Summary Statistics Population: entire collection or outcomes about which information is sought.

. Sample: subset of a population, containing the objects or outcomes that are actually observed. Simple Random Sample: size n is a sample chosen by a method in which each collection of n population items is equally likely to comprise the sample (i.e. a lottery) *Sample items are independent if knowing the values of some of the items does not help predict the values of others. Sample Mean: gives an indication of the center of the data Sample Standard Deviation: gives an indication of spreadoutedness

Histograms: skewed right if tail is to the right (mean>median), skewed left is tail is to the left (mean < median). Anatomy of a box plot 1. Compute the median and 1st(median of 1st half) and 3rd(median of 2nd half) quartiles. Q3 Q1 is the Inter quartile range IQR 2. Draw fences at Q11.5IQR and Q3+1.5IQR. Extend whiskers from box to fences. 3. Plot outliers individually (anything outside the upper and lower fences) Probability The set of all possible outcomes of an experiment is called the sample space for the experiment. A subset of a sample space is called an event. Combining events The union of two events A and B, denoted , is the set of outcomes that belong either to A, to be or to both; means A or B, thus indicating that the event occurs when either A or B (or both) occurs. The intersection of two events A and B, denoted , is the set of outcomes that belong both to A and B; means A and B the event occurring when both A and B occur. The complement of an event A, denoted Ac, is the set of outcomes that do not belong to A, meaning not A, the events occurring when A does not occur. *Two events A and B are mutually exclusive is they have no outcomes in common. Axioms of Probability 1. Let S be a sample space. Then P(S)=1 4. For any event A, P(Ac)=1-P(A) 2. For any event A, 0P(A)1 5. Let denote the empty set, then P()=0 3. If A and B are mutually exclusive events, then 6. P( )=P(A)+P(B)-P( ). Note that if A and B are P( )=P(A)+P(B) mutually exclusive, P( )=0. *A probability that is based on a part of a sample space is called a conditional probability. An unconditional probability is one based on the entire sample space. Let A and B be events where P(B)0. The conditional probability of A given B is

Two events A and B are independent if the probability of each event remains the same whether or not the other occurs. If P(A)0 and P(B)0, then | | A and B are independent if or if . If either P(A)=0 or P(B)=0, then A and B are independent. | . The Multiplication Rule: If A and B are two events with P(B)0, then P( )=P(B) | . If A and B are two events with P(A)0, then P( )=P(A) | =P(A) and | =P(B) so the above condense to P( When two events are independent, then )=P(A)P(B). Law of Total Probability: If A1,An are mutually exclusive and exhaustive (meaning their union covers the whole sample space) events, and B is in any event, then P(B)= P( ) + P( ). Equivalently, if P(Ai)0 for each Ai then P(B)= P | P(A1) + P | P(An). Bayes Rule: Let A and B be events with P(A)0 and P(Ac)0 and P(B)0 then

Random Variables An assignment of a numerical value to an outcome of an experiment is called a random variable. Random variables can de discrete (coming from a finite set with gaps between the ordered values) or continuous (contained on an interval). The probability mass function of a discrete random variable X is the function p(x)=P(X=x). The PMF is sometimes called the probability distribution. A function called the cumulative distribution function specifies the probability that a random variable is less than or equal to a given value. F(x)=P(Xx) F(x)= , and where the sum is over all possible values of x. The population mean of a discrete random variable can be thought of as the mean of a hypothetical sample that follows the probability distribution perfectly. Let X be a discrete random variable with probability mass function p(x)=P(X=x), the mean (or expected Value E[V]) of X is given by The population standard deviation is the square root of the variance (also V[X]) described as

Therefore, the standard deviation is Continuous Random Variables A random variable is continuous if its probabilities are given by areas under a curve. The curve is called the probability density function for the random variable. The pdf is sometimes called the probability distribution. Let X be a CRV with probability density function f(x) and let a and b be any two numbers with a<b. Then P(aXb)= P(aX<b)= P(a<Xb)=
P(a<X<b)= . In addition P(Xb)=P(X<b)= and P(Xa)=P(X>a)= . Note that Let X be a CRV with probability density function f(x). The cumulative distribution function of X is the function Let X be a CRV with probability density function f(x), the mean of X (E[V], or center of mass) is given by Let X be a CRV with probability density function f(x), the variance of X (V[X], or the moment of inertia) is given by

or , Therefore, standard deviation Let X be a CRV with probability density function f(x) and If p is a number between 0 and 100, the pth percentile is the cumulative distribution function F(x), the median of X is given by point xp that solves the equation ( , , , ) ( )

Linear Functions of Random Variables If X is a random variable and b is a constant, then If X is a random variable and a is a constant, then , If X is a random variable and a and b are constants, then If X and Y are random variables and a and b are constants, then If X1, X2, X3, Xn, are independent random variables, then If X and Y are independent random variables with and

(the spreadoutedness does not change)

| | , , , and | |

, then