at room temperature, and the tendency of spilled mercury to form
innumerable small droplets are properties which contribute to the difficulty of avoiding
dangerous exposure.
The effects of continuous exposure to small concentrations of mercury vapour or inorganic
mercury salts are tremor of the hands, insomnia, irritability and depression; in other words, a
change of temperament is noticeable. Organic mercury compounds, especially those
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which exist as liquids and dusts, may also be absorbed as vapour and dust through the lungs,
with much the same symptoms as above. In addition, organic mercurial dusts have an
irritating effect on the skin and cause blistering.
Spillages should be cleaned up as quickly as possible. Procedures for cleaning could include:
(a) collect droplets of mercury with a small pipette fitted with a rubber pipette filler;
(b) discard to a waste bottle;
(c) cover the area with lime-sulfur or sulfur powder and leave for 24 hours;
(d) sweep the area thoroughly, collect the waste lime and mercury and discard to a
designated waste bottle; and
(e) the area should be washed and scrubbed.
A tray (not aluminium) should be used under apparatus containing mercury in the event of a
spill. Mercury surfaces should not be left exposed to the air and any transference from one
container to another should be done in a fume cupboard.
Acids/alkalis
Small quantities of dilute acids and alkalis can be disposed of by washing to waste with
running water.
Flammable liquids
Flammable liquids that are immiscible (do not mix) with water should not be disposed of
down the sink. Large amounts can be disposed of by burning in small quantities in a shallow
tray in an open area or by evaporation in open areas or fume cupboards with forced
ventilation.
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Solids
It is best to keep waste paper and rags separate from solid wastes. Place them in different
containers. Some solid residues (e.g. sodium peroxide, chlorates etc.) could, on drying, set
fire to paper and rags.
Never put solids down the sink. Collect solid wastes in a suitable container and label. Small
quantities of solid wastes can be disposed of in normal refuse.
Be careful about putting different solids in the same container. Two substances which by
themselves are harmless may become very reactive when in contact with each other
refer to the section on Incompatible substances Section 3.1.5.3
If solutions of heavy metal salts from practical work have been collected, then wastes
should be evaporated to near-dryness in the fume cupboard and the remaining sediment
stored for disposal when storage becomes a problem.
Unwanted chemicals
Over time, some schools may have accumulated an excess of some chemicals (e.g.
phosphorus), from years of over-ordering or over-supply. Also, some chemicals are no
longer used in existing courses. Schools should store only those chemicals that are required
for current courses. Quantities held should not exceed 2 or 3 years’ requirements. The
major chemical companies have indicated that many chemicals have a shelf life of 2 to 3
years once opened and that plastic containers will not be guaranteed past 5 years.
Consult MSDS for further details.
3.1.7.2 Methods of disposal
Schools should dispose of excess chemicals no longer required. Refer to the following tables
for the method of disposal. Every attempt should be made to dispose of as much as possible
locally. Consult MSDS for further information.
Table 1: Method of disposal codes outlines a number of disposal procedures which are
identified by an alphabetic code that needs to be read in conjunction with Table 2: Disposal
information, which lists chemicals, their required disposal method, and other classification
requirements such as class, risk and United Nations Number.
A Dilute with a large volume of water by adding acid to water, neutralise with sodium carbonate and wash to
waste with running water.
B Dilute, neutralise with dilute hydrochloric acid and wash to waste with running water.
C Add a little at a time to a large quantity of water to dissolve. Wash to waste with running water.
E Dissolve in water, add excess saturated sodium sulfate solution and allow to stand. Wash filtrate to waste
with running water. Precipitate may be discarded in normal refuse.
F Add to dilute strong alkali solution and discard to waste with running water. This should be done in a
fume cupboard.
G Wear eye protection. In a fume cupboard, add small amounts at a time to water in a trough or basin and
leave until the reaction is complete. Wash to waste with running water.
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leave until the reaction is complete. Wash to waste with running water.
H Place on a shallow tray in the fume cupboard and allow to evaporate with forced ventilation.
I Dissolve in water, add excess calcium chloride solution and allow to stand. Wash the filtrate to waste with
running water. Precipitate may be discarded in normal refuse.
J Outside agency, e.g. Government Chemical Laboratory (GCL) or private chemical disposal company.
K Dispose with normal refuse. (Be considerate of cleaners and deposit discarded bottles and chemicals in the
industrial bin. Bottles of chemicals should not be left for cleaners.)
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20418 DIBUTYLPHTHALATE K
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20537 GLUCOSE D
20540 GLYCEROL D
20543 GRAPHITE K
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20593 LACTOSE K
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20640 MANNITOL K
20688 PENTAN-1-OL C
20695 PEPSIN K
20708 PHENOLPHTHALEIN K
20714 PHLOROGLUCINOL J
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20806 SAFRANIN 0 K
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20922 SUCROSE K
20933 SUDAN IV K
20946 TES-TAPE K
20969 UREA K
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20978 ZEPHIRAN D
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(h) For outer packaging, choose sturdy cardboard boxes, preferably ones in which
chemicals have arrived. Each carton must contain no more than 5kg or 5L of
chemicals.
(i) When packing liquids, use an unreactive packing material, e.g. vermiculite (kitty litter)
or diatomaceous earth, that will absorb the liquid in the event of a spill. When packing
solids, use a packing material that will not react with the chemicals if they are spilt.
Packing should be placed below, around and above containers.
(j) The outside of each carton must have a label carrying the following information:
• the chemical names;
• the UN No. (United Nations number) for each chemical;
• the class label (one class per carton) and their subsidiary risk label, if one applies;
• name and address of the consignor (the principal and school address).
Advice regarding the UN No. and the class label can be obtained from your school-
based Workplace Health and Safety representative or from the Regional
Occupational, Health and Safety Adviser.
(k) Photocopy the sample shipping document (see Table 5: Shipping documentation) and
complete (even for road and rail).
(l) Obtain Emergency Procedure Guides (EPGs) from the Standards Association of
Australia (refer to Table 4).
(m) Attach the shipping document to the EPGs and deliver to the transport company or
railway.
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DIAMINOHEXANE 2280 8
(HEXAMETHYLENEDIAMINE)
IODINE 1759 8
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(i) As above, the liquid may be massed (in a small beaker). However, more frequently
the calculated volume of liquid is carefully measured out using a pipette or measuring
cylinder.
(ii) Note: Pipettes must not be used for any concentrated acid or alkali, or for any other
volatile or poisonous liquid.
(iii) Pour small quantities of the liquid solute down a stirring rod into a small quantity of
solvent. Stir frequently. Finally, rinse the container from which the solute was poured
with small quantities of the solvent. Pour all rinsings into the solution and dilute the
solution to the desired volume.
(iv) As in (a), modify the above procedures if a solvent other than water is to be used.
Dilution of acids and alkalis
(a) Acids and alkalis are dangerous materials, especially when they are concentrated. Have
calcium carbonate (whiting or chalk), or sodium bicarbonate, on hand when diluting acids.
Goggles and gloves should be used. The dangerous acids and alkalis that are commonly
used in schools are:
• glacial ethanoic (acetic) acid
• concentrated hydrochloric (muriatic) acid
• nitric acid
• sulfuric acid
• ammonia solution (ammonium hydroxide)
• potassium hydroxide (caustic potash)
• sodium hydroxide (caustic soda)
(b) Glacial ethanoic (acetic) acid, concentrated hydrochloric acid, concentrated nitric acid and
ammonia produce poisonous or extremely irritating gases or vapours. Bottles of these acids
should be carefully unstoppered in a fume cupboard.
(c) All concentrated acids should be diluted in a glass beaker, by carefully ADDING THE
CONCENTRATED ACID IN SMALL QUANTITIES TO WATER WITH
CONTINUAL STIRRING, never by adding water to the acid. This general precaution is
especially important when diluting sulfuric acid, as large quantities of heat are produced
when concentrated sulfuric acid is mixed with water. Dangerous spitting, hazardous to eyes,
skin and clothing, can result from the addition of water to the acid or from the too rapid
addition of the acid to water. Allow the solution to cool before transferring to stock bottles.
(d) Sodium and potassium hydroxides are supplied in solid form, usually as pellets. Bottles of
these solid alkalis must be kept airtight as the solids are hygroscopic (absorb water).
Frequently the pellets aggregate into a solid mass in the bottle and this solid mass should be
carefully dislodged with a stainless steel spatula, sealing the bottle as quickly as possible
after removal of the desired solid. These solids must also be weighed quickly because of
their tendency to absorb water vapour from the air. Dissolve the pellets in cold water with
stirring, using a glass beaker, not a plastic container. As the solution generates a large
amount of heat, it should be continually stirred until the solid has dissolved. Then allow the
solution to cool before transferring it to stock bottles. Further dilution to the final desired
volume in the stock bottle may be necessary. Stopper the bottle firmly and invert several
times to mix. All bottles containing solutions of alkalis should be sealed either with plastic
screw tops or rubber stoppers, as alkalis attack glass stoppers making them hard to
dislodge.
(e) Ammonia solution 10% (ammonium hydroxide) produces dangerous irritating ammonia
fumes. Bottles of ammonia solution should be carefully unstoppered in a fume cupboard to
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prevent damage to eyes from the fumes. Dilute by adding ammonia solution to water in a
fume cupboard.
(f) Limewater (calcium hydroxide solution). This is a weak alkali that is made up by adding
slaked lime (calcium hydroxide solid) to distilled water in a large stock bottle. Shake
vigorously and allow to stand. Calcium hydroxide solid is only slightly soluble in water.
When the white solid has settled as a fine white sediment, carefully siphon off or pour off
the clear limewater above the sediment without disturbing the sediment. To replenish the
limewater, add more distilled water to the sediment in the stock bottle, shake and allow to
settle. The settling process to produce clear limewater may take several days. The clear
limewater prepared as above may be diluted 1:2 as desired.
(g) Note: Goggles and protective rubber gloves should be worn when carrying out dilutions of
concentrated acids or alkalis, but special care should be taken to ensure that the outside
surfaces of gloves and bottles are dry to avoid accidental slipping of bottles when handled.
Any acid or alkali that contacts the skin should be immediately washed off with copious
quantities of water. Then apply dilute sodium bicarbonate solution to the affected area (for
acid burns) or very dilute acetic acid or vinegar solution or boracic acid (for alkali burns) to
neutralise traces of the acid or alkali. Any spills of acids or alkalis should be diluted as
above, before mopping up. For large spills, solid neutralisers such as solid sodium
bicarbonate or whiting (for acids) and solid citric acid (for alkalis) should be used.
(h) Because of constant use, reagent solutions and solids must be constantly checked and
replaced where necessary from stock bottles. The reagent bottles should be labelled with
the name of the substance and the concentration of the solution.
Note: Unused reagents should never be returned to the stock bottles.
The following section lists the acids and alkalis most commonly used and states their
approximate strength as supplied in stock.
Stock solutions of acids and alkalis
(a) Acids: Hydrochloric acid-10 molar-10M
Sulfuric acid-18 molar-18M
Nitric acid -16 molar-16M
Ethanoic (acetic acid) glacial-17 molar-17M
(b) When diluting acids
Hydrochloric acid (10M) to 4M dilute 400mL of the stock solution to 1 litre with water.
Sulfuric acid (18M) to 2M 111mL of 18M acid is poured slowly, while stirring, into
800mL of water. Allow to cool.
The whole is then dilute d to 1 litre with water
Nitric acid (16M) to 4M 250mL of acid is diluted to 1 litre with water.
