OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPING ALTERNATE WAYS
TO CONTROL INSECTS
E. F. Knipling, Ph.D.
THE development of new, highly active
chemicals for control of insects during
the past two decades has led to phe-
nomenal successes that affect man's
health and comfort, and his capability
to control pests competing for his
food supplies. There are few vectors of
human disease or few agricultural pests
that cannot be effectively controlled with
one or more of the wide variety of in-
secticides now available. However, co-
incident with these developments, side
effects have emerged that result from the
widespread use of the dozens of new in-
sect-control chemicals. Many of the
insects have become resistant to certain
insecticides, necessitating development
and use of alternate materials. Another
problem of increasing concern to agri-
cultural administrators, public health
officials, conservationists, and the public
in general, relates to the potential hazards
resulting from the use of these pesticides.
The complexity of these problems has
been recognized by many scientists for
many years. About ten years ago the
Entomology Research Division of the
Agricultural Research Service, U. S. De-
partment of Agriculture, began a com-
plete reorientation of its research pro-
gram because of the many complex resi-
due problems and the equally disturbing
evidence of widespread resistance of in-
sects to insecticides. Much of our effort,
in cooperation with industry, was re-
directed to developing safer insecticides.
At the same time, we reappraised the re-
search programs on methods for control
of insects. Within the limits of available
resources, we made every effort to expand
20
research on natural biological control
agents, on specific chemical and physical
attractants, on crop varieties that resist
insect attack, and on the new technic
of employing sterile insects for their own
destruction.
Most of these approaches to insect con-
trol had been investigated before. How-
ever, the successes achieved by these
methods were few in relation to the suc-
cesses attained through research on con-
ventional control chemicals. Neverthe-
less, entomologists, chemists, and other
scientists working on insect problems
were confident that many of the serious
insect problems could be met by develop-
ing alternate methods.
With limited research resources in re-
lation to the magnitude of the problem,
entomologists, chemists, and other scien-
tists working on insects have made sub-
stantial progress during the past decade
in developing such alternate methods.
Some of the new developments arising
from this redirected research effort will
be discussed in this review of progress.
Natural Control Agents
Parasites and Predators
Nature provides a certain balance be-
tween destructive insects and their natural
enemies that aids in regulating the abun-
dance of insect pests. Natural biotic
agents-parasites, insect predators, birds,
rodents, and insect diseases-are among
the most important regulators of pest
populations. Without these agents many
presently unimportant insect species
would become severe pests, and most of
VOL. 55. NO. 7. A.J.P.H.

those- already highly destructive-would
become even more so. The value of na-
tural control becomes apparent when we
discover that a newly introduced pest has
become firmly established before native
agents or introduced parasites could in-
crease enough to limit the buildup of its
population. We further appreciate the
value of such natural biotic agents when
we watch the buildup of certain insects
after their principal parasites and preda-
tors have been destroyed by applications
of insecticide.
Thus, we can hardly overestimate the
importance of natural biotic agents in
regulating insect populations. Every
effort should be made to protect and use
them to the maximum. Unfortunately,
natural control agents alone do not main-
tain the degree of insect control required
to maintain the high standards of health
and the high productivity in agriculture
that modern civilization demands.
Nature generally provides for the sur-
vival of considerable numbers of both
predator and prey. Before an insect
parasite or predator population can build
up to a high level, there must first be a
high population of host insects, a condi-
tion inherent in nature's balance. A
high insect host population, in turn,
means severe attack on the plant or ani-
mal on which the insect lives. All this
has been going on for thousands of years
and may take place without the direct in-
fluence of man. For centuries man has
been plagued by insects which transmit
devastating diseases and destroy his
crops and livestock. Even before it was
known that mosquitoes were vectors of
malaria, lice the vectors of typhus, or
fleas the vectors of plague, epidemics of
these diseases occurred with devastating
consequences. Locusts and other plant
pests caused famine long before chemi-
cals were used for their control. Forest
insects destroyed vast areas of our forest
resources long before modern methods of
control could be applied.
