Miranda Rights in India

Law and Poverty
ACCESS TO JUSTICE:
ARGUING FOR MIRANDA RIGHTS IN INDIA
Submitted to;
Dr. K. Kannabiran,
Dr. N. Vasanthi
Nalsar Law University
Submitted by;
Aditya Swarup,
Roll no. 06, II year
Date of submission: 23rd Janurary 2006
NALSAR UNIVERSITY OF LAW,
HYDERABAD
Law and Poverty

Access to Justice : Arguing for Miranda Rights in India
1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INDEX OF AUTHORITIES..........................................................................................................i
Statutes Referred:...................................................................................................................................... i
Cases Referred: ................................................................................................................................. ......ii
INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................................1
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................3
Aims and Objectives.................................................................................................................... ............3
Scope of the Research................................................................................................................... ...........3
Research Pattern............................................................................................................. .........................4
Disclaimer........................................................................................................................................... .....4
Acknowledgments......................................................................................................... ..........................4
1. CRITIQUING LEGAL AID MECHANISMS ........................................................................5
1.1 The Theoretical aspect of Legal Aid.................................................................................................. .5
1.2 Analysing the Findings from the Survey............................................................................. ...............6
2. DK BASU AND BEYOND .......................................................................................................8
2.1 What are the DK Base Guidelines................................................................................................ ......8
2.2 The Implementation of DK Basu Guidelines ............................................................ ........................9
2.3 Juveniles and the System ............................................................................................................... ..11
3. POLICE AND THE LAW.......................................................................................................13
3.1 The fallacy of Ignorantia Juris Non Excusat............................................................ ........................13
3.2 The Police and Implementation of the Law................................................................................. .....14
3.3 Police Brutalities in India......................................................................................................... ........15
3.4 Reforms in the Police Act .................................................................................... ...........................16
CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................17
BIBLIOGRAPHY .........................................................................................................................ii
Books Referred ........................................................................................................................... ............ii
Articles Referred .................................................................................................................................... .ii
Reports .......................................................................................................................... ........................iii
ANNEXURE ..................................................................................................................................ii
I. The DK Basu Guidelines .......................................................................................................... ...........ii
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II. List of Police Stations Visited ................................................................................ ............................v

III. Model Questionnaire..................................................................................................................... ....vi
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INDEX OF AUTHORITIES
Statutes Referred:
• The Constitution of India
• The Indian Penal Code, 1860
• The Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973
• The Indian Police Act, 1861
• The Universal Declaration on Human Rights, 1948
• The Juvenile Justice Act. 1986
• Criminal Justice and Public Order Act, 1994 (United Kingdom).
• Strafprozessordnung (German Criminal Procedure Code)
• The European Union Letter of Rights
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Cases Referred:
Arnit Das v. State of Bihar, AIR 2000 SC 226..............................................................................12

Biswanath Prasad Singh v. State of Bihar, 1994 Cri LJ 242...........................................................2
Dickerson v. United States, 530 US 428........................................................................................15
Dilip Saha v. State of West Bengal, AIR 1978 Cal 529..................................................................12
DK Basu v. State of West Bengal, (1997) 1 SCC 416......................................................................3
Hussainara Khatoon v. State of Bihar, 1980 (1) SC 1369...............................................................6
Khetri v. State of Bihar, 1981 (1) SCC 635.....................................................................................6
Krishna Bhagwan v. State of Bihar, AIR 1989 Pat. 217................................................................12
Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India, AIR 1978 SC 597.....................................................................2
Miranda v. Arizona, 384 US 436.........................................................................................3, 14, 17
Nilabati Bahera v. State of Orissa, (1993) 2 SCC 746..................................................................10
Prakash Singh v. Union of India, (2006) 8 SCC 1.........................................................................16
Ranjan Dwivedi v. Union of India, 1983 (3) SCC 307....................................................................6
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Rudul Shah v. State of Bihar, AIR 1983 SC 1086..........................................................................10