(c) Alkalis
Sodium hydroxide, 4M to produce a 4M solution, dissolve 160g of the solid in 500mL of
water and dilute to 1 litre.
Calcium hydroxide (limewater) add 125g of slaked lime to one large bottle (about 3 litre
capacity) of water and shake. When the excess settles, the clear solution may be siphoned
into containers as needed.
Potassium hydroxide, 4M to produce a 4M solution dissolve 224g of the solid in water
and dilute to 1 litre.
Ammonia solution (ammonium hydroxide), this is supplied as a 10% solution, approximately
6M. For normal class use, a solution of 2M concentration is commonly made. Dilute 330mL
of 10% ammonia solution to one litre.
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Where concentrations other than those shown in Table 6 are required, simple calculations are
necessary to find the correct quantity of solute and/or solvent needed.
If the solution required is more concentrated, more solute is Suppose 4M sodium hydroxide is required. The table gives
required to be dissolved in the same volume (here, one litre) the quantity of solid (80g) required to make 1 litre of 2M
of solution. solution.
4M is 2 = 2 x concentration of 2M.
Thus 2 x 80g = 160g NaOH must be dissolved in 1 litre to
make a 4M solution.
If the solution required is less concentrated, less solute is Suppose 0.01M sodium iodide is required. The table gives
required to be dissolved in the same volume (here one litre) the quantity of solid (15g) required to make 1 litre of 0.1M
of solution. solution.
0.01M is one-tenth
as concentrated as 0.1M.
Therefore one-tenth of 15g is required, i.e. 1.5g so 1.5g of
sodium iodide must be dissolved in 1 litre to make a 0.01M
solution.
If larger or smaller volumes of solutes are required, Suppose a Winchester bottle (2.4 litres) of 2 M sulphuric
appropriate conversion factors must be used. A frequently acid is required. From Table 6,
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lg iodine crystals
2g potassium iodide
100mL distilled water
Dissolve potassium iodide first in water then add iodine crystals. Besides being a test for starch, iodine
solution is useful in dissolving mercury (II) chloride from tissue that has been preserved in a fixative
containing that chemical.
Sodium thiosulfate solution
5g of sodium thiosulfate dissolved in 100mL distilled water decolorises and washes iodine from tissue.
Scott's blueing solution
Scott’s blueing solution is used instead of tap water when tissues are washed during staining processes,
particularly with haematoxylin to develop blue colour. The solution is made as follows:
2g sodium bicarbonate
20g magnesium sulphate
1 litre distilled water.
Saline
9g sodium chloride dissolved in 1 litre of distilled water makes a saline solution suitable for many
biological purposes.
Ringer solution
Ringer solution can be made as follows:
0.9g sodium chloride
0.042g potassium chloride
0.025g calcium chloride
100mL distilled water (This must be prepared fresh before use.)
3.2.4.2 Adhesives
These are used to stick sections, small animals etc. to microscope slides.
Haupt's adhesive
1g gelatine dissolved in 100mL distilled water at 30 oC in a water bath or oven. Add 2g phenol crystals
and 15mL glycerin. Stir, cool and filter.
Meyer's albumen
Beat an egg white until well broken up, but not stiff. Pour into a tall cylinder, allow to stand overnight.
Collect liquid from bottom. Add to it equal volume of glycerin. May be filtered, but it is not necessary.
Add a crystal of thymol to prevent growth of fungus.
Glycerine jelly
Glycerine jelly is made as follows:
10g gelatine
70mL glycerine
1g phenol crystals
60mL distilled water.
Soak the gelatine in the water for about 2 hours. Add the glycerine and phenol. Heat the solution gently
in a water bath and then let it cool. To soften the jelly before embedding material, heat up to a
maximum temperature of 40oC (e.g. in a water bath).
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3.2.4.3 Stains
Acetocarmine
Acetocarmine is made as follows:
• concentrated ethanoic acid (glacial acetic acid) 45mL
• 0.5g carmine
• 55mL distilled water
Aceto-orcein stain
Aceto-orcein stain is used as a chromosome stain for smears and squashes. It is made as follows:
• add lg of synthetic orcein (e.g. Gurr's or BDH) to 25mL concentrated ethanoic acid (glacial
acetic acid) and 20mL distilled water;
• boil for 4 to 5 minutes no longer in a narrow-necked flask, fitted with a glass filter
funnel to act as a condenser, then filter the solution while still hot;
• add 5mL concentrated ethanoic acid and stir to dissolve any orcein appearing on the surface
of the mixture after filtration.
Three or 4 drops of glycerol may be added if desired. This helps to retard evaporation of the stain from
temporary squash mounts. Aceto-orcein stain keeps for years if tightly stoppered, but may require
refiltration after prolonged standing.
Acetic alcohol
Mix 99mL 70% ethanol with 99mL concentrated ethanoic acid. This solution should be prepared
immediately before use.
Alcoholic -hydrochloric acid-carmine stain
Alcoholic-hydrochloric acid-carmine stain is made as follows:
• 4g carmine
• 1mL conc. hydrochloric acid
• 15mL distilled water
Boil gently in a fume cupboard for 10 minutes with continuous stirring. Cool, and add 95mL 85%
ethanol (alcohol). Filter.
Aniline hydrochloride
Prepare a saturated solution in distilled water, filter, then add a few drops of hydrochloric acid until the
solution is distinctly acid. CAUTION use gloves.
Aniline sulfate
Prepare as for the hydrochloride, but use sulfuric acid. CAUTION use gloves.
Counter stains
These are used to stain cell walls and cell contents.
(a) Eosin (stock solution for animal tissues)
1g Eosin Y powder
1000mL 70% ethyl alcohol (ethanol)
5mL glacial acetic (ethanoic) acid
Use this stain by diluting 100mL of it with 100mL 70% alcohol, add 2-3 drops of glacial
acetic (ethanoic) acid.
(b) Orange G (for botanical tissues)
0.5g powder dissolved in 100mL 95% alcohol.
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2,6-Dichlorophenol-indophenol
2,6-Dichlorophenol-indophenol is used to show action of enzymes such as succinic dehydrogenase, and
the action of chloroplasts when exposed to light. It is also used to test for vitamin C.
It is made as follows:
• 4g carmine and 1mL conc. hydrochloric acid is added to 15mL distilled water;
• boil gently in a fume cupboard for 10 minutes with continuous stirring;
• cool, and add 95mL 85% ethanol (alcohol);
• filter,
• add 1g 2,6-Dichlorophenol-indophenol and 1L water.
Gram stain
1g Gentian violet (or crystal violet)
100mL distilled water
Haematoxylin
Haematoxylin is a most important natural dye and also the most expensive. A stock solution of 10%
haematoxylin in 95% alcohol is very useful in the laboratory. From this, various staining solutions are
prepared easily. Haematoxylin is particularly useful in showing nuclei in plant and animal cells.
There are various types of haematoxylin. Weigert's haematoxylin is used for animal tissue, Delafield's
haematoxylin for botanical tissue and Heidenhain iron haematoxylin for both.
(a) Weigert's iron haematoxylin
(Part A)
2.5g iron (III) chloride FeCl3.6H 2O
4.5g iron (II) sulfate FeS0 4.7H2O
2mL hydrochloric acid
298mL distilled water
(Part B)
1g haematoxylin
100mL 95% ethanol
The two solutions may be kept separately for years. Mix 1 part of B to 3 parts of A just before
use. This mixture has a shelf-life of 2-3 weeks.
(b) Heidenhain iron haematoxylin
(Part A)
4g FeNH4(S04)2.12H 2O (Ferric alum i.e. Iron (III) ammonium sulfate)
100mL distilled water
(Part B)
10g haematoxylin
100mL 95% ethanol
Mix equal quantities of A and B. The mixture is useful for a few hours only. Solution A is used as
a mordant and B is for staining.
(c) Delafield’s haematoxylin
Delafield’s haematoxylin can be obtained in powder form and made up to 1% Delafield’s
haematoxylin in 20% alcohol, or prepare the stain from ordinary haematoxylin, by:
• dissolving 4g of powder in 25mL absolute ethanol;
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10mL 5% ethanol
100mL distilled water
Dissolve the safranin in ethanol then add the water.
A 1% aqueous solution of safranin can be used to stain lignin in plant cells.
Schulze's solution (chlor-zinc-iodine)
20g zinc chloride
9.5mL distilled water
Dissolve in warm water, then cool, add drop by drop the following solution until a persistent precipitate
of iodine forms:
0.5g iodine
1g potassium iodide
20mL distilled water.
About 1.5mL of this iodine solution is required.
3.2.4.4 Fixatives
For plant material:
FAA Formalin (40% methanal) 5mL
Ethanol (alcohol), 70% 90mL
Ethanoic (acetic) acid, glacial 5mL
CRAF Chromic acid, 1% 40mL
Formalin (40% methanal) l0mL
Ethanoic (acetic) acid, glacial 5mL
Distilled water 5mL
Aceto-alcohol Absolute ethanol (alcohol) 30mL
Ethanoic (acetic) acid, glacial l0mL
Mix immediately before use, discard after 1 hour.
For animal material:
Formol-saline
(for marine animals) Formalin (40% methanal) l00mL
Sodium chloride, 10% solution 7mL
Distilled water 83mL
Zenker's Fluid Potassium dichromate 2.5g
Mercury II chloride 5.8g
Distilled water 95mL
Ethanoic (acetic) acid, glacial 5mL
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General comments
The number of deaths that occur in Australia each year from occupational exposure to hazardous
substances has been estimated to be about 2300 (reported by Worksafe Australia from National
Institute of Occupational Health and Safety Report, April 1996). Countless other people have had
their health severely affected in ways that limit their efficiency and change their quality of life.
These findings have led to significant recent changes in national and Queensland legislation. These
changes require additional emphasis of certain aspects already detailed in Aspects of Science
Management: A Reference Manual for Schools. There are also extended mandatory obligations of
the principal, teachers and all other people at each school, particularly with respect use of hazardous
substances and specified dangerous goods.
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A number of changes have also been made to legislation affecting electrical safety, which mainly
affect the use of safety switches such as earth-leakage devices (see section 4.2.9 in this binder).
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know this information or to supply Material Safety Data Sheets, may still do so and should at least be
able to give details of the supplier and facilitate such communication.
The National Code of Practice for the Labelling of Workplace Substances
([NOHSC:2012(1994)], section 7) specifies that a container label should indicate that a substance is
hazardous in the following ways:
• by the use of the signal words, ‘Warning’, ‘Poison’, or ‘Dangerous Poison’ (as may be required by
poisons legislation), or
• by the presence of diamond-shaped class labels indicating that the substance is dangerous according
to the Australian Dangerous Goods Code.
In each of these situations, the substance is most probably (but not certainly) a designated hazardous
substance. Where the signal word ‘HAZARDOUS’ is highlighted on the label, the substance is a
designated hazardous substance.
Another way of determining whether a product is a ‘hazardous substance’ is to look at the Material
Safety Data Sheet for the product. If the health hazard information section specifies the following
descriptions as effects of the product on the skin, eyes, or respiratory system or if swallowed by the
person, then the substance is almost certainly hazardous under the legislation:
• Very toxic • Irritant
• Toxic • Carcinogen
• Harmful • Mutagen
• Very corrosive • Teratogen
• Corrosive
Once a product is diluted or mixed with another substance, advice should be sought as to whether the
substance is still designated as being hazardous. Alternatively, for dilution effects, one could refer to
the concentration cut-off levels in the ‘List of Designate d Hazardous Substances’ and determine
whether the diluted product is now below the lowest cut-off concentration specified for the designated
hazardous substance. For example, equal to or above 5.0 % (w/w) ammonia solutions are designated
as being an irritant. Equal to or above 10 %, they are designated as being corrosive. Below 5.0 %, they
are no longer designated a hazardous substance although care with their use is still desirable.
