Definition

Observational learning, also called social learning theory, occurs when an observers behavior changes after viewing the behavior of a model. An observers behavior can be affected by the positive or negative consequencescalled vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment of a models behavior.

Discussion
There are several guiding principles behind observational learning, or social learning theory:

The observer will imitate the models behavior if the model possesses characteristics things such as talent, intelligence, power, good looks, or popularitythat the observer finds attractive or desirable. The observer will react to the way the model is treated and mimic the models behavior. When the models behavior is rewarded, the observer is more likely to reproduce the rewarded behavior. When the model is punished, an example of vicarious punishment, the observer is less likely to reproduce the same behavior.

A distinction exists between an observers acquiring a behavior and performing a behavior. Through observation, the observer can acquire the behavior without performing it. The observer may then later, in situations where there is an incentive to do so, display the behavior.

Learning by observation involves four separate processes: attention, retention, production and motivation. Attention: Observers cannot learn unless they pay attention to whats happening around them. This process is influenced by characteristics of the model, such as how much one likes or identifies with the model, and by characteristics of the observer, such as the observers expectations or level of emotional arousal.

Retention: Observers must not only recognize the observed behavior but also remember it at some later time. This process depends on the observers ability to code or structure the information in an easily remembered form or to mentally or physically rehearse the models actions.

Production: Observers must be physically and/intellectually capable of producing the act. In many cases the observer possesses the necessary responses. But sometimes, reproducing the models actions may involve skills the observer has not yet acquired. It is one thing to carefully watch a circus juggler, but it is quite another to go home and repeat those acts.

Motivation: In general, observers will perform the act only if they have some motivation or reason to do so. The presence of reinforcement or punishment, either to the model or directly to the observer, becomes most important in this process.

Attention and retention account for acquisition or learning of a models behavior; production and motivation control the performance. Human development reflects the complex interaction of the person, the persons behavior, and the environment. The relationship between these elements is called reciprocal determinism. A persons cognitive abilities, physical characteristics, personality, beliefs, attitudes, and so on influence both his or her behavior and environment. These influences are reciprocal, however. A persons behavior can affect his feelings about himself and his attitudes and beliefs about others. Likewise, much of what a person knows comes from environmental resources such as television, parents, and books. Environment also affects behavior: what a person observes can powerfully influence what he does. But a persons behavior also contributes to his environment.

Observational Learning Definition

Observational learning is a type of learning in which a person learns new information and behaviors by observing the behaviors of others.

Observatinal Learning Examples There are many possible examples of observational learning. Observational learning is a process in which a person observes another person's behavior and the consequences of the behavior. If the consequences are positive, the person may imitate the behavior. Imagine you wish to be a comic. You observe comics at an open mike event. This allows you to gain insight into the statements and behaviors of people who strive to be funny. This is one example of observational learning. Now imagine you have accepted a job in sales. However, you have no sales experience. Thus, on your first day you observe an experienced salesperson. This allows you to gain knowledge of the statements and behaviors of effective salepeople.

Notes

1. Observational learning can be viewed as one element of social learning theory.

Schedules of reinforcement
In the Skinner-box it is possible to change the contingency between the responses and the delivery of reinforcement so that more than one response may be required in order to obtain the reward. A whole range of rules can govern the contingency between responses and reinforcement - these different types of rules are referred to as schedules of reinforcement. Most of these schedules of reinforcement can be divided into schedules in which the contingency depends on the number of responses and those where the contingency depends on their timing.

Schedules that depend on the number of responses made are called ratio schedules. The ratio of the schedule is the number of responses required per reinforcement. The "classic" schedule, where one reinforcer is delivered for each response, is called a continuous reinforcement schedule - it has a ratio of 1. A schedule where two responses had to be made for each reinforcer has a ratio of 2 and so on. A distinction is also made between schedules where exactly the same number of responses have to be made for each reinforcer - fixed-ratio schedules, and those where the number of response required can differ for each reinforcer around some average value - a variable-ratio schedule. A schedule where exactly 20 responses were required for each reinforcer is called a fixed-ratio 20 or FR20 schedule. One where on average 30 response are required is called a variable-ratio 30 or VR30 schedule. If the contingency between responses and reinforcement depends on time, the schdule is called an interval schedule. Reinforcing the first response an animal makes after the SD light has been on for 20 seconds and ignoring responses it makes during that 20 seconds would correspond to such a schedule. Where the interval which must elapse between the onset of the SD and the first reinforced response is the same for all reinforcers the schedule is called a fixed-interval or FI schedule. Again, the intervals could also vary around some average this is called a variable-interval or VI schedule. It s possible to combine these schedules in various ways and even to construct other basic types of schedule (e.g. ones where animals are reinforced for maintaining specified intervals between responses - differential reinforcement of low rate of response or DRL schedules). The important thing about these different schedule, however, is the differences in response patterns and learning that they produce. These differences may tell us about part of what is learned in operant conditioning. A summary of the basic types of schedules might be useful: Fixed-Ratio (FR) in which the first response made after a given number of responses have been in the presence of the discriminative stimulus is reinforced. For example on an FR 15 schedule every 15th response is reinforced. Fixed-Interval (FI) in which the first response made after a given time interval is reinforced. For example, on an FI 20 sec. schedule the first response made after 20 seconds from the onset of the discriminative stimulus is reinforced. The discriminative stimulus would normally then be turned off during the period the animal consumes its reinforcer. Variable-Ratio (VR) is similar to FR except that the number of responses required varies between reinforcements. On a VR 15 schedule 15 responses are required per reinforcer on average, but one reinforcer may only require 3 responses while the next is obtained after 22 responses. Variable-Interval (VI) is similar to FI except the interval requirements vary between reinforcers around some specified average value.

1. What is the difference between negative reinforcement and punishment? Negative reinforcement strengthens a behavior by removing an aversive or opposing stimulus; punishment is designed to decrease or suppress a behavior. For example, if the teacher says, "When you are quiet, you may go to recess," the behavior that the teacher is trying to reinforce is for the class to be quiet. So, the class must quiet down before they are rewarded with going to recess. With punishment, however there is no opportunity to escape the situation and go to recess. In a punishment situation, the teacher might say, "Because you have not quieted down, you may not go to recess." The teacher is trying to suppress the children's noisy behavior. 2. Why isn't "Good job, everyone" effective praise? Effective praise is immediate and specifies the exact behavior and circumstances that the teacher wants to reward and directs it to the individual or individuals responsible.

Positive reinforcement is to add something to motivate a child to do the same thing again. While negative reinforcement is to remove or get something for the child to aim for the reward by completing the task. Punishment using positive and negative reinforcement can be very effective. If someone does something wrong, you want to set them a task that will help them make better decisions next time. To do that, you have to work out consequences. The best example I have is from my days of substituting kids who were in detention. When they first arrived, they had to write a paper outlining what they did and how they would avoid doing it again. It was amazing how many times it took them to honestly say what they did (without blaming others or circumstances) and to develop a plan for the future. It worked because there were no excuses.