Sebastian Hongray v. Union of India, AIR 1984 SC 571..............................................................10
State of Maharashtra v. Mayor Hans George, AIR 1965 SC 722.................................................15
Sukh Das v. Union Territory, 1986 (2) SCC 401.............................................................................6
Vineet Narain v. Union of India, AIR 1998 SC 889 .....................................................................16
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INTRODUCTION
It is very often said that poverty means the degeneration of human rights. Rights, that are meant
to be inalienable to human kind since their existence. One of the most important of these rights
is the right to due process. Every person has a right to life and be tried by fair and just
procedure1. It is highly unfortunate that while law seems to be in place for the protection of such
rights, it fails in its implementation. The citizen is not aware of such law and more often that not,
the poor man has to bear the brunt of actions. Poverty, is inextricably linked to the criminal legal
system when it comes to the ‘access to justice’ and the protection of rights and freedoms.
The right to life and liberty2, of which due process is an essential part has been given the highest
regard in the Constitution and considered inviolable in nature. The ‘procedure established by
law’ as explained in Maneka Gandhi’s case3, must be reasonable, fair and just. In a country where
more than 250 million people are below the poverty line, the fairness of the system still remains
to be seen. The legal system in the country is against the poor. The goals of socialism and
equality have not yet been realized and remain a distant dream. Most laws are made to facilitate
the growth of wealth for the rich and the few that are made for the poor fail in their
implementation. The legal system itself, apart from the provision for legal aid, has done nothing
to support the poor in the country.
Access to justice can be understood in two ways- firstly, getting justice to the victim of a
particular crime and secondly justice, in the protection of the rights of the accused. The
procedure to every conviction must be fair and just. An achievement of justice in a case must
consider the procedure by which it is conducted. Rights must be preserved, procedure must be
followed and the accused must be given a free and fair trial. In the research, I have chosen to
look at the latter aspect of ‘access to justice’. The rights of the accused are vital in the conduct of
a trial. When a poor citizen stands as an accused, he needs to be aware of his rights. He needs to
know that he has a right to free legal aid, a right to have his relatives informed, and most
1
Biswanath Prasad Singh v. State of Bihar, 1994 Cri LJ 242.
2
Article 21, The Constitution of India.
3
Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India, AIR 1978 SC 597.
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importantly, not to be tortured or be subjected to custodial violence. The situation in the Country
is such that with a large majority of the people illiterate, such people are ignorant of their rights
and the government on its part is doing nothing to educate them. It seeks to rest on the clichéd
principle of ignorantia juris non excusat, that ignorance of the law is no excuse.
On the same lines, the Federal Court of the United States in 1966 pronounced the famous
‘Miranda Rights’ in Miranda v. Arizona4. What is said was that on arrest, every person must be
read out his rights and the consequences of such abrogation would be the freedom of the arrested
person. It attached, some degree of accountability on the police and state machinery for the
protection of the rights of the citizens. In India, the case of DK Basu v. State of West Bengal5, the
Court issued directions in the form of requirements that are to be followed at the time of arrest.
In the case, the Court relied on Miranda and tried to secure, atleast in theory, rights to the
accused. However, such procedures are far seen to be implemented. Numerous incidents have
taken place where the police authorities have abused procedure and resorted to violence. This
project looks at rights granted to the accused in relation to poverty and illiteracy. It shall seek to
critique the legal system and address the issue of police accountability that is gaining importance
today. To facilitate his research, the author has conducted a field study, the data collected from
which will be used to further his conclusions about the topic.
4
Miranda v. Arizona, 384 US 436.
5
DK Basu v. State of West Bengal, (1997) 1 SCC 416.
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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Aims and Objectives
This research aims to include some sort of Miranda rights to protect the accused in India. This is
closely linked to the situation of poverty in the Country as most of the people in this groups are
unaware of their rights and the state must act to secure them. It seeks to act as a ground work for
a greater issue, demanding for equality and protection of the rights of the accused.
Scope of the Research
The project includes both empirical and descriptive forms of research. The researcher has used
theoretical arguments and supported his propositions with the help of factual data. In the
descriptive forms of research, many statutes, case law and articles have been studied. The
empirical study involved a field study in the city of Mumbai. The key features of this study were;
• A total of 25 people who were arrested by the police at any time were interview. They
were located in the police stations, Courts and the Arthur Road Under Trial jail.
• 8 police stations were visited and 4 inspectors were interviewed. Of these 3 were located
in high society areas and 5 in the slum areas of Mumbai. The purpose was to see the
disparity in the application of the law to people of various groups.
• The researcher spent 20 days in the Arthur Road jail studying the conditions of the Under
trial accused in the jail.
• The relatives of 7 prisoners were visited in the slum areas of Mumbai that included
Dharavi and Sion.
• 2 juveniles were interviewed in the jail who had not yet been transferred to the juvenile