When considering the effect of mixing products with other substances, one should follow any
manufacturer’s instructions. Through contact of input ingredients in mixtures with unsuitable
substances, new substances may be generated which themselves could pose risks to the users through
additive effects due to their chemical nature. In science activities, reference books and procedures
should be consulted prior to the practical activity producing chemical compounds.
Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) and registers
Section 3.3 in this manual substantially addresses the use and value of MSDS. It is mandatory that an
MSDS be available for every hazardous substance and that anyone using such substances undergo
recorded training to understand their use. Copies of MSDS must be accessible to all people using a
hazardous substance as well as those working nearby.
The (Hazardous Substances) Advisory Standard or Code of Practice for the Management of
Hazardous Substances outlines the proper approach to this information gathering and the risk
assessment and control process. This process has been outlined in Chapters 1 and 2.
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This management of hazardous substances is detailed practically in Guidance Note for the
Assessment of Health Risks Arising from the Use of Hazardous Substances in the Workplace
[NOHSC:3017(1994)], Worksafe Australia. Useful examples of registers and assessments are given.
It is mandatory that a register be available to provide a listing of every hazardous substance used
related to a corresponding MSDS. The form of the register is not prescribed. Table 1 shows one
example from the above reference but it has been modified to assist management of the recording
process. It is important to have the same sequence relationship between the register and order of filed
MSDS to facilitate location of an MSDS.
Preparation of this register should be dynamic. Initially, only each identified hazardous substance’s
name is recorded into the required column. The use of an ID number and location are optional.
Then, as the MSDS for each hazardous substance is obtained, the date of its issue is entered. If this
date is more than five years old, the supplier should be asked to provide a more recent copy.
Manufacturers must review their MSDS at least once every five years to ensure they contain current
information.
A documented risk assessment and control must be prepared for every designated hazardous
substance used at each education facility. These must be reviewed at least every five years or
whenever the activity or associated information changes. Hence, it is useful to record the risk
assessment date to enable ready access to this data.
If one of these two ‘date’ columns for a substance shows a space, this indicates that either the MSDS
or the risk assessment has not been organised at this date. The next column is included to indicate
whether appropriate labelling has been organised for containers of any decanted hazardous
substances.
Preparation and documentation of risk assessment and control process
Information and examples are given in the references detailed in the previous section. However, the
following example of a risk assessment is provided to summarise the general approach.
Table 2 represents a simple risk assessment for the preparation of acid solutions in a science
preparation room. Advantage is taken to use a generic risk assessment approach for five different
acids with care taken to ensure that the tasks, exposures routes and controls are consistent for each
hazardous substance. The same process can also be used with only one entry a form where individual
substances require separate evaluation.
Nitric acid has been selected as being fully representative of the hazards of the group. The information
from the ‘Health hazards information’ section of the relevant Material Safety Data Sheet for nitric
acid is summarised for the health hazards posed to skin, eyes, respiratory system and to ingestion. This
is recorded in the ‘Hazard Information’ column.
The health hazards must be related to the conditions of actual use of the hazardous substance in the
workplace. Therefore, a concise description of the actual tasks is put down in the ‘Task’ column
which details sufficient detail for one to appraise the risks.
Under the example work conditions, the possible route of exposure by humans recorded for the acids
includes skin, eyes and respiratory system but not ingestion. With task 2, where the hazards involve
only the 1 Molar concentration solutions, the risk of fumes affecting the respiratory system are
insignificant so only eyes and skin are recorded in the exposure route.
In the ‘Controls’ column, the contents entered depend upon the assessment of the ‘Precautions for
use’ section of the MSDS related to the actual workplace conditions. Since 1 Molar acid solutions are
still hazardous, the necessary controls have been taken as being similar to those for the concentrated
acids.
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The ‘Comments’ column and the ‘Controls in place’ section include relevant information supporting the
assessment covering possible emergency situations and extra precautions.
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Work Unit (Job): Generic Risk Assessment —Preparation of Acid Person’s name(s)/Position Lab. Technician Assessment team: Charles Ivin and
Solutions Mary Thomas
Nitric Acid (Conc.) Highly corrosive to eyes & 1. Dilute concentrate to stock 1. Skin/eyes/respiratory Work in well-ventilated area 1. Take precautions with
skin solutions (1M) Wear goggles, PVC gloves, lab heat evolution. Add acid
coat, covered shoes slowly to water while
Irritating and corrosive to stirring!
respiratory system 2. Dilute into volumetric 2. Skin/eyes 2. As above
flasks, beakers, reagent bottles 2. Ensure diluted solution
If swallowed, causes severe and student sample test -tubes. correctly labelled with
burns Transfer of diluted solutions. name, safety and risk
phrases.
Sulphuric Acid (Conc.) TAKE AS ABOVE ASSESSMENT Perchloric and nitric acids
Hydrochloric Acid (Conc.) are powerful oxidising
Acetic Acid (Glacial) agents and require isolation
Perchloric Acid (Conc.) from magnesium or
aluminium powders, and
finely divided organic
substances.
Controls in place: Preparation takes place in open room. Safety shower/eye wash facility
adjacent to work. Safety volumetric dispensers used to transfer concentrate to reagent
bottles and student test tubes. Respiratory equipment (acid vapours) readily available in case
of spillage. Sodium carbonate powder available for acid spills. First-aid facilities.
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Lastly, the assessment concludes with the assessment risk conclusion and whether monitoring or health
surveillance is required. Although the assessment team should sign the record, it should also be signed
by the responsible person for the school (e.g. the principal or Head Science Master), thus accepting the
controls as being mandatory for users of the hazardous substances.
Assessments indicating significant risk must be held for 30 years. Otherwise, they need to be held for a
period of only 5 years.
Labelling of decanted hazardous substances
This is amply covered in section 3.3 of this manual. Essentially, if a hazardous substance is transferred
to a new container and is not being used immediately, then it must be labelled with the product name,
the risk phrases and the safety phrases. The latter two items should be found on the label or from the
MSDS and, much less conveniently, may be determined from the List of Designated Hazardous
Substances [NOHSC:10005(1994)].
References
Available from the Commonwealth Government Bookshop Tel. (07) 3229 6822:
List of Designated Hazardous Substances [NOHSC:10005 (1994)]
Approved Criteria for Classifying Hazardous Substances [NOHSC:1008 (1994)]
National Code of Practice for the Labelling of Workplace Substances [NOHSC:2012 (1994)]
Guidance Note for the Assessment of Health Risks Arising from the Use of Hazardous
Substances in the Workplace [NOHSC:3017(1994)]
Available from GoPrint Tel. (07) 3246 3399:
Workplace Health and Safety (Hazardous Substances) Compliance Standard
Code of Practice for the Management of Hazardous Substances in the Workplace (to be replaced
with an Advisory Standard)
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MSDS need to be available to school personnel other than teachers of science who might also be using
chemicals. These personnel could include teachers of art, manual arts, agriculture, janitor/grounds -care
personnel, teacher aides, scientific assistants and other classroom visitors.
3.3.1 LABELS
Labels are required to identify the hazards associated with the substance. Labels should be checked
when substances arrive to see that they have the following information:
• signal word(s), dangerous goods class and subsidiary risk labels as applicable;
• identification information;
• risk phrases;
• directions for use;
• safety phrases;
• first-aid procedures;
• emergency procedures;
• details of the manufacturer/supplier;
• expiry date if relevant;
• reference to the MSDS.
If a substance is transferred to a new container, then it must be labelled with the following:
• the product name;
• the risk phrases;
• the safety phrases.
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aqueous ammonia, 35% ammonia, SG 880, 880 ammonia, liquor ammonia fort,
liquor fort
arsenic (III) oxide arsenic trioxide, arsenious acid, arsenious oxide, arsenous
oxide, white arsenic
asbestos, fibre mineral wool
asbestos, 5% platinised platinised asbestos
L-ascorbic acid vitamin C
barium carbonate witherite
barium sulfate (VI) heavy spar
benzene benzol
benzene-1,2-dicarboxylic acid phthallic acid
benzene-1,2-dicarboxylic anhydride phthallic anhydride
benzene-1,3-diol resorcinol 1,3-dihydroxybenzene
benzene-1,4-diol 1,4-dihydroxybenzene, hydroquinone, quinol
benzene-1,2,3-triol 1,2,3-trihydroxybenzene, pyrogallic acid, pyrogallol
benzene-1,3,5-triol phloroglucinol, phloroglucinol solution (5% in ethanol),
1,3,5-trihydroxybenzene
benzoic acid benzene carboxylic acid, phenylformic acid
benzoyl peroxide di (benz oyl) peroxide
benzyl benzoate phenylmethylbenzoate
bismuth carbonate dioxide bismuth carbonate, bismuth oxycarbonate, bismuth
subcarbonate, bismuthyl carbonate
bismuth chloride bismuth trichloride
bismuth chloride oxide bismuthyl chloride
ismuth oxide bismite, bismuth ochre
bleaching powder basic calcium chloride, calcium hypochlorite, basic calcium
hypochlorite, calcium oxychloride, chloride of lime,
chlorinated lime
4-bromoacetanilide p -bromoacetanilide, para-bromoacetanilide
1-bromobutane n-butyl bromide
2-bromobutane s-butyl bromidesec-butyl bromide, secondary butyl
bromide
bromocresol green bromcresol blue, bromcresol green, bromocresol blue
bromocresol purple bromcresol purple
1.2-di bromoethane ethylene dibromide
2-bromo-2-methylbutane t-butyl bromide, tert -butyl bromide, tertiary butyl bromide
bromophenol blue bromphenol blue
butanoic acid butyric acid, n-butyric acid, ethylacetic acid, normal
butyric acid
butanedioic acid succinic acid
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2-methyl-1-propanol
2-methylpropan-2-ol t-butanol, t-butyl alcohol
tert -butanol tert -butyl alcohol, tertiary butanol, tertiary butyl alcohol,
trimethylcarbinol
methyl violet pentamethylbenzyl-p -rosaline hydrochloride
naphthalene flakes naphthalene
naphthalene, marbles moth balls, naphthene
naphthalen-1-ol alpha-naphthol, 1-naphthol, a-naphtho
naphthalen-2-ol beta-naphthol, 2-naphthol, b-naphthol
neutral red amino dimethyl amino toluminozine, toluylene red
nickel (II) carbonate (basic) basic nickel carbonate
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4. ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
4.1 ELECTRIC SHOCK
4.1.1 EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT PASSING THROUGH
THE HUMAN BODY
• Breathing can stop.
• The heart can stop.
• Burns to the skin and internal organs.
• Muscle spasm.
• Clinical shock (a reaction of the body’s nervous system to severe injury).
• Falls may cause injuries.
The danger to persons caused by an electric current passing through the human body depends upon the
value of the current. However, it is difficult to calculate what this current will be under any given set of
circumstances. The relationship of current to voltage is not linear because body resistance varies with
the touch voltage and with the path taken by the current.
The curves in Figure 1 represent the time current zones for AC 50/60Hz based on the assumption of
the following conditions:
(a) persons are of at least 50kg mass; and
(b) the pathway of the current is through the extremities, hand to hand, foot to foot.
It should be noted that the current axis is graduated in milliamperes and the time axis in milliseconds.