Undoubtedly, the use of broad-spec-
JULY. 1965
ALTERNATE WAYS TO CONTROL INSECTS
trum insecticides or even rigid cultural
practices can give rise to new pest prob-
lems or aggravate others. But the point
I wish to make is that normal variations
in the relative numbers of parasites
and hosts can lead to serious pest prob-
lems, even without the adverse effects re-
sulting from any unbalance that man can
create.
In spite of these known limitations, the
Department of Agriculture and certain of
our states have directed substantial efforts
to the utilization of parasites and preda-
tors to help control pests. We have
searched the world for natural enemies
that might be established elsewhere to
help control introduced pests. The U. S.
Department of Agriculture, the state of
California, and other states have imported
and liberated over 600 different kinds of
parasites and predators in an effort to
help control about 150 different species
of insect pests. In some instances the
efforts were met with marked success.
Release in California of ladybird beetles
from Australia in 1888 provided virtually
complete control of the cottony cushion
scale. Release and establishment in
Mexico of hymenopterous parasites re-
sulted in excellent control of the citrus
black fly. Releases of natural enemies of
the European corn borer, gypsy moth,
Japanese beetle, spotted alfalfa aphid,
sugarcane borer, and other important in-
sects have been partially successful. With-
out such releases these and other intro-
duced pests would be much more destruc-
tive, but unfortunately other methods are
still needed to control them.
Further search for parasites and preda-
tors should continue as a vital part of
the overall effort to control destructive
insects. Similar efforts should be made
to release insects and other biological
agents for the control of weeds. In rela-
tion to the investment of funds, such
action is highly productive. However,
we cannot expect to obtain satisfactory
control of most of the insects of greatest
importance by this method alone. We
21
may achieve more dependable control of
destructive insects with natural biotic
agents than we have in the past, but our
successes with this method will depend
on the progress we can make in tipping
the balance in favor of the biotic agents.
Ways to use natural biological agents
more effectively are not being ignored.
Certain research workers in California
and other states, in Canada, and in other
countries are investigating ways to prop-
erly integrate biological and chemical
control. If we could take full advantage
of the influence that parasites and preda-
tors exert in regulating insect populations,
and if we could use the proper insecti-
cides in the proper amounts at the proper
time to further reduce the destructive
insect populations, without impairing the
work of the natural enemies, we could
fully profit from both biological and
chemical methods. The Entomology Re-
search Division continues to be interested
in research on parasites and predators.
A new laboratory to investigate different
principles of biological control is being
established at Columbia, Missouri. Re-
search at this laboratory will emphasize
basic ways to supplement nature in
effective utilization of insect parasites
and predators.
Microbial Agents
Microbial agents are among the
natural biotic-control forces of vital im-
portance in regulating insect populations.
The method of spreading the spores of
milky disease of the Japanese beetle, as
developed by S. R. Dutky of the U. S.
Department of Agriculture, has been an
important factor in limiting population
buildup and spread of this introduced
insect. Microbial agents are receiving
more attention in research throughout the
world. Both the research and teaching
of E. A. Steinhaus, an eminent insect
pathologist at the University of Cali-
fornia, Berkeley, have stimulated much
of the work in this area.
22
Several pathogens offer promise as in-
sect control agents. Bacillus thur-
ingiensis var. thuringiensis, one of the
more effective microbial agents, is now a
weapon for insect control. It can be
effectively used against a variety of pests,
including the cabbage looper, diamond-
back moth, alfalfa caterpillar, and
tobacco hornworm.
Under investigation are insect viruses
that experimentally give good control of
certain important insects, including the
alfalfa caterpillar, cabbage looper, Euro-
pean pine sawfly, European spruce saw-
fly, gypsy moth, corn earworm, and sev-
eral kinds of tent caterpillars. Several
varieties of fungi, protozoa, and other
organisms attack insects. With continued
and expanded research, there is reason
to believe that many insect pests can be
directly controlled by microbial agents.
Potentially, the use of microbial agents
would seem to offer many of the desirable
features of insecticides; but their prin-
cipal advantage is that generally they
are highly specific in their affect on
certain insects and thus would not be
hazardous to other forms of life.