justice home in Mumbai.
• In selecting the 25 people to be questioned, factors such a income, location, age and
occupation were considered.
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Research Pattern
The project has been divided into three main parts.
• Part One talks about the provision of legal aid and its implementation in the country. On
the basis of the research conducted, it argues that the law is not implemented properly
and proposes certain changes in it.
• Part Two explains the basis of the DK Basu judgment and looks at the application of the
guidelines in the city of Mumbai. This part also talks about the condition of juveniles and
present interesting case studies of the persons interviewed. A passing reference is made
to Women and ‘access to justice’.
• Part Three talks about the issue of police accountability in India. Perspectives are
presented on the fallacy of ignorantia juris and the attitude of the Police towards the
poor. In the end, the changed in the 145 year old Police Act are discussed.
Disclaimer
It is requested that all the prisoner details presented be strictly private and not circulated. The
researcher had to sign a bond as per the Maharshtra Prison Rules for his jail visits which included
that not details be let out.
Acknowledgments
The researcher would like to thank all the people who supported him in his endeavour. This
would include Adv. Vrinda Grover, Ms. Saumya Uma, Co- ordinator, ICC- India, Ms. Madhu
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Mehra, Director, Partners for Law and Development and Mr. Vijay Raghavan, Director,
PRAYAS. The warm hospitality of the prisoners and their families is also appreciated.
1. CRITIQUING LEGAL AID MECHANISMS
1.1 The Theoretical aspect of Legal Aid
In 1976, an Amendment was passed to the constitution mandating for free legal aid. The Article
provides that, the State shall secure that the operation of the legal system promotes justice and
provide free legal aid so that justice is not denied to anyone. 6 The right to free legal service is an
essential ingredient of reasonable, fair and just procedure for a person accused of an offence and
it is implicit in the guarantee of Article 21 of the Constitution of India.7 The Courts have the
responsibility for interpreting the Constitution so as to ensure implementation of the directives
and to harmonize the social objective underlying the rights of individuals8.
In the famous Bhagalpur Blindings Case, the Hon’ble Supreme Court observed that a large
majority of the population is illiterate and an even more number is not aware of the rights
conferred upon them by law.9 The law ceases to be their protector because they do not know that
they are entitled to the protection of law and they can avail of the legal services programme for
putting an end to their suffering.10 Today, the Magistrate or the Sessions judge is under an
obligation to ask the accused if he has access to a lawyer or is unable to engage a lawyer on
account of poverty and indigence. If so then the State must provide him with one. The obligation
6
Article 39 A, The Constitution of India.
7
Hussainara Khatoon v. State of Bihar, 1980 (1) SC 1369.
8
Ranjan Dwivedi v. Union of India, 1983 (3) SCC 307.
9
Khetri v. State of Bihar, 1981 (1) SCC 635.
10
DJ De, “The Constitution of India”, p. 1428.
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is upon the State to provide him with one and the accused need not necessarily apply for legal
aid. The Supreme Court has held that it would be a mockery of the legal aid program if it were to
be left to the poor, ignorant and illiterate to ask for legal aid.11 In doing so, the State cannot cite
financial constraints and other reasons for not providing a lawyer. The law does not permit the
State to deprive its citizens of constitutional rights on a plea of poverty.
The Constitutional provisions of legal aid have also been used to expand and interpret the right
conferred by Section 304 of the Code of Criminal Procedure12 which states that when the accused
does not have means to engage a pleader, the Court must assign him with one.
1.2 Analysing the Findings from the Survey
While the above gives us an idea of the theoretical side of legal aid in India, the greater issue at
hand is whether it is being practiced the way it is envisioned. Statutory declarations do create
rights but they are to be followed up by the executive for their enforcement.13 At this stage, we
shall glance at the findings of our field study that was conducted in the city of Mumbai.
Table 1.1
11
Sukh Das v. Union Territory, 1986 (2) SCC 401
12
Section 304, the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973.
13
YK Sabherwal, “Access to Justice; Role of Law and Legal Institutions in the Alleviation of Poverty and
Deprivation”, Inaugural address in the Golden Jubilee regional seminar of the Indian Law Institute at Cuttack, 9th
September 2006.
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We can conclude from the data presented in table 1.1 that about 77 % of the questioned accused
were not aware of the provision of free legal aid at the time of arrest. While that remains the data
collected from around 25 people, national statistics show us that more than 80 percent of the
people who are arrested do not have an idea of the provision for legal aid.14
The above analysis represents the figures of people who were not aware of the provision of free
legal aid at the time for arrest. However, the law says that after arrest, upon bringing the accused
in front of the Magistrate, it is the Magistrate’s duty to ask the accused if he has access to a
lawyer and if not inform that the state will provide him with one. After this stage, every
interrogated accused was aware of the provision for free legal aid. It remains to be seen whether
such legal provisions are strictly implemented or not?
Studies show us that apart from 2 of the interviewed people, none of them were provided with a
State lawyer after the first appearance. Most of them now have access to a lawyer thanks to
NGOs like PRAYAS and the India Centre for Human Rights and Law. A few people did not have
access to a lawyer for at least 4 months until an Ngo came to their rescue. This is not the