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In Zone 1, no reaction is to be expected. In fact, the subject is usually unaware of the passage of the
current through the body. In Zone 2, reaction may occur, but usually no pathophysiologically dangerous
effects would be expected. The person is aware of the shock and painful muscular contractions are
likely to be experienced at the high side of the zone. In Zone 3, usually no risk of ventricular fibrillation
exists, whereas in Zone 4, such a risk does exist. Finally, in Zone 5, the onset of ventricular fibrillation is
probable. Further, it should be noted that for longer durations of the current flow in the case of Zone 3
and above there is a risk of asphyxia (inability to breathe).
The ‘fibrillation’ mentioned is an abnormal condition of the heart where the normal rhythmic expansions
and contractions of the heart muscles are disturbed and, instead, a disordered quivering of the muscles
takes place. The heart is not capable of pumping in this condition and, unless it is corrected within a
few minutes, death will result. Fibrillation is reversible only by the use of a defibrillator: there is no
known mechanical cure.
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Experimental results indicate that, for a touch voltage of 240 volts AC, the body resistance between its
extremities is of the order of 1000 ohms. Under these conditions the current flowing through the person
would be 240 milliamperes. Figure 1 indicates that this current could produce serious results.
The diagrams below show the effect of a broken or faulty earth wire in a lead, appliance or piece of
equipment.
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In (a) the equipment is effectively insulated from its case or frame and no earth current can flow
through the operator.
In (b) the case or frame has become ‘live’ because of contact with the active wire. Earth leakage
current can flow through two paths as shown. Because of the low resistance of the earthing wire and
lead (approximately 2 ohms) the bulk of the earth leakage current (as much as 120 amperes) will flow
along this path and blow a fuse, and the effects on the operator will be minimal.
In (c) and (d) the earth lead is faulty or broken (i.e. high resistance), therefore the greater part of the
earth leakage current will flow through the operator. The fuse will not blow because the current is
insufficiently high and the effect on the operator could be fatal.
4.2.3 LEADS
Most mains-operated equipment is connected to power points through leads which contain three wires.
These are colour coded as follows:
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Records are required for all items of electrical equipment, including the dates of each test, and the
name and licence number of the qualified electrical worker, to be kept and to be made readily available
to a Division of Accident Prevention inspector upon request.
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If, for any reason, an earth leakage current flows through the operator, as shown in the diagram, the
imbalance between the currents in the active and neutral leads causes a current to flow in the circuit of
the secondary of the current transformer which operates a relay and a circuit breaker, thus switching
off the mains. Notice that the mains system is MEN (Multiple Earth Neutral), as stated previously.
This protective system does not prevent current passing through the operator, but design considerations
can keep this current low in value and flowing only for a limited time, i.e. until the circuit breaker
operates.
Portable devices of this kind operate on an earth current of 20 milliamps and tripping times as low as 30
milliseconds. Reference to Figure 1, at the beginning of this section, will show that this combination of
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current and time lies in Zone 2, where the operator will be aware of the shock but will experience no
dangerous effects.
All these devices have reset buttons which must be operated after the circuit breaker has been tripped.
Test buttons are also provided to enable the operator to ascertain whether the device is working
according to the design specifications.
Most high schools have a device of this kind protecting the electric circuits in the laboratories and
demonstration rooms.
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5. RADIATION HAZARDS
5.1 RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES
The following information has been extracted from the Code of Practice for the Safe Use of
Ionizing Radiation in Secondary Schools (1986) and the Code of Practice for the Safe Use of
Lasers in Secondary Schools (1995) produced by the National Health and Medical Research
Council.
Radioactive substances generally emit alpha or beta particles or gamma rays or combinations of these,
while X-ray units generate electromagnetic waves similar to gamma rays, but usually of lower
frequency (and longer wavelength). The amount and type of shielding needed depends on the
penetrating power of the particular form of radiation. The denser the shielding material the better shield
it will be. Alpha particles, being charged and relatively heavy atomic particles, are easily stopped, while
gamma rays, usually being very short waves, are far more penetrating and hard to stop. To sum up:
Alpha particles Stopped by sheet of paper or surface layers of skin.
Beta particles Stopped by a few millimetres of aluminium or 1-2 centimetres of plastic.
Gamma rays Almost completely stopped by about 1 metre of concrete or about 5
centimetres of lead. Most will pass through the human body.
X-rays (medical) Almost completely stopped by 2-3 millimetres of lead, or about 10-15
centimetres of concrete. Will pass through the body with some absorption
depending on the density of organs in the beam (e.g. skin, bones etc.).
The philosophy for the control of hazards associated with the use of ionizing radiation is that:
(a) no practice should be adopted unless its introduction is necessary and produces a positive
net benefit; and
(b) all exposure should be kept as low as possible.
Ionizing radiation in schools must only be used in simple experiments to demonstrate fundamental
principles. The sources used and the methods of using them must be chosen to ensure that the degree
of hazard is negligible. Consideration should be given to minimising the number of experiments or
demonstrations which may take place in a year.
Advice in planning such experiments or demonstrations should be sought from:
Division of Health and Medical Physics
Queensland Health Department
535 Wickham Terrace
Brisbane Q 4000
Advice for packaging, transportation and disposal of radioactive substances should be sought from:
Radiation Health
450 Gregory Terrace
Fortitude Valley Q 4006
The immediate responsibility for radiation safety in any experiment involving radiation rests with the
teacher responsible for the class. No demonstrations or experiments requiring the exposure of students,
staff or any other person to ionizing radiation shall be performed.
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of the induction coil windings. Commence with the hammer well away from the core and
slowly decrease the distance between them (by means of the adjusting screw) until the tube
operates.
(b) Such tubes shall be operated by the teacher of science for demonstration purposes only.
(c) The use of these tubes should be limited to as short as time as possible.
(d) All students should be kept a minimum distance of one metre and teachers should also try to
observe this distance.
5.5 LASERS
SAFETY
The safe use of lasers for all applications is controlled by Australian Standard AS 2211. This document,
which follows international standards, sets classifications of lasers, and documents some of the safe
practices for general applications.
Guidelines for the safe use of lasers in the classroom have been developed by the National Health and
Medical Research Council of Australia (NH&MRC) in a Code of Practice for the safe use of
Lasers in Secondary Schools (1983). Copies of this code and further advice should be obtained from:
The Director
Division of Health and Medical Physics
Department of Health
450 Gregory Terrace
Brisbane Q 4000
The hazard from lasers is primarily that of burning of tissue either in the eye or, for high-power lasers,
the skin. The eye is particularly at risk because the lens of the eye may concentrate the beam to a very
small image on the retina, in which the energy density is extremely high.
Lasers are classified according to the degree of hazard presented. This depends on the output power,
the size of the beam, the irradiance at any point in the beam, the wavelength, and for a pulsed laser, the
power in a single pulse and the repetition frequency. All lasers and products incorporating lasers must
bear a label stating the class of the laser product, the wavelength emitted or the medium, and maximum
power output. Devices above Class 1 must have additional safety markings.
Class 1 lasers are intrinsically safe, i.e. they cannot cause harm, either because the exposure level
which produces injury cannot be reached under any conditions, or because engineering design is such
that access to dangerous levels is not possible.
Class 2 lasers are low power devices which emit visible radiation. They are not intrinsically safe,
although eye protection is normally afforded by aversion responses (e.g. blinking).
Classes 3A, 3B and 4 are not permitted in schools.
The supervision of the use of lasers throughout a school shall be the responsibility of the head of
department/principal. This person shall be responsible for the buying, storage and allocation of lasers,
and for ensuring that the requirements of the code are met at all times. Only Class 1 or Class 2 lasers
should be used in schools.
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WARNING SIGNS
(1) Each Class 2 laser must have attached to it a warning label with the following dimensions
and wording.
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(2) When a Class 2 laser is in operation, warning signs must be displayed in conspicuous
locations both inside and outside the demonstration area. These signs must be removed
when the laser is not in use. Area warning signs must conform to the following dimensions,
wording and design.
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DISINFECTANT SOLUTIONS
(1) Sodium hypochlorite is regarded as a safe and effective agent for surface disinfection. It
must be prepared on the day it is to be used.
(2) Commercial laundry bleach (White King, Snow White etc.) is also suitable. A dilution with
tap water of 1:10 will give a 5000ppm (0.5%) solution, a dilution of 1:100 will give a 500ppm
(0.05%) solution.
6.2.3 STERILISATION
(1) Inoculating loops should be heated to red-hot before and after use.
(2) Equipment and specimens may be sterilised by autoclaving or heating in a pressure cooker
for 15 minutes.
(3) All equipment and work surfaces must be disinfected after use.
6.2.4 DISPOSAL
(1) Plastic petri dishes must be autoclaved or sterilised in a pressure cooker before disposal.
(2) Glass petri dishes and culture tubes must be sterilised before cleaning.
(3) Unsterilised cultures must not be disposed of down the sink.
(4) Sterilised culture wastes may be disposed of in the industrial waste bin.
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Mammals
Platypus (male only) Horny spine attached to venom Swelling, immediate intense pain, shock. Wash the wound thoroughly. Seek medical Coastal and some inland streams,
gland inside each hind leg near heel attention if severe. south of Cooktown.
Echidna (male and juvenile As above, but smaller Swelling, immediate intense pain, shock. As above Widespread, but more common in
females) Western Queensland
Reptiles
Land and sea snakes Venom from specialised salivary - Bleeding at site of bite See Summary of treatments for some Taipan: coastal Qld, east of Divide,
glands is delivered via ducts to - Bruising animals. Section 6.4. and across Cape York Peninsula
hollow teeth (fangs) and the upper - Vomiting King Brown: throughout Qld
jaw. All dangerous snakes have - Sweating except coastal SE Qld
fangs at the front of the mouth, - Drowsiness Death Adder: throughout Qld
although not all species which have - Paleness Tiger Snake: isolated area of SE Qld
front fangs are dangerous. Large - Tender and enlarged lymph nodes Brown Snake: throughout Qld
specimens of species which have - Loss of consciousness Colletts Black Snake: confined to
fangs at the back of the mouth - Passing blood in the urine. Central W Qld
should be treated with caution. Symptoms may not appear for 2-3 Red-bellied Black Snake: coastal
Teeth other than fangs may also hours. Many of these are also Qld south of Cooktown
cause punctures so the appearance symptoms of fear when snake bite is Rough -scale Snake: coastal Qld
of the wound does not point to suspected, but always let the doctor from NSW border to Fraser Island
either a potentially dangerous or decide if it is snake bite or snake and from Tully to Mossman
harmless snake. fright. Small-eyed Snake: eastern Qld
south of Cairns
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S PIDERS
Red-back spider Venom glands elaborate venom - Severe local pain See Summary of treatments for some Throughout Queensland, most
through a pair of fangs on - Sweating animals. Section 6.4. common where natural environment
cephalothorax - Inflammation and swelling has been disturbed
- Pain spreading
- Nausea and vomiting
- Weakness
- Respiratory failure
Funnel-web spider and Venom glands elaborate venom - Intense local pain See Summary of treatments for some Moist cool environment in south
trapdoor spiders through pair of fangs on - Vomiting, sweating and cramps animals. Section 6.4. east Queensland
cephalothorax - Delirium and intense salivation
- Respiratory failure
Other arthropods
Ticks While feeding on blood, ticks inject - Local swelling around area of bite See Summary of treatments for some Coastal areas of Queensland
saliva into surrounding tissues. This - Severe skin irritation (itching) animals.
saliva may: - Necrosis of tissue in vicinity of bite Section 6.4.
- Be toxic - Paralysis in severe cases
- Transfer micro-organism
- Cause allergy -type reactions in
hyper-sensitive people.