Varietal Resistance
The most desirable way to deal with
pest problems on plants is to develop and
use crop varieties that are resistant to
attack by insects, plant diseases, and
other plant pests. Intensive research by
entomologists and plant breeders for
many years has provided us with a wide
selection of desirable wheat varieties,
adaptable to many areas and virtually
immune to damage by the Hessian fly.
The cost of growing resistant wheat com-
pares favorably with that of growing sus-
ceptible varieties. In addition, no ad-
verse side effects result from control by
this means.
Substantial success has been achieved
with other crops and insects. Certain
corn varieties possessing resistance to the
VOL. 55, NO. 7, A.J.P.H.

European corn borer have been de-
veloped. Federal and state entomologists
and plant breeders have made great prog-
ress in this direction. Corn growers can
expect less damage by the European corn
borer in the years ahead, as agro-
nomically desirable resistant varieties are
developed for different areas and grown
in lieu of the more susceptible varieties.
The discovery of resistance to the
spotted alfalfa aphid in a commercial
variety of alfalfa, soon after the acci-
dental introduction of this pest in the
mid-50's, represents one of the most out-
standing successes in meeting a pest
problem through resistant varieties. This
alfalfa variety, called Lahonton, was
originally developed by plant breeders to
control a nematode. Entomologists and
plant breeders also found it highly re-
sistant to the aphid. Other highly re-
sistant and agronomically acceptable
varieties are also being made available
to growers.
Sweet corn varieties highly resistant
to the corn earworm are available. A
similar degree of resistance to this insect
in agronomically acceptable field corn
varieties could materially contribute to a
reduction in losses caused by this major
insect pest.
In general, considerable progress has
been made in research conducted on the
varietal approach to insect control. How-
ever, relatively few insect problems have
been attacked by this method. The
reason is that it may take from 10 to 25
years of research to discover and in-
corporate insect-resistant factors into suit-
able varieties. When a grower is faced
with a serious pest problem, he cannot
afford to wait this long for a solution.
Research resources have been too limited
to carry out both immediate and long-
range approaches. For long-range solu-
tions, such as the varietal method, the
public must be prepared to make sub-
stantial investments in research today in
order to realize practical application of
the results in 10 to 25 years.
JULY, 1965
ALTERNATE WAYS TO CONTROL INSECTS
The Autocidal Approach to
Insect Control
The release of large numbers of screw-
worm flies made sterile by gamma radia-
tion led to the eradication of screw-
worms, from the Island of Curacao and
from the southeastern United States. This
method is being used successfully in a
much larger and much more difficult
program in the Southwest at the present
time. The same technic has been suc-
cessfully applied to eliminate populations
of tropical fruit flies in pilot experiments
conducted on islands in the Pacific. Re-
leases of chemically sterilized Mexican
fruit fly males are now being made to
prevent the establishment of this insect
along the Mexico-California border. The
method has replaced the use of insecti-
cide bait sprays for controlling this in-
sect in that area. The autocidal pro-
cedure for controlling or eradicating
insects offers a new approach to pest
control. Substantial research effort is
now being expended by the Entomology
Research Division and several other re-
search institutions in order to explore its
possibilities for broader application.
In view of the interest in this new
method, we may consider in some detail
the limitations and potentialities of the
sterile-insect control procedure. The
method, as we now visualize its applica-
tion, has several limitations. Production
and release of sterile males alone will not
be feasible for controlling all insects. But
as we gain new insight into ways of em-
ploying the method effectively and
efficiently, we should find it practical
and highly advantageous to link the use
of sterile insects with other methods of
control.
To make the application of the sterile-
insect releases feasible and practical, we
must meet several requirements and take
several factors into account. (1) A
method of rearing the insect in large
numbers must be developed. (2) A
method of producing sterility without de-
23
 stroying the competitiveness of the males
must be available. (3) The natural
population of the insect must reach a
very low level at some point during the
seasonal cycle or it must be reduced by
other means to such a low level that over-
flooding it with sterile males will be prac-
tical. (4) The sterile insects, when re-
leased, must not cause significant damage
to crops, livestock, or man at the level
required to achieve control or eradica-
tion of the natural population.