situation only in the city of Mumbai. Reports show us that today, there are still a large majority
of people in jails without lawyers.15 I would like to suggest then that the provision for a free
lawyer should be made at the stage of the arrest and not at the stage of trial when he is brought
before a magistrate. Also, the DK Basu guidelines that state that the accused may be given the
opportunity to have a lawyer with him during interrogation should be amended to ‘must be given
an opportunity to have a lawyer during interrogation’. In this manner, the accused will also be
aware of his rights with the help of the lawyers. It is hoped that such provisions are given
important in government policies to protect the rights of the accused.
14
“Prisoners and Access to Justice”, http://www.hslsa.nic.in/PLLM%20Book.doc (11 Januray 2007)
15
Report of the Department of Legal Affairs, http://lawmin.nic.in/An_rep/Chapter1.htm (15th January 2007).
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2. DK BASU AND BEYOND
2.1 What are the DK Base Guidelines
In 199616, the Supreme Court of India came up with significant guidelines to protect the rights of
the accused. The decision was concurrent with the aspect of poverty and illiteracy in the Indian
society. It is a judgment that came in light of the abuse of power by the police and issues of
custodial violence. Today, this decision is regarded as revolutionary in the sense that it protects
the rights of the accused in the country. To put it simply, the DK Basu guidelines 17 state the
following;
(1) Clear identification of the police personnel carrying out the arrest.
(2) A memo of the arrest must be prepared that must be attested by a relation or a respectable
person in the locality.
(3) The arrested person shall be entitled that a friend or relative know of his arrest.
(4) The person arrested must be made aware of this right to have someone informed of his
arrest or detention as soon as he is put under arrest or is detained.
(5) The arrested person must undergo a medical examination to check for any bodily injuries.
(6) Such medical examination should take place every 48 hours during his custody.
16
DK Basu v. Union of India, AIR 1997 SC 610.
17
Ibid. at para 36.
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(7) The arrestee may be permitted to meet his lawyer during interrogation, though not
throughout the interrogation.
(8) A police control room should be provided at all district and state headquarters, where
information regarding the arrest and the place of custody of the arrestee shall be
communicated by the officer causing the arrest, within 12 hours of effecting the arrest and at
the police control room it should be displayed on a conspicuous notice board.
Furthermore, a failure on the part of the State official not to make the arrested person aware of
such rights shall render the concerned official liable for police action. Such person may also be
punished for contempt of court18 that may be instituted by the High Court of any State. Also, the
arrested person then gets a right to compensation19 for the violation of his rights under Articles 14
and 21 of the Constitution of India. However, none of the procedures to the followed above shall
affect the ongoing investigation process. The accused shall still be tried as a normal convict.
The Court in the present case directed the Director General of Police and the Home Secretary of
every State to see to it that such instructions are notified at every police station and put up in a
conspicuous place.20 Such boards are to be in three languages; English, hindi and the local
language.
2.2 The Implementation of DK Basu Guidelines
With this theoretical understanding, we shall now look at the grouped data collected during the
field work. I must say that many interesting inferences were drawn while doing the study that
further support the notion for stronger rights for the accused in India.
Table 2.1
18
Section 345, Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973.
19
Nilabati Bahera v. State of Orissa, (1993) 2 SCC 746 : Sebastian Hongray v. Union of India, AIR 1984 SC 571:
Rudul Shah v. State of Bihar, AIR 1983 SC 1086.
20
DK Basu v. Union of India, AIR 1997 SC 610 (para 40).
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Table 2.2
Table 2.3
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In table 2.1 , we can see that only 27 % of the people questioned were made aware of the rights
as read out in the DK Basu judgment. A majority of these rights included the right to have their
relatives informed, to know about the offences they were charged of and they did not know about
the results of their medical tests. While table 2.1 is more general in nature, table 2.2 tells us as to
how many prisoners were informed of the grounds of their arrest. Only 61 % of the people
interviewed were informed of the grounds of their arrest. This can be viewed as a blatant
violation of procedure.
We can take the case of one Sunil Ramajaiswal in this scenario. Upon arrest he was told that he
was being charged for an offence of robbery under Section 392 of the Indian Penal Code. When
he was brought to the Court, the judge informed him that he was being charged for three more
offences: wrongful restraint21, hurt22 and endangering the safety23 of others at separate instances.
The judge did not take cognizance of the above incident and sent him to the Under Trial jail.
Even after six months, his chargesheet is yet to be given to him. He had not got a hearing for the
past 4 months.
Table 2.3 shows us that around 82% of the relatives of the people arrested were informed of the
arrest. While this is much better than the other data collected, the result remains far from
satisfactory. The above three tables show us that the implementation of the guidelines of the
Courts have largely failed. They had been made to secure the rights of the poor but are not used
to protect them. The system in the country has always been against the poor and doesn’t work for
their upliftment.
2.3 Juveniles and the System
The rights of juveniles have always been a point of discussion in the legal system. The Courts
have always sought protection for them. At present, they are ought to be governed by the
Juvenile Justice Act24. The common procedure is that when a person is arrested, his medical test