Larval ticks and mites Severe lesions. Severe skin irritation Douse with alcohol. Rainforests and wet sclerophyll
-scrub itch’. forests
Leeches Three chitinous jaws make incision - Prolonged bleeding from bite Leech will detach when touched with salt Rainforests, wetter eucalypt
in skin, inject anticoagulant saliva in - Sensitisation can occur after repeated or a hot match near. Compressive bandage forests
wound, possible transmission of exposure to bites to control bleeding.
micro-organisms. - Insect repellent spray on shoes,
clothing helps discourage bites.
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Millipedes Some species reported to exude May cause redness and swelling. Burns Apply ice and seek medical advice. Throughout Queensland
pungent corrosive fluid from side of open wounds.
body
Scorpions Venom gland in terminal segment of Not lethal in Australia Apply ice. Throughout Queensland
tail - Local pain Ensure rest.
- Numbness
- Possible collapse of victim
Bees/wasps The bee's ‘sting’ consisting of a barb Local pain with swelling later - If bee, remove sting by sliding out Throughout Queensland
and attached venom sac located on - Allergic reaction with fingernail
posterior. A wasp may sting - Wipe area clean.
repeatedly. - Apply ice in both cases.
- Seek urgent medical attention,
especially if sting is around face or
neck.
Cup moth larval/processionary Branched ‘spines’ or hairs on body Skin lesions, local pain, skin irritation - Remove spines by applying adhesive Throughout Queensland
caterpillars tape and pull off.
- Itching may be relieved by prop rietary
products like Stingose, Stop Itch,
calamine lotion or hand creams.
Whiplash rove beetle Secretion emitted when insect is Symptoms may not appear for at least - Wash area. Coastal Queensland
(Finch Hatton bug) crushed on the skin 12 hours red rash which blisters after - Itching may be relieved by proprietary
48 hours. products like Stingose, Stop Itch,
calamine lotion or hand creams.
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Amphibians
Toads Venom gland on each shoulder Contact with eyes, mouth, nostrils Wash fluid from body−if in eyes, irrigate Throughout coastal Queensland and
secretes a white fluid. Other venom causes severe pain and irritation. with water for 20 minutes. If ingested, Gulf country
glands distributed over back. induce vomiting and seek medical aid.
Wash hands thoroughly after handling.
Frogs Toxic chemical elaborated from skin As for toads (very few cases reported) As for toads Throughout Queensland
of most
Fish
Stingrays Venom glands associated with spine Severe local pain and swelling - Remove patient from water. Tidal areas of streams and rivers of
on base of tail - Reassure. Queensland beaches and Great
- Immobilise the affected limb. Barrier Reef
- Place the hand or foot in hot (but not
boiling ) water.
- Transfer to hospital.
Stonefish LETHAL - Immediate unbearable pain As for stingrays. Seek immediate medical Coastal Queensland, particularly in
13 dorsal spines, each with a pair of - Swelling aid as antivenom is available. tropics
venom glands. Has the potential to - Bluish discolouration of skin
inflict a fatal injury. - Paralysis spreads
- No recorded death to date
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Bullrout Venomous dorsal spines - Severe pain and/or swelling As for stingrays Coastal streams and rivers of
Queensland
Catfish Venom glands associated with dorsal Severe pain and/or swelling As for stingrays Streams and rivers of Queensland.
and pectoral spines Some species along coastal and
offshore islands.
Numerous fish have venom glands
always associated with spines.
Ciguatera Type of fish-flesh poisoning caused Numbness and tingling of extremities and Seek medical attention immediately. Possible in all tropical and sub-
by ingestion of contaminated lips. Reversal of temperature sensation. tropical sea fish
individuals of many varieties of fish Joint and muscle pain. Weakness and
commonly associated with coral headaches. Itchiness, More acute cases:
reefs, e.g. Spanish Mackerel stomach pains, vomiting and diarrhoea.
Mollusca
Blue-ringed Octopus LETHAL Often no pain at site of bite, numbness - Apply pressure, immobilisation Intertidal, subtidal zone of
Venom glands associated with of face/neck, difficulty in breathing, treatment . subtropical and temperate coast of
chitinous jaws in mouth located respiratory failure may result in death. - Monitor A, B , C. Queensland, fairly common in
between base of tentacles - Commence resuscitation if indicated. Moreton Bay
- Seek immediate medical aid
- No specific antivenom is available.
Cone shells LETHAL - Initial sharp sting As for Blue-ringed Octopus. Common on coral reefs of tropical
Venom-filled dart delivered from a - Numbness around puncture and subtropical Queensland, but
proboscis which extends out - Severe pain and swelling may be found on coastline.
suddenly - Progressive muscular weakness and
paralysis of voluntary muscles
- Respiratory failure may result in
death.
Coelenterates
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Box jellyfish (Chironex spp.) Stinging cells on tentacles - Terrible pain - Remove patient from water. Avoid Coastal inshore
- Massive and linear weals adherent tentacles. Queensland−Gladstone north.
- Severe stings cause impaired - Douse liberally with quantities of They are seasonal, being most
breathing vinegar. prevalent from spring to autumn.
- Death in few minutes - Apply pressure immobilisation The most dangerous climatic
treatment. Saturate bandage with conditions of the tropics are hot,
more vinegar. still days, especially after light
- Monitor A, B, C. northerly winds.
- Seek medical aid urgently.
IRUKANDJI SYNDROME Stinging cells on tentacles - Initial faint sting may not be seen or Remove patient from water. Rest and Similar to box jellyfish
Small jellyfish Carukui Barnesi. recognised. reassure. Monitor A, B, C. Douse area
- Severe muscular cramping pains with vinegar. Apply vinegar-soaked
may start in lower back, limbs, or compression bandage. Seek immediate
abdomen after an initial delay of medical aid.
between 10 and 40 minutes.
- Headaches
- May cause hypertension,
excessively high blood pressure
Echinoderm
Bluebottle Stinging cells, mostly on tentacles - Severe pain, burning and itching - Apply ice. Throughout coastal waters of
Portuguese man of war - Linear weals - Contact a doctor if sting is extensive Queensland
Fire jelly - May produce breathing difficulty, or the patient severely distressed.
Moreton Bay stinger nausea, vomiting, drowsiness in
Blubber children.
Hair jelly/snottie
Stinging hydroids Stinging cells Immediate burning pain continues for As for bluebottle Coastal waters of Queensland.
some time. Multiple weals develop soon Commonly attached to rocks and
after. Itchiness and redness develop wharf piles
minutes later. No danger to life.
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Coral cuts and abrasions Occur when unintentional contact is Initial cut appears insignificant. Danger Thoroughly clean the wound as soon as
made with hard coral. of untreated cuts becoming infected is possible remove all infected material.
severe.
Coral stings and anemones Stinging cells Wealing. Non-specific itchy red rash. As for bluebottle Coral reefs. Anemones occur
Tends to worsen with time. Children intertidal and subtidal everywhere
may become more severely distressed. in Queensland.
Occasionally swelling and migratory
pains up limb.
Crown-of-thorns starfish Upper body covered with spines up Extreme pain, redness, swelling, Bath in warm to hot water (not boiling) to Coastal waters of Queensland,
to 6cm in length. Venom-producing numbness and paralysis. (Localised inactivate the venom and help disperse especially coral reefs.
cells are within the epidermal layer allergic reactions or protracted vomiting venom thus reducing its concentration.
covering the spines. in some susceptible individuals.) Seek medical attention. Because the spines
are fragile, an X-ray should be taken to
make sure that no fragments remain.
Sea urchins Venom in long, hollow, brittle Discoloured wound with violet-coloured - Bathe in hot water (not boiling). Coastal waters of Queensland
Needle-spined sea urchin spines fluid. Pain and redness. - Give relief from both spine and
pedicellariae venom.
Flower sea urchin (Toxopneustes LETHAL Intense radiating pain. Fainting and Seek immediate medical aid. Coastal waters of Queensland
pileolus) Venom in the grasping organs numbness. Generalised paralysis. Loss
‘pedicellariae’ of voice. Respiratory failure may lead to
death.
Poriferan
Sponges Mild to severe skin irritation or rash, Apply cooling lotions calamine, vinegar, Coastal waters of Queensland.
itchy, made worse by wetting, rubbing or alcohol. Do not rub eyes or face. Commonly attached to rocks and
and scratching wharf piles.
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Bee stings
Scrape the sting off with the fingernail or knife blade. An ice and water mixture will relieve the pain.
Allergic patients
If the patient is known to be allergic, or if there is excessive swelling of the eyelids and around the face
and difficulty in breathing, remove the sting as above. Treat as for snake bite when bee stings are on
the limbs, and seek medical care.
Box jellyfish
Flood the adherent tentacles with household vinegar. Apply ice packs to relieve the pain. If the sting is
massive or if the patient collapses, apply a pressure bandage, as for snake bite.
Watch the patient closely. If breathing stops, commence expired air resuscitation immediately. Seek
medical attention urgently.
Other jellyfish stings
Flush off the tentacles with water. Do not rub or use vinegar. Apply ice packs to relieve the pain.
Ticks
These are found mainly in scrub country along the coast and are difficult to detect on the body unless
engorged with blood. The head is always buried in the skin with only the body visible, and if not
removed, the result can be serious. Therefore, when working in tick country or after picnics in tick
country, check the body frequently for ticks. Check the dog too.
Symptoms
The venom may cause paralysis, especially in small children. The paralysis affects, in order:
• the lower limbs,
• the upper limbs,
• the muscles of breathing, and
• the facial muscles
The bite causes itching, sometimes followed by a feeling of weakness and nausea.
Signs
The unengorged tick is bluish-black or reddish-brown in colour, oval and flat. Engorged, the tick is
globular and up to 5mm in diameter. It tends to find its way into body crevices.
Treatment for ticks
Tweezers pressed into the skin around the head of the tick should expel it. The tick should not be
grasped with the tweezers and pulled out, as this may cause the release of more toxin. If the head does
not come out readily, seek medical aid for removal and, if required, an injection of specific tick anti-
venom vaccine.
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Plant Hazard
Devil’s apple (Solanum Spines and sharp hairs contain the alkaloid solanine.
capsicoides)
Prickly pear (Opuntia spp.) Sharp long spines and small white hair-like barbed bristles. Stingose may help.
Stinging nettles (Urtica spp.) Fine transparent stinging hairs on leaves and stems
Stinging Trees (Dendrocnide Occur at or near the edge of rainforests. Large rigid hollow stinging hairs on leaves and stems even dry, dead leaves can sting. Effects persist for weeks,
spp.) even months.
Plant Hazard
Naked lady Milky white sap causes severe blistering of skin and can cause temporary blindness if it contacts the eyes.
(Euphorbia tirucalli)
Poinsettia (Euphorbia Sap may be corrosive to sensitive skin. Eye contact requires medical attention.
pulcherrima)
Spurges (Euphorbia spp.) Sap corrosive. Eye contact requires medical attention.
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Plant Hazard
Headache vine (Clematis Juice of crushed leaves can blister the skin.
glycinoides ) (Clematise
icrophylla)
Plants which are poisonous if eaten (plant material, fruit, flowers, seeds must be ingested to be harmful)
Plant Hazard
Oleander (Nerium oleander ) All parts of the plant are poisonous, a single leaf is considered potentially lethal.
Yellow oleander (Thevetia Probably our most poisonous plant and has been responsible for deaths of several children. All parts are poisonous.
peruviana)
Allamanda (Nerilifolia) Fruits and sap are poisonous.
Dumbcane (Dieffenbachia spp.) Plant tissue contains needle crystals of calcium oxalate, a skin and eye irritant.