The sterile-insect-release method has
one inherent advantage over most other
methods of insect control. The applica-
tion of insecticides, like most other sys-
tems of insect control, becomes less
efficient as the population declines. The
cost of eliminating the last 1 per cent
of an insect population by the use of
chemicals is generally just as high, or
perhaps even higher, than the cost for
eliminating the first 99 per cent. Each
treatment with insecticides costs es-
sentially the same regardless of the popu-
lation density of the organism. However,
the sterile-insect method becomes more
and more efficient as the population de-
clines. Thus, in the final stages of eradi-
cation, the procedure may prove to be
more economical and efficient against
many insect pests, and possibly even
against some vertebrate pests, than other
methods. With the boll weevil, for ex-
ample, we know that we can readily re-
duce population levels to a few boll
weevils per acre with insecticides. When
such levels are reached, we might then
release a few hundred sterile males per
acre at regular intervals to reduce the
natural population to zero. This level of
release would not cause significant
damage to cotton, but it might prove to
be more desirable, more effective, and
more economical than further applica-
tion of insecticides.
Use of the sterile-male-release method,
especially when employed as an adjunct
to the minimum use of insecticides,
should provide an effective and practical
24
way to eliminate populations of tsetse
flies. In a new research project, con-
ducted by the Entomology Research Divi-
sion and sponsored by the Agency for
International Development, we are ex-
ploring the possibilities of utilizing
sterile-insect releases as an aid to control
or eradicate these important insects on
the African Continent. In general, re-
search to develop the sterile-insect technic
is progressing well. Some of the most
important insect pests we are studying
with regard to possible application of this
technic include several species of tropical
fruit flies, the pink bollworm, boll weevil,
codling moth, tobacco hornworm, and
other insects of agricultural and medical
importance. These are among the major
insect pests that are responsible for the
most extensive use of insecticides in our
environment.
Substantial research is also being per-
formed by the Entomology Research
Division to explore the possibility of con-
trolling insects by inducing sterility in
the natural population instead of by
killing the insects in the conventional
manner. Several promising chemosteril-
ants for insects have been found. Theo-
retically, control of insects can be
achieved much more efficiently by pro-
ducing appropriate sterility in the natural
population than by killing the organism.
When insects in the natural environment
are sterilized, the direct effect upon re-
production is equivalent to killing. In
addition, the sterile insects, if competi-
tive in mating, can nullify the reproduc-
tive potential of the unexposed normal
population.
Thus, the combination of these separate
influences on reproduction is far greater
than the effect achieved by destroying
the same percentage of a given insect
population by insecticides. Obtaining
sterility by chemical means is still in the
experimental stage. It is too early to say
whether the method will be developed for
practical use since much additional re-
search is needed. Current investigations
VOL. 55. NO. 7. A.J.P.H.

are being conducted with special em-
phasis on safety because we do not know
how hazardous chemosterilants might be
to other organisms. However, use of the
natural pest population to furnish sterile
organisms for its own destruction pre-
sents many possibilities for controlling
both invertebrate and vertebrate pests.
The full development of this procedure
offers a real challenge to scientists of the
future.
Insect Attractants
For more than one hundred years, at-
tractants of different kinds and for a
wide range of insect species have been
investigated. Generally, however, at-
tempts to control insects with baits, light,
or other attractants have met with dis-
appointment. However, because of new
knowledge, new technics, and new con-
cepts of how to employ these agents, we
have experienced several successes with
them during recent years. The protein
hydrolysate-malathion bait-spray for fruit
fly control is one of the most outstanding
examples. This combination does not
eliminate the need for an insect toxicant,
but it has allowed the amount of toxicant
required to be reduced by about 75 per
cent. The use of granular sweetened
baits containing toxicants for house fly
control represents another outstanding
success in achieving insect control with a
specific bait containing only a small
amount of a toxicant.
A more recent development, which
may provide effective control for the fire
ant without creating significant side
effects to other organisms, is the mirex-
soybean oil-corncobrits-bait combination.