is ought to be done. If he looks like a juvenile, then his age proof must be asked for, else an age
21
Section 341, Indian Penal Code.
22
23
24
Juvenile Justice Act, 1986.
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determination test must be done for him. Based upon the results of the tests, he must be
transferred to the juvenile justice home. This procedure has also been given the sanction of the
courts at many instances.25
Of the people that were interviewed, two of them were juveniles. I would like to take this
opportunity to cite the story of one Sunka Sankappa. Sunka is a seventeen year old who has been
charged under section 302 for the offence of murder. Upon arrest he did not have a school
certificate to prove his age and a medical test was subsequently done. For the past three months,
he is in the under trial jail at Arthur Road in Mumbai and has not yet been transferred. When he
was taken to Court, the judge did not even bother about his age and is still trying him. I myself
went and talked to the judge about this case and he said he didn’t co operate with the police in
the investigation and felt that there is a strong possibility that he was lying. He later promised to
look into the case as the results of the age determination test were not yet known to him. Sunka is
a young boy who didn’t even know about the protection to juveniles under the law. His alleged
ignorance is acting to his doom.
By mere appearance, the police do not seem to co operate in such instances towards the treatment
of juveniles. People like Sunka are staying in the under trial major offences jail at Arthur Road
and as a result are exposed to big criminals. They are not getting the benefit of the law that is
made for them. Juveniles are victims of the system and due respect must be given to their
interests in the policies of governments.26
25
Arnit Das v. State of Bihar, AIR 2000 SC 2264 : Dilip Saha v. State of West Bengal, AIR 1978 Cal 529 : Krishna
Bhagwan v. State of Bihar, AIR 1989 Pat. 217.
26
Barry C. Field, “Juvenile’s Competence to Exercise Miranda Rights: An Empirical Study of Policy and Practice”,
91 Minn. L. Rev. 26.
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3. POLICE AND THE LAW
The above chapters are indirectly related to a greater issue of accountability and responsibility on
the part of the government on the part of the government to educate the citizens about the law
and not abuse the powers in the hands of the state machinery. In this chapter we shall discuss
mainly about the attitude of the police towards the poor and the treatment meted out to them.
This will later lead us to conclude the need for checks in the police functioning today.
3.1 The fallacy of Ignorantia Juris Non Excusat
Legal systems all over have been based upon the common maxim of ignorantia juris non
excusat, that is ‘ignorance of the law is no excuse’. The principle, the had first originated in the
Code of Justinian27, was used as a defence by the government when people said they did not
know about the law. The reason then was that it was simple to understand and not complex in
nature.
With time, law became more and more complex in nature and so did the excuse of the
government for using this principle. Now, they said, “it was a small evil in exchange for a greater
27
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good”28. If this was removed then everyone would claim that they did not know the law which
would then become difficult to prove. What it then did become was a manner by which the
government shed the responsibility for educating its citizens about the law. It removes any trace
of accountability on the part of the government and places the burden on the common man to
know the law.
In the past few decades, some Courts in the world are trying to do away with this maxim in the
area of ‘rights education’. They seek to place the burden on the government to educate the
citizens29. It all started in 1966 with Miranda30 and similar instances in the United Kingdom31 and
other European nations32. In the USA, this issue was recently upheld in Dickerson v. United
States33. As regards to the situation in India, the Courts have always sought to apply and interpret
the maxim in its strict sense without any exceptions. 34 In this way, DK Basu was a relief to the
poor. But the fact remains that the government does not have any responsibility to educate the
poor in this country. All mechanisms of accountability seem a distant dream.
I argue that the rights of the poor would be secured only if the government takes upon itself the
responsibility to protect them. Such responsibility does not seem to exist in India. It is then
imperative that if this country must develop, the rights of a 250 million people must be secured.
3.2 The Police and Implementation of the Law
I would like to approach the aspect of police accountability by showing how the police is
presently implementing the law. The data presented is based on the research that was conducted
by myself in the month of December in the city of Mumbai.
The DK Basu judgment says that the rights laid down in para 36 must be placed in a conspicuous
place in every police station. In the eight police stations that were visited, only three of them
28
29
JW Meeker and John Dombrink, “ Access to Civil Courts for those of Low and Moderate Means”, 66 S. Cal. L.
Rev. 2217.
30
Miranda v. Arizona, 384 US 436 (1966).
31
Criminal Justice and Public Order Act, 1994 (United Kingdom).
32
§ 136 Strafprozessordnung (German Criminal Procedure Code) : Letter of Rights (European Union)
33
Dickerson v. United States, 530 US 428.
34
State of Maharashtra v. Mayor Hans George, AIR 1965 SC 722.
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were in a place that could be well seen. The rest five were in the office of the inspector which is
visited only by a few of them. These five police stations were in the slum areas of Mumbai that
included the Dharavi, Sion and Chembur areas of Mumbai. On questioning a few police
constables, I learnt they knew about the procedure and the way it was to be followed.
On enquiring as to how many cases are reported to the Control room within 24 hrs, three persons