Crab's eye, gidgee-gidgee, Damaged seeds highly poisonous if ingested-can cause vomiting, diarrhoea, trembling and cold sweat, weakness and collapse.
precatory bean, rosary pea,
jequirity bean (Abrus
precatorius)
Plant Hazard
Cunjevoi (Alocasia Sap corrosive and causes severe stinging. Handling plant produces stinging. Bathe and wash off with water. Eye contact may require medical attention.
macrorrhizos)
Lantana spp. Fruits and leaves contain toxins; fatal poisoning of children has occurred after eating the fruit.
Green cestrum (Cestrum All parts poisonous, but fruits most toxic
parqui)
Wintersweet (Acokanthera Bark, leaves and fruit are recorded as poisonous, causing severe gastro-intestinal irritation and affecting the heart.
oblongifolia)
Finger cherry (Rhodomyrtus Fleshy red fruits have been known to cause blindness.
macrocarp)
White cedar (Melia azedarach Seeds may cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, severe thirst, cold sweat, sleeplessness, convulsions, possibly death. Leaves and bark may also be
var. Australasica) poisonous.
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Skin and eye irritation - Plant and fluids e.g. sap milky or resinous - Itching - Irrigate eyes well with water 15−30 minutes.
sap is not water soluble. - Reddening of skin - Apply methylated spirits to remove milky sap
- Spines and hair-like bristles, stinging - Skin lesions from skin.
hairs. - Localised pain - Urgent medical attention may be required.
- Blistering - Adhesive tape may help remove some stinging
- Very severe pain if splashed in eyes hairs.
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6.7.2 SPILLS
(a) Gloves must be worn. Remove the blood or body fluids with absorbent material.
(b) Using a detergent solution, clean the spill area thoroughly.
(c) Wipe down the spill area with disposable towels soaked in a disinfectant solution containing
a minimum of 500mg/L (ppm) of available chlorine.
(d) If the spill site is porous then a disinfectant solution containing at least 5000ppm of available
chlorine should be used.
(e) Dispose of contaminated waste material.
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6.9 DISSECTIONS
Prior legislation concerning the use of animals in schools has been amended so that a scientific
experiment must be conducted in accordance with the Australian Code of Practice for the Care
and Use of Animals for Scientific Purposes. A scientific experiment is defined in the Animals
Protection Act Amendment Act 1991 as ‘any experiment, procedure, test or study that is conducted
on an animal in the course of which an animal is subjected to surgical, medical, psychological,
biological, chemical or physical treatment; or abnormal conditions of heat, cold, light, dark, confinement,
noise, isolation or overcrowding to which an animal of that species or kind is not accustomed; or
abnormal dietary conditions; or electric shock or radiation treatment; or any material or substance is
extracted or derived from the body of the animal; and that is for the purpose of acquiring, developing
or demonstrating knowledge or techniques in any field of science, but does not include [normal
veterinary and husbandry procedures]’.
The purpose of the code is to:
• emphasise the responsibilities of both investigators and institutions using animals;
• ensure that the welfare of animals is always considered an essential factor;
• ensure that animal use is valid;
• minimise the number of animals used in projects and limit or avoid pain or distress; and
• promote the development and use of techniques which replace animal experiments.
Some of the general principles specified in the code are:
(a) Experiments on animals may be performed only when they are essential to obtain and
establish significant information relevant to the understanding of humans or animals, to the
maintenance and improvement of human or animal health and welfare, to the improvement
of animal management or production, or to the achievement of educational objectives.
People who use animals for scientific purposes have an obligation to treat the animals with
respect and to consider their welfare as an essential factor when planning and conducting
experiments.
(b) Techniques which replace or complement animal experiments must be used wherever
possible. Experiments must be scientifically valid, and must use no more than the minimum
number of animals needed. Experiments must use the best available scientific techniques
and must be carried out only by persons competent in the procedures they perform.
(c) Experiments on animals must not be repeated unnecessarily or conducted simply as a
motivational tool in the teaching of science.
The code specifies that institutions using animals for scientific purposes must establish animal
experimentation ethics committees (AEECs) to ensure that all animal use conforms with the standards
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of the code. Since animal pain and distress cannot be evaluated easily, investigators must assume that
animals experience pain in a manner similar to human beings. Decisions regarding an animal’s welfare
must be based on this assumption unless there is evidence to the contrary.
On behalf of:
Education Queensland,
the Queensland Catholic Education Commission,
the Association of Independent Schools of Queensland
POLICY
Policy Statement
Schools have a major responsibility to promote and model best practice in the care, use and welfare of
animals. Schools must comply with the Animals Protection (Use of Animals for Scientific Experiments
and Teaching) Regulations 1991 through the centrally established Animal Experimentation Ethics
Committee (AEEC). These guidelines apply only to vertebrates. This will involve the school
maintaining a register for activities involving vertebrate animals listed in the Schedule of Approved
Activities or seeking approval from the AEEC for those activities not listed.
Accountabilities
The AEEC will monitor and authorise the care and welfare of animals in schools by all teachers in
accordance with the policy outlined here. The ultimate aim is to reduce the number of animal used for
experimental purposes and to promote greater use of alternatives in teaching.
Where animals are used in schools for activities as outlined in the Schedule of Approved Activities, no
specific written application or approval is required. However, a register of all activities in volving
animals, including the numbers of each species, and the names of teachers involved must be compiled
(see Appendix 1). This register is to be kept at the school and must be made available on request to
the AEEC.
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Teachers wishing to undertake activities other than those listed in the Schedule of Approved Activities,
that is, non-scheduled activities, must seek specific approval from the AEEC using the application form
in Appendix 2. Schools must keep a copy of the approval on file, and the activity must not proceed
until the approval has been received from the AEEC. Schools must comply with the policy and
guidelines outlined here to satisfy legislative requirements.
Principals are requested to bring this policy to the attention of all staff members.
Policy source
This policy has been developed using the Australian Code of Practice for the Care and Use of
Animals for Scientific Purposes, which is based upon the Animals Protection (Use of Animals for
Scientific Experiments and Teaching) Regulations 1991.
Contact
Related materials
Several curriculum modules in the Department of Education Manual also relate to the care, use and
welfare of animals:
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Guidelines
These guidelines outline the special ethical considerations and issues of responsibility when animals are
used to demonstrate knowledge or techniques in any learning area. They do not replace the
Australian Code of Practice for the Care and Use of Animals for Scientific Purposes, which is
incorporated in Queensland legislation, but are designed to emphasise the principles most relevant to
the use of animals in teaching.
General principles
1. Animals may be used in teaching activities only when there is no practicable or suitable non-
animal alternative to achieving the educational goal.
2. All teaching activities that involve the use of animals must meet the requirements specified in
the Schedule of Approved Activities. If the activities are planned, schools must apply to the
AEEC for approval. In granting approval the AEEC must be satisfied that the activity is
justified on the basis of educational value, there is no suitable alternative and the impact and
the numbers of animals involved are kept to a minimum.
3. Where valid alternatives exist, the AEEC may ask applicants to justify why they have chosen
to use live animals instead of an alternative.
4. The school should offer students the opportunity to use alternatives not involving animals when
these alternatives are available and compatible with educational objectives.
5. All students should be given the opportunity to discuss the ethical, social and scientific issues
that are involved in people’s use of animals for scientific purposes.
When animals are to be used to achieve educational objectives, the teacher nominated by the principal
is responsible for the care and use of the animals from acquisition to appropriate disposal. The teacher
should:
• ensure that all care and use of animals are in accord with the provisions of the Australian
Code of Practice for the Care and Use of Animals for Scientific Purposes;
• have relevant training and demonstrated experience in caring for and using animals;
• incorporate methods that may replace, reduce or refine the use of animals where such
methods are available and compatible with educational objectives;
• obtain AEEC approval before any activity not listed on the Schedule of Approved Activities is
undertaken and ensure that the activity is conducted as directed and approved by the AEEC.
Animals should not be involved in these activities for any longer than absolutely necessary;
• ensure that there is close, competent supervision of all students working with animals.
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The responsible teacher should ensure that, when students are directly involved, they are instructed in
the appropriate methods of handling and caring for animals. Students should be able to demonstrate
their ability to perform necessary tasks with care and competence.
Teachers supervising students who are undertaking assignments and projects involving animals should
ensure that, prior to using animals, students receive appropriate instruction. This should include the
ethical and legal responsibilities involved in the use of animals for scientific purposes as well as
appropriate methods for animal care and use. The person supervising such students is responsible for
the welfare of the animals.
Teachers are also responsible for ensuring that animals are disposed of in an appropriate and
responsible manner when they are no longer required.
Animals in schools
Since school premises are unoccupied for part of each day, on weekends and holiday periods,
procedures must be in place to ensure the maintenance of satisfactory levels of animal welfare during
these times. Arrangements for regular and ongoing monitoring of animal health and wellbeing should
be made. Security is a major issue, and housing and holding facilities should be secure against human
and animal interference. The principal is responsible for making sure that a person is available to
respond to any emergency that may arise.
The principal of the school is ultimately responsible for ensuring that the following activities are not
undertaken :
1. surgical procedures without anaesthesia other than in the conduct of normal animal husbandry
operations;
When the purpose of a curriculum activity is student interaction with animals, the observation of
animals by students in purpose-built facilities, in animals’ natural environments or under field conditions
is preferable to introducing animals temporarily into the school.
Students should not be allowed to take acquired animals home unless the school is satisfied that the
animals will be cared for adequately and responsibly.
Up-to-date and complete records must be available for inspection at all times. The records must
include :
• a register of all activities involving animals including the numbers of each species used and the
names of teachers involved. Schools may be required to submit a summary of these data. This
register is intended to be an annual summary of all the activities undertaken using animals.
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Teachers may choose to keep data as annotations within work programs and update the
register at the end of each semester. Individual activities need be listed only once.
• copies of all approvals to conduct activities not covered by the Schedule of Approved
Activities.
Acquisition
All animals used in schools must be obtained legally. Teachers are reminded that many free-living
animals are protected by law and permits are required to catch or keep such animals.
Disposal
Several options are available for the disposal of animals when no longer needed:
• Return to source: Animals obtained from farms, hatcheries, homes etc. may be returned to
their place of origin, providing prior arrangements have been made and there is no risk of the
introduction of infectious disease.
• Release to the wild: Animals obtained from nature should be returned only on the advice of
appropriate officers from the National Parks and Wildlife Service. Non-native animals,
domestic and cage -reared vertebrates of any kind must not be released into the wild.
• Release of animals to students: Students should not be permitted to take animals home unless
the school is satisfied that the animals will be cared for adequately and responsibly. This also
applies to the temporary release of animals to students to care for on weekends and during
holiday periods.
• Sale: Live farm animals may be sold through usual channels to appropriate purchasers.
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Appropriate species
Remember that at times even certain approved activities could cause unnecessary suffering to some
species because of their unique requirements. As a rule, schools should use species that are:
• hardy, able to thrive in captivity and from a habitat that can be readily duplicated;
• fairly simple to care for and do not present insurmountable problems for weekend and vacation
care;
• tolerant to being handled and have easy-to-meet food requirements.
Educational Objectives
All activities involving animals must have a valid educational objective. Teaching programs should
clearly state objectives that explain why the use of animals is required. The following are examples of
appropriate objectives that build on the partnership between humans and animals in learning situations
where neither group suffer and both gain from the experience. There may also be other more detailed
objectives set by the teacher that are specific to the lesson at hand. These specific objectives may also
be useful in considering whether alternatives to the use of animals are possible:
• To develop in students a sensitivity to, and awareness of the needs of, animals through positive
experiences gained in circumstances where high-quality animal care is always provided.