With this material only a few grams of
insect toxicant per acre are required to
achieve fire ant control. This amount is
less than 5 per cent of the insecticide
required when even the best toxicant is
applied without the bait. Success in the
use of an attractant bait for this con-
troversial insect problem should provide
further stimulus to research.
JULY, 1965
ALTERNATE WAYS TO CONTROL INSECTS
Other types of attractants offer possi-
bilities for future development. Using
methyl eugenol in pilot tests, we eradi-
cated from the Island of Rota the oriental
fruit fly, one of the major pests of tropi-
cal fruit. This chemical is a powerful
and specific attractant for males of this
insect. This demonstration of eradicat-
ing an insect population by male an-
nihilation represents a breakthrough in
the field of insect attractants. The re-
cent discovery of the structure of the
attractant in virgin female gypsy moths,
plus the synthesis of a related chemical
possessing a high level of attractancy to
males of this insect, represents another
outstanding development. The Ento-
mology Research Division and many of
the State Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tions and universities have intensified
their research on sex attractants in in-
sects. The presence in virgin females of
an extractable substance that produces a
high level of response in males has been
demonstrated in such important insects
as the pink bollworm, European corn
borer, southern armyworm, tobacco horn-
worm, tobacco budworm, cucumber
beetle, peach tree borer, codling moth,
house fly, and many others. Some years
ago, research workers with the Depart-
ment of the Army at Natick, Massa-
chusetts, extracted from female cock-
roaches a substance that is highly at-
tractive to the males. Chemists with the
Entomology Research Division deter-
mined the structure of this substance and
are making efforts to synthesize it.
These are examples of research prog-
ress with insect attractants. By taking
full advantage of new technics for ex-
tracting, identifying, and synthesizing
specific attractants present in insects or in
specific host plants, and by utilizing traps,
toxicants, or chemosterilants, researchers
can expect to make substantial progress
in developing specific attractants for the
control of insects.
The use of physical attractants for in-
sects also offers new opportunities for in-
25
sect control. Through joint efforts by
entomologists and agricultural engineers
of the Agricultural Research Service, and
with the cooperation of the North Caro-
lina and other State Agricultural Experi-
ment Stations, large-scale experiments
are under way to determine the effect on
tobacco hornworm populations of light
traps being operated in a large area.
Although it is too early to say whether
or not this method will offer practical
control of these insects, results have been
extremely encouraging.
General Comments
Even from this sketchy discussion of
alternative methods of insect control, the
reader will most likely realize that en-
tomologists and others engaged in con-
trolling insects must continue in the im-
mediate future to place reliance on in-
secticides. However, progress with other
methods of insect control suggests that if
we intensify our efforts, we should be
able to find new ways to control many of
our important agricultural pests as well
as human disease vectors.
Whether or not the alternate control
methods under consideration involve the
use of parasites, predators, microbial
agents, resistant crop varieties, the auto-
cidal principle, or chemical or physical
attractants, they all have one feature in
Dr. Knipling is director, Entomology Research Division, Agricultural Research
Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Md.
26
common. They are designed to be
specific in effect on the organisms to be
controlled. Control by these methods
should completely avoid or greatly mini-
mize hazards to man and his environ-
ment.
The report of the President's Science
Advisory Committee on the use of pesti-
cides fully subscribed to these new ap-
proaches to insect control and recom-
mended an intensification of research on
such methods. The current Congress, in
recognizing the need for more research
support on pest control problems, pro-
vided substantial increases in funds for
research by federal and state research in-
stitutions. We have reason to be optimis-
tic for the future. I am confident that
we can develop ways to control most in-
sects through specific chemical, biologi-
cal, genetic, or physical means-ways
that will be equally or more effective than
current methods and that will virtually
eliminate side effects. However, we must
not underestimate the magnitude of the
task before us. We must keep in mind
that thousands of pests affect man, plants,
and animals. Each one of them has dif-
ferent habits and behavior. Such pests
are found in almost every conceivable
environment. They are more adaptable
than we tend to think they are in resist-
ing man's efforts to control them.
VOL. 55, NO. 7, A.J.P.H.