reported by myself were not known to the control room for the next 48 hours. One of them by the
name of Walekar was placed in a police locker for 2 days and there was no record of his arrest.
3.3 Police Brutalities in India
The issue of police brutalities and custodial violence and no surprise in this system of ours.
According to the statistics of the National Human Rights Commission alone, in the year 1999,
there were 193 custodial deaths in the country.35 Every day violence in the police station is not a
new phenomenon. Sadly, there is no law in the Country to protect the citizens from torture
specifically. Such brutalities have been read into the normal sections of assault36 and hurt37 in the
Indian Penal Code. The Courts have also at numerous instances discussed the issue of custodial
violence38 and condemned the same.
In the Survey conducted by the researcher, around 41 % of the people interviewed had been
subjected to some form of violence or the other at the hands of the police. Some of them also
included lathi beatings and slaps. One of them, a juvenile, was even paraded around the police
station in his underwear. If this is just an analysis of 25 odd people in the city of Mumbai, we can
35
“Right to Free Legal Aid: Cause to Despair, Reason to Hope”, A Report of the Centre for Social Justice, 1 st ed.
1998, p. 4.
36
37
38
Prakash Singh v. Union of India, (2006) 8 SCC 1 : Vineet Narain v. Union of India, AIR 1998 SC 889 : Sube
Singh v. Union of India, AIR 2006 SC 1117.
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only imagine what would be happenning in the whole of India. I again get down to the same
argument that there is a great need for police accountability in the country to stop such acts of
violence against the poor and illiterate.
3.4 Reforms in the Police Act
We today have a 146 year old Police Act39. The first comprehensive review at the national level
of the police system after independence was undertaken in 1977, when the Government of India
appointed the National Police Commission. In its first report40, the Commission dealt with the
modalities for inquiry into complaints of police misconduct in a manner which will carry
credibility and satisfaction to the public regarding their fairness and impartiality and rectification
of serious deficiencies in the system. Various Committees that have been set up after this period
like the Dharma Vira Commission, Julio Roberto Committee, Soli Sorabjee Committee and the
Padmanabiah Panel have zeroed in on the maladies of the Police Act and called for drastic
changes in the functioning of the system.41 I argue that the issue at hand is not ‘police reform’
that these committees and judgments propose but that of ‘police accountability’. Our country has
not taken a serious stance on the issue of Police accountability and the status of such
investigations.
In the United States of America, the rights of individuals have always received supremacy over
the investigation process.42 This is to the extent that, if the rights of arrested persons are affected,
then the investigation to that extent will be declared invalid. 43 In this manner, some degree of
responsibility to follow the law is placed on the Police. Similar situations must be applied in
India too so that the rights of the poor are protected in this country. The accused must have full
knowledge of his rights at the time of the investigation and if he is not aware of them, the state
must remind him of them.
39
Indian Police Act, 1861.
40
Report of the National Police Commission, February 1979.
41
Poonam Kaushish, “Police Reform: Who Should Control the Police”, Central Chronicle, October 25, 2006.
42
Miranda v. Arizona, 384 US 436.
43
Ibid.
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CONCLUSION
The above chapters give us an idea about the present Indian legal system and its attitude towards
the poor. I would like to re iterate that this research presents an argument that some sort of
Miranda rights must exist in India. Not only that, but there also must be some degree of
responsibility attached to not following the rights. The argument is supported by the survey
conducted by the researcher in the city of Mumbai. The researcher honestly believes that this
represents to some extent the situation in the whole of India.
In addition to the strict application of the DK Basu guidelines, there must be other provisions to
protect the rights of the accused. These may include, as mentioned in the previous chapters, to
have the right to a lawyer at the time of interrogation, if the accused cannot afford one, he must
be provided one at the investigation stage and not the trial stage. I would also like to take this
opportunity to stress on educating the police on the importance of the protection of rights and
treatment to arrested persons.
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Governments exist for the people. The term people would not mean a certain section of the
society by the nation as a whole. The primary duty of the government is to protect the rights of
its citizens. I argue that the protection of these rights must include the primary right to due
process and such concerns must not be rebuked by law and order considerations. Poverty in this
country is a disease and must be an important factor in every action by the State. This includes,
the rights of arrested persons. The survey conducted is evident of the need for such rights in
India. I hope that this project has explained to the reader the need for such policies in India. I
have sought to present it as an initial ground work for a greater theoretical argument of whether
such rights should exist.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books Referred
• DD Basu,(1996). Shorter Constitution of India, New Delhi : Prentice- Hall of India.
• PM Bakshi, (1996). The Constitution of India, Delhi : Universal Book Traders.
• S. Muralidhar, (2004). Law, Poverty and Legal Aid: Access to Criminal Justice, New
Delhi : LexisNexis.
Articles Referred
• Poonam Kaushish, “Police Reform: Who Should Control the Police”, Central Chronicle,
October 25, 2006.
• JW Meeker and John Dombrink, “ Access to Civil Courts for those of Low and Moderate
Means”, 66 S. Cal. L. Rev. 2217.
• Barry C. Field, “Juvenile’s Competence to Exercise Miranda Rights: An Empirical Study