• To teach respect for all life through the use of humane methods of scientific inquiry into the natural
characteristics of animals.
• To use the students’ natural affinity for, and curiosity about, animals to build sound powers of
observation and understandings of the roles of animals in the environment.
• To develop in students the knowledge and skills necessary to care for animals.
These guidelines have been developed to help schools to comply with legislative requirements with a
minimum of administration and paperwork.
The Schedule of Approved Activities and these guidelines specify how activities involving animals
should be managed so that the welfare of the animals is protected at all times. Where they exist, the
relevant Codes of Conduct should be consulted for industry standards and any conditions pertaining to
particular activities. Some activities require special precautions to ensure that unintended side -effects
or consequences do not occur. Additional information about some of these activities has been provided
in the section on Activities and Terms, page 133.
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The following list of activities describes the levels of experience or expertise required before teachers
can undertake a particular activity. In compiling this schedule the Animal Experimentation Ethics
Committee has attempted to categorise the possible uses of animals that are most likely to be
requested by teachers. It describes which uses can be undertaken routinely and which are expressly
forbidden under the legislation.
The utmost care should be exercised by teachers and students when any of these activities are
undertaken to ensure the humane treatment of the animal. Each participant should be aware of the
educational objectives that have warranted the use of this animal.
Teachers using Category 1, 2 or 3 activities, must keep a school register of all activities involving
animals including the number of each species and the names of the teachers. Any activities not
specifically listed are ‘non-scheduled’, and application for approval using the application form
(Appendix 2) must be made to the AEEC.
Categories Specifications
1 • The activity may be undertaken without application for approval to the AEEC.
• The activity must be recorded in the school’s register using a pro forma such
as in Appendix 1.
• The activity must have a valid educational objective and comply with the
guidelines outlined here.
2 • The activity may be undertaken without application for approval to the AEEC.
• The activity must be recorded in the school’s register using a pro forma such
as in Appendix 1.
• The activity may be undertaken only by students with the relevant
backgrounds and maturity who are engaged in a recognised component of a
science or agriculture work program.
• The leader must have expertise or previous experience with the activity.
3 • The activity may be undertaken without application for approval to the AEEC.
• The activity must be recorded in the school’s register using a pro forma such
as the one in Appendix 1.
• The activity should only be a demonstration by the leader to students or
performed by students as part of skill acquisition within a recognised
vocational education or agricultural course.
• The leader must have expertise or previous experience with the activity.
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1. Observation
Observation implies that the student is to observe the normal behaviour of an animal under
circumstances that are not stressful for the animal. This is particularly important when breeding is part
of the observation. Consideration must be given to the suitability of the animals to be used in breeding
and the proper care of offspring.
These skills should be taught as part of the routine management practices required to maintain the
animal’s health and wellbeing and where the animal benefits from such skills being acquired by
students.
3. Measurement
The measuring of body dimensions/functions in an animal can usually be done with a minimum of
interference and should not cause any pain or distinct discomfort to the animal.
4. Dietary effects
No animal should suffer any form of nutritional deprivation. It is no longer acceptable for a teacher to
justify the use of a live animal in an experiment that would deprive the animal of its normal
requirements of food or water. However, a teacher may wish to demonstrate the variation in growth
brought on by normal versus enhanced protein, energy or fat where such mild dietary modification is
offered to the animal and causes no discomfort. The effects of nutritional deprivation are well
documented in available literature, and many study aids are also available.
5. Behavioural activities
The alteration of an animal’s natural behaviour to conform to a desired pattern or the demonstration of
a natural behaviour in an abnormal context should not disadvantage the animal. It also needs careful
justification of the educational benefits, and this needs to be thoroughly explained to students.
The collection of material directly from an animal should not cause the animal distress and should only
be done if strong justification can be made. The clipping of hair or wool does not normally interfere
with the animal’s wellbeing, but plucking of either may. Faeces can be collected from the area in
which the animal is kept, as can other material for study. Such collection of material should not
interfere with the animal since it can be part of the normal maintenance of the animal’s
accommodation. Where the taking of materials from an animal necessitates bodily invasion (such as
blood and ruminal fluid), extreme care must be taken to ensure that:
The frequency and volume of fluids collected (such as blood) must be carefully considered in the
context of an animal’s age, health and current status.
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A teacher’s management of unwell animals can have a profound influence on a student’s attitudes
towards animals. While it is important to recognise that the primary focus of the care of sick, injured or
diseased animals is the animal’s welfare, the thoughtful treatment of the animal also presents an
excellent educational opportunity. The experience can build students’ knowledge, skill and empathy for
the animals in their charge. Students should learn to recognise the signs of an unwell animal, to seek
expert advice on treatment and to follow a course of action centred on the best interest of the
particular animal.
Only activities that can be justified as generally acceptable and routine for a particular species and
done or closely supervised by a competent operator should be performed in schools. All teachers
involved in these activities are responsible for keeping up to date on the most humane and effective
methods of performing these activities. They should ensure that recommended facilities and
equipment are available and used at all times.
Summary of Procedures
Please note the following procedures only apply to schools
where vertebrates are kept or used.
2. Establish the curriculum justification for the activity (objectives, direct relationship to syllabus or
work program).
3. Decide whether the proposed activity is Scheduled or Non-scheduled. (See Schedule of Approved
Activities in these guidelines, pages 131 - 132.)
4. If the proposed activity is listed in the 5. If the proposed activity is not listed in the
Schedule of Approved Activities: Schedule of Approved Activities:
a. Refer to sample to help you fill in a a. Fill in and send an application form
copy of the School’s Register of (Appendix 2) to AEEC.
Scheduled Activities (Appendix 1) and
file a copy. b. Await advice.
b. Proceed with the activity following the c. File approval when received and
guidelines so that the welfare of the proceed with the activity following the
animals is protected at all times. guidelines and any conditions specified
by AEEC.
c. Respond promptly to any request for
information from AEEC. d. If approval is not given, do not proceed
with the activity.
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Appendix 1
School’s Register of Scheduled Activities
E
1997 – body weight
– temperature
L
Mulesing of sheep 3
Crutching of sheep 2
P
Ear marking 2
22 April–
10 May
Observation of normal
behaviour of animals
AM 1 2 White
mouse
Ms Jackson
Mr Dalton
S
Mrs Williams
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Project title
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.................
Description of proposal
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
..............................
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.......................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................…………………………
………………………………………...............................................................................................
................................................................
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Aspects of Science Management
Procedural details:
Source
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
............
• Time to be kept
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
............
• Housing
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
............
• Disposal
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
............
• Nutrition/special diet
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
............
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Proposed dates
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
..............................
Name: ...................................................................................................................................
(block let ters)
School: ..................................................................................................................................
Signature: ...............................................................
Date: ..................................
Date: .....................................
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• collect and/or receive deliveries of stock, unpack and check invoices, store stock appropriately;
• maintain the chemical stock record;
• conduct an annual stocktake of materials and equipment within the area for teaching science;
• monitor safety and first aid requirements within the area for the teaching of science. It is the
responsibility of the science teacher to trial experiments prior to the lesson and to employ safe
practices, risk assessment and risk management;
• care for wall charts, museum cases and noticeboards;
• participate in field trips as directed by the head of department/principal;
• assist in field trip preparations which may include arranging bookings and appropriate materials.
For further information, consult the position description of Scientific Assistant, State High School, from
the department.
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(e) the repair of equipment (within reason) and maintenance of gear, e.g. oiling of moving parts
etc.;
(f) the organisation and maintenance of labels on gear and storage locations.
Science equipment needs constant supervision to maintain it in working order, e.g. projector lamps
should be tested, perished rubber tubes should be discarded etc. Working surfaces should be inspected
for spills of corrosive liquids, residual glass fragments etc.
Gas supplies should always be turned off at the main after use, and attention should be given to the
condition of each benchtop gas tap. Attention should be called to any cases of malicious damage or
leaks. Gas burners should also be inspected to determine that:
(a) the air ring is adjustable;
(b) the gas hole is clear;
(c) the rubber tubing is not split or perished.
Plumbing should be inspected so that attention may be called to water leaks and blocked drains.
Equipment should not be left out on work surfaces unless this is specifically required by a teacher.
Liquids spilt on walking surfaces should be cleaned away immediately.
Irrespective of whether a scientific assistant is employed or not, it is the duty of every
teacher of science to play an active and positive role in attending to laboratory management
and the science head of department must regard instruction in such matters as part of the obligatory
professional development of both ancillary and professional staff. Materials commonly used (e.g.
chemicals, glassware, burners etc.) should be readily accessible. For other materials (e.g. telescopes)
less accessible spaces can be utilised. Sometimes these materials may be stored in displays. Projectors,
tape recorders etc. should be stored away from dust and chemicals. Microscopes should be covered by
plastic hoods and stored in dust-free cupboards or on shelves at bench level. A microscope is easily
carried by holding the microscope arm. Electric balances and centogram balances should always be
covered with a plastic hood to protect them from dust.
In order to provide experimental equipment for use, the following information should be attained by
either the scientific assistant or the teacher of science:
(a) detailed account of all equipment required;
(b) knowledge of the required placement of this equipment;
(c) location and preparation of chemicals, if required;
(d) locating and setting out the equipment: apparatus trolleys, trays or suitable boxes may be
used to carry equipment; materials should be placed in a location convenient for the
particular class for which it is required;
(e) the setting-up of apparatus, in the case of demonstrations, so that it is ready to operate;
(f) the production of more materials as needed;
(g) the recording of breakages and depleted non-durable materials;
(h) the removal and cleaning of apparatus, where relevant;
(i) the dismantling of equipment, where relevant;
(j) the return of each article to its correct storage location;
(k) a report of missing articles not reported broken.
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7.2.1 CLEANING
Glassware should be clean and dry before use. Cleaning is best done immediately after use as this
prevents the staining of work surfaces and the hardening of materials on the glass.
(a) General cleaning
The first step in cleaning is to appropriately discard leftover materials.
(b) Cleaning agents
(i) Using detergents
Soak glassware in hot water with detergent. To wash, the simplest method is to use liquid or
powder detergent, introduce it directly into the apparatus, moisten with water and brush well
with the aid of a bottlebrush or a scourer. The glassware is then thoroughly rinsed with hot
water, and also with distilled water in the case of pipettes, burettes, volumetric flasks etc.
Detergents are simple to use but very hard to remove. Abrasives, which scratch the glass,
should not be used. Eye protection should be worn.
(ii) Using acid
A popular one used is chromic acid.
RECIPE: l0g potassium dichromate is dissolved in 50mL water. Add concentrated sulfuric
acid very slowly, stirring, until the volume is 200mL. Allow to stand for 10 minutes in a fume
cupboard. Then add another 800mL concentrated sulfuric acid, constantly stirring and
cooling in an ice bath. Pour chromic acid into empty, dirty glassware. Let it stand for 10 to
30 minutes, then chromic acid may be reused, but discard it when its colour is greenish.
Note: If you splash chromic acid on your skin, wash it off immediately with plenty of water.
This fluid will corrode skin and clothing, so protective clothing is essential when using it.
CAUTION: Toxic; use gloves and fume cupboard. These are very useful if the material to
be removed is known to be readily soluble in one or in a mixture of these solvents. The
commonly used ones are: ethanol (alcohol), propanone (acetone), trichloromethane
(chloroform), xylene, hexane and petroleum ether. Do not pour the latter three into the sink,
but keep in bottles and discard with waste chemicals.