of Policy and Practice”, 91 Minn. L. Rev. 26.
• YK Sabherwal, “Access to Justice; Role of Law and Legal Institutions in the Alleviation
of Poverty and Deprivation”, Inaugural address in the Golden Jubilee regional seminar of
the Indian Law Institute at Cuttack, 9th September 2006.
• “Prisoners and Access to Justice”, http://www.hslsa.nic.in/PLLM%20Book.doc (11

Januray 2007).
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iii
Reports
• Report of the National Police Commission, February 1979.
• “Right to Free Legal Aid: Cause to Despair, Reason to Hope”, A Report of the Centre for
Social Justice, 1st ed. 1998, p. 4.
• Report of the Department of Legal Affairs, http://lawmin.nic.in/An_rep/Chapter1.htm

(15th January 2007).
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ANNEXURE
I. The DK Basu Guidelines
DK Basu v. State of West Bengal, AIR 1997 SC 610. (paras 36, 37 and 38)
36. We, therefore, consider it appropriate to issue the following requirements to be followed in
all cases of arrest or detention till legal provisions are made in that behalf as preventive
measures:
(1) The police personnel carrying out the arrest and handling the interrogation of the arrestee
should bear accurate, visible and clear identification and name tags with their designations. The
particulars of all such police personnel who handle interrogation of the arrestee must be recorded
in a register.
(2) That the police officer carrying out the arrest of the arrestee shall prepare a memo of arrest at
the time of arrest and such memo shall be attested by atleast one witness, who may be either a
member of the family of the arrestee or a respectable person of the locality from where the arrest
is made. It shall also be counter signed by the arrestee and shall contain the time and date of
arrest.
(3) A person who has been arrested or detained and is being held in custody in a police station or
interrogation centre or other lock-up, shall be entitled to have one friend or relative or other
person known to him or having interest in his welfare being informed, as soon as practicable, that
he has been arrested and is being detained at the particular place, unless the attesting witness of
the memo of arrest is himself such a friend or a relative of the arrestee.
(4) The time, place of arrest and venue of custody of an arrestee must be notified by the police
where the next friend or relative of the arrestee lives outside the district or town through the
Legal Aid Organisation in the District and the police station of the area concerned telegraphically
within a period of 8 to 12 hours after the arrest.
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(5) The person arrested must be made aware of this right to have someone informed of his arrest
or detention as soon as he is put under arrest or is detained.
(6) An entry must be made in the diary at the place of detention regarding the arrest of the person
which shall also disclose the name of the next friend of the person who has been informed of the
arrest and the names and particulars of the police officials in whose custody the arrestee is.
(7) The arrestee should, where he so requests, be also examined at the time of his arrest and
major and minor injuries, if any present on his/her body, must be recorded at that time. The
"Inspection Memo" must be signed both by the arrestee and the police officer effecting the arrest
and its copy provided to the arrestee.
(8) The arrestee should be subjected to medical examination by a trained doctor every 48 hours
during his detention in custody by a doctor on the panel of approved doctors appointed by
Director, Health Services of the concerned State or Union Territory. Director, Health Services
should prepare such a penal for all Tehsils and Districts as well.
(9) Copies of all the documents including the memo of arrest, referred to above, should be sent to
the illaqa Magistrate for his record.
(10) The arrestee may be permitted to meet his lawyer during interrogation, though not
throughout the interrogation.
(11) A police control room should be provided at all district and state headquarters, where
information regarding the arrest and the place of custody of the arrestee shall be communicated
by the officer causing the arrest, within 12 hours of effecting the arrest and at the police control
room it should be displayed on a conspicuous notice board.
37. Failure to comply with the requirements hereinabove mentioned shall apart from rendering
the concerned official liable for departmental action, also render him liable to be punished for
contempt of court and the proceedings for contempt of court may be instituted in any High Court
of the country, having territorial jurisdiction over the matter.
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38. The requirements, referred to above flow from Articles 21 and 22(1) of the Constitution and
need to be strictly followed. These would apply with equal force to the other governmental
agencies also to which a reference has been made earlier.
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v
II. List of Police Stations Visited
1. Ville Parle Police Station.
2. Khandivli (E) Police Station (Near the Samatha Nagar slums)
3. Borivli (W) Police Station.
4. Borivli (E) Police Station.
5. Sion Police Station
6. Dharavi Police Station
7. Dadar Police Station. (Near Dadar Rly. Station)
8. Malad (W), Police Station.
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III. Model Questionnaire
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Miranda Rights in India