(c) Drying glassware after cleaning
Alternative methods
(i) Air-dry on racks;
(ii) Rinse in ethanol (100%), propanone or ether and blow air through the vessel.
(Note: ethanol, propanone and ether are highly flammable; all bunsens and gas heaters
should be extinguished before using them);
(iii) Beakers, pipettes, flasks etc. may be dried in an oven at 110 oC, after rinsing in water.
(d) Washing and drying microscope slides and coverslips
Soak slides in any one of the following solutions for 24 hours: chromic acid, concentrated
sulfuric or concentrated nitric acid, equal parts of xylene and methylated spirits, detergent in
water.
Wash in running tap water.
Rinse two or three times in distilled water.
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clothes pegs wooden; copper wire; copper sheet; copper turnings; corks assorted
sizes; cork slab; drill small hand; dry cells torch; fibreglass or plastic or bronze mesh
flyscreen; flannel or wool rags; forks table; G-clamp small; glass drinking;
hacksaw blades coarse teeth; iron filings from foundry; iron nails; iron sewing
needles; iron wire fencing gauge; lenses; marbles; mirrors; olive oil; ping-pong balls; pith
material; plastic ruler; razor blades; rubber balloons; rubber bands variety; rubber suction
cups; silk pieces; silk thread; springs ‘soft’; thermometers; wood screws and screw
eyes; tin with press-on lids, e.g. ice cream tins, or plastic containers; tin snips; cotton
reels wooden; metal pulley wheels from hardware store; brass and iron pins; assorted
hand tools; cardboard cylinders; chalk boxes; grease-proof paper; paste; plasticine.
E. The preparation of sets of apparatus
Sets of apparatus may be prepared for:
(a) consistent use in daily laboratory activities, e.g. glassware sets etc.;
(b) occasional use in demonstrations, or in rotation by student groups; or
(c) individual pupil use.
Therefore, some equipment may be issued from the store in the laboratory as permanent issue, while
other equipment may be issued daily from stock.
(a) Sets for everyday use, e.g. glassware, measuring devices, basic chemicals etc.
These must be established and maintained as breakages and usages reduce the basic stock.
(b) Sets for demonstration.
Basic materials, partially or wholly assembled equipment may be gathered and stored in a
suitable location with a label showing the relevance of the material, e.g. physics apparatus
for demonstrating the Bernoulli effect etc.
(c) Sets for issue.
Many items are normally kept separate and assembled by the student as they are issued
from the store, e.g. batteries, terminals and leads. However, student kits for particular
experiments are frequently stored as complete sets. Materials from these sets should not
be ‘borrowed’ for other experiments.
F. Concept boxes
Materials that may be used to generate activities around basic concepts or generalisations can be
placed together in suitable containers with the concept as the label. This concept may be broad or
narrow and the concept box may be utilised by teacher or pupil, e.g. Physics Electrostatics.
G. General note
Gathered and constructed apparatus that has limited use may be stored, or disassembled and the
components stored. Many components may be used over and over to construct further apparatus.
If a great deal of time has been invested in the construction of an item, it may best be stored in a safe
place, or put on display for motivational purposes. Sometimes there is a temptation to keep apparatus
that has taken a great deal of effort to construct, even if its use is very limited, or if it becomes
redundant. In this case, it should not be retained.
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(c) Some materials will act as replacements while other items will need storage space assigned
to them.
(d) It is desirable that items of ‘short life’, e.g. dry cells, be date-stamped before storage. This
procedure is also useful with consumable stock such as chemicals, to reduce possible
wastage of those chemicals that may deteriorate with storage. Annotation of the label, with
a felt pen, of the year of supply of the item and storage of stock such as chemicals with
oldest stock in front helps to reduce wastage.
(e) Items marked ‘to follow’ on invoices will be supplied when obtainable unless schools signify
that they are no longer required.
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(a) Remove cap from can. With the control (b) Close the sleeve holes. Light a match.
knob in the ‘off’ position, push the plug-in Turn the control knob slowly to the ‘on’
valve firmly onto the can. position until gas flows. Light the
burner. Adjust the gas control knob and
sleeve on the bunsen burner.
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PROBLEMS
(a) If the flame is poor you should:
• check the gas content of the can;
• check that the plug-in valve is seated correctly; or
• adjust the gas control knob.
(b) If the flame is still poor, turn off the gas and wait for
the burner to cool. Unscrew the burner head and turn
on the gas. Use the jet pricker wire (supplied with the
burner) to clear the jet by inserting the pricker wire into
the jet hole and moving it up and down until the jet is
clear and the gas flow is normal. Relight the burner as
above.
DO’S AND DON’TS
(a) Use the burner only in a draught-free area.
(b) Always keep the can upright when the burner is alight.
(c) Check any warnings on the can.
(d) Allow the burner to cool before you move or store it.
(e) Dispose of can properly, i.e. do not puncture or incinerate it.
(f) Never turn the gas on without lighting the burner (gas forms an explosive mixture in air).
(g) Low melting point objects (e.g. plastics, solder, lead) should not be heated directly over the
barrel of the burner. (Melted pieces may fall inside the barrel). Instead, hold the burner on
an angle, as shown.
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PROBLEMS
(a) Match blown out.
• Turn gas off.
• Start from Step 5 to relight the burner.
(b) Blow back (or strike back) this means the gas is burning inside the barrel of the burner.
• Turn gas off.
• Allow to cool barrel could be extremely hot.
• Start from Step 5 to relight burner.
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7.2.10 GLASSWARE
CUTTING TUBING
(a) Place the tube flat on the table. Measure the
required length. Hold the tube firmly and draw
a triangular file across it a couple of times so
that a scratch is made. Do not saw back and
forth. (One or two firm cuts is usually
sufficient.)
(b) Take the tube in both hands, one each side of
the scratch, as shown. Keep your thumbs as
close as possible to the scratch. Press gently
with your thumbs and pull with your fingers.
The two pieces of tubing should separate.
Brute strength is not needed. If the tube does
not break easily, make the file scratch a little
deeper and longer.
(c) Light the burner, and open the air hole. This
gives a hot blue flame. Warm one end of the
tubing by passing it through the flame a few
times. When the tubing is warm, rotate the end
of the tube in the flame until the glass begins
to turn yellow and melt a little. Keep rotating
the tube until the rough edges become smooth.
Do not heat too much and do not stop rotating.
Place the hot glass on a gauze mat to cool.
The end is now fire-polished.
(d) When the tube is cool, fire-polish the other cut
end. Again allow to cool.
(e) Make sure all broken glass is put in a special
labelled container not in the waste paper
basket.
BENDING TUBING
(a) Light the burner and open the air hole. This
gives a hot blue flame. Using both hands,
move the tube back and forth through the top
of the flame. At the same time rotate the tube.
Heat about 5 centimetres of tube.
(b) When the tubing is warm, lower it into the
dark blue cone of the flame. Keep rotating the
tube until it glows red and you sense that the
tube has become soft.
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(c) Take the tube out of the flame and bend it.
Do not force it, and once you have bent it, do
not reheat it.
(d) Hold the tubing until it cools a little. Then put it
on the gauze mat to cool further.
(e) Poor bends.
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7.2.12 THERMOMETERS
The thermometers presently supplied to schools
usually contain alcohol and not mercury.
Where possible, avoid leaving thermometers in
containers as shown, where they are easily
knocked by students. If you wish to monitor the
temperature continuously then it is advisable to
clamp the thermometer in position. If students are
recording the temperature at regular intervals
(say 5 minutes), then the thermometer should be
returned to its case between measurements.
To put a thermometer into a stopper, you should
first cut the stopper.
Under no circumstances should normal thermometers be placed in students’ mouths.
Do not use thermometers to stir liquids.
Sometimes the liquid in a thermometer will separate, making it unusable. This problem can usually be
solved by placing the thermometer in a refrigerator freezer until the liquid recombines. Do not try to
recombine the liquid by heating the thermometer (it may explode!).
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8. GLOSSARY
Term Simple meaning
Acids Compounds that contain hydrogen and dissociate in water to produce positive hydrogen ions.
Alternating current (AC) Current that flows first in one direction and then in the other.
Atmospheric corrosion A reaction between a metal and oxygen and water in the air; rusting is an example.
Autoclaving A strong closed vessel in which steam under pressure effects sterilisation.
Circuit breaker A substance made up of several different elements combined together in definite proportions.
compound`
Carbonates A salt of carbonic acid (CO 32- ). Carbonates react with mineral acids to release carbon dioxide.
Conduction The process in which energy (usually heat or electrical) flows through a substance.
Convection The transfer of heat in a fluid (or gas) by the movement of the fluid itself.
Deflagrating spoon A spoon used for heating small quantities by concentrating the heat.
Desiccator A container for drying substances or keeping them free from moisture.
Diode An electronic component that allows current to flow in one direction only.
Direct current (DC) An electric current that flows in one direction only.
Distillation The process of evaporating a liquid and then condensing the vapour in a separate container.
Electric charge An amount of electricity: there are two kinds of charges - positive and negative.
Electric circuit A complete path around which an electric current can flow.
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Element A substance made up of only one type of atom: it cannot be broken into simpler substances by
chemical reaction.
Emaciation Gradual wasting away resulting in abnormal thinness caused by lack of nutrition.
Fixative The chemical used in the first stage in the preparation of a microscope specimen in which the
tissue is killed and preserved in a natural state.
Formula An abbreviation using chemical symbols, which tells you which elements are in a compound, and
the ratio of these elements
Frict ion A force that occurs whenever two things rub together.
Hazardous substance A substance which may cause risk, danger or harm. (Non-technical definition.)
Inorganic Compounds containing elements other than carbon. Certain simple carbon compounds such as
carbon monoxide and carbonates are usually treated as inorganic compounds.
Insulator A substance that does not allow electricity to move through it.
Ion An atom or group of atoms that has either lost one or more electrons (positively charged) or
gained one or more electrons (negatively charged).
Milliamperes Ampere is the SI base unit of electric current therefore milliampere is one thousandth of an
ampere.
Molecule A particle containing several atoms joined together, always in the same ratio.
Nitrile Organic compounds containing the group -CN bound to an organic group.
Oxidising agent A substance that brings about oxidation in other substances. In oxidising other substances, these
atoms gain electrons.
Parallel circuit An electric circuit in which the parts are connected in parallel to one another.
Parasitic worms Either round-worms or flat-worms that live in the body of another living organism (the host):
often the host suffers a disease because of the parasite.
Petroleum products A naturally occurring oil that consists chiefly of hydrocarbons. The main fractions are gases
(methane, ethane, butane, propane), gasoline, kerosine, diesel oil, lubricating oils, paraffin wax
and bitumen.
pH A measure of acidity.
Phenolics Organic compounds that contain a hydroxyl group (-OH) bound directly to a carbon atom in a
benzene ring.
Potential difference Energy which is stored up, ready to be used, measured in joules (J).
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Radiation Energy that can pass through space or through the air that moves as waves, rays or a stream of
particles.
Resistance The more resistance a wire has, the less current it can carry. Resistance is measured in ohms.
Series circuit An electric circuit in which the parts are connected one after the other.
Staining A technique in which cells or thin sections of biological tissue that are normally transparent are
immersed in one or more coloured dyes.
Symbol An abbreviation of one or two letters that stands for the name of an element.
Transformer A device for transferring electrical energy from one alternating-current circuit to another with a
change of voltage, current, phase, or impedance.
Volt (V) One volt is the force needed to carry one ampere of current against one ohm of resistance.
Weal A small burning or itching swelling on the skin as from a mosquito bite.
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