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ARGUING FOR MIRANDA RIGHTS IN INDIA

Nalsar Law University

Roll no. 06, II year

Date of submission: 23rd Janurary 2006

NALSAR UNIVERSITY OF LAW,

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II. List of Police Stations Visited ................................................................................ ............................v

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• The Constitution of India

• The Indian Penal Code, 1860

• The Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973

• The Indian Police Act, 1861

• The Universal Declaration on Human Rights, 1948

• The Juvenile Justice Act. 1986

• Criminal Justice and Public Order Act, 1994 (United Kingdom).

• Strafprozessordnung (German Criminal Procedure Code)

• The European Union Letter of Rights

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Arnit Das v. State of Bihar, AIR 2000 SC 226..............................................................................12

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Rudul Shah v. State of Bihar, AIR 1983 SC 1086..........................................................................10

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Aims and Objectives

Scope of the Research

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The project has been divided into three main parts.

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1. CRITIQUING LEGAL AID MECHANISMS

1.1 The Theoretical aspect of Legal Aid

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1.2 Analysing the Findings from the Survey

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2. DK BASU AND BEYOND

2.1 What are the DK Base Guidelines

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2.2 The Implementation of DK Basu Guidelines

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2.3 Juveniles and the System

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3. POLICE AND THE LAW

3.1 The fallacy of Ignorantia Juris Non Excusat

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3.2 The Police and Implementation of the Law

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3.3 Police Brutalities in India

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3.4 Reforms in the Police Act

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• DD Basu,(1996). Shorter Constitution of India, New Delhi : Prentice- Hall of India.

• PM Bakshi, (1996). The Constitution of India, Delhi : Universal Book Traders.

• Barry C. Field, “Juvenile’s Competence to Exercise Miranda Rights: An Empirical Study

• “Prisoners and Access to Justice”, http://www.hslsa.nic.in/PLLM%20Book.doc (11

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• Report of the National Police Commission, February 1979.