D I S C I P L I N A R Y T E C H N I Q U E A N D F O R M:

S O M A N D P O S T W A R A M E R I C A
Disciplinary Technique and Form: SOM and Postwar America
Trevor Daniel Haav
Professor Joan Ockman
Topics in Architecture Culture from World War II through the 1960s
University of Pennsylvania - School of Design
7 December 2010
Haav 1
D|sc|p||nary Techn|que and Form: SOM and Postwar Amer|ca
|n c|an|z|n 'ce||s, 'o|aces, ano '|an|s, ||e o|sc|o||nes c|ea|e ccmo|e soaces ||a| a|e a| cnce
a|c|||ec|0|a|, /0nc||cna| ano ||e|a|c||ca|. || |s soaces ||a| o|c.|oe /|eo ocs|||cns ano oe|m||
c||c0|a||cn, ||e, ca|.e c0| |no|.|o0a| semen|s ano es|ao||s| coe|a||cna| ||n|s, ||e, ma|| o|aces
ano |no|ca|e .a|0es, ||e, 0a|an|ee ||e coeo|ence c/ |no|.|o0a|s, o0| a|sc a oe||e| eccncm, c/
||me ano es|0|e. 7|e, a|e m|eo soaces, |ea| oeca0se ||e, c.e|n ||e o|socs|||cn c/ o0||o|ns,
|ccms, /0|n||0|e, o0| a|sc |oea|, oeca0se ||e, a|e o|c/ec|eo c.e| |||s a||anemen| c/
c|a|ac|e||za||cns, assessmen|s, ||e|a|c||es.
'

Sk|dmore, Ow|ngs, & Merr|||s (SOM) success |s |nd|sputab|y attr|butab|e to |ts re|at|onsh|p
w|th both the n|ted States m|||tary and many o the countrys most pro|tab|e corporat|ons. But
somewhat |ess obv|ous are the o||ow|ng: that these corporate ent|t|es successes are |n some
measure attr|butab|e to SOMs organ|zat|ona| |n|uence and that m|d-century Amer|ca's
consumer cu|ture and the |ndustr|a| producers that nour|shed |t wou|d have been |nconce|vab|e
w|thout the nat|on's g|oba| |n|uence, estab||shed through m|||tary m|ght above a|| e|se. Th|s
m|||tary m|ght was and cont|nues to be cont|ngent upon the correct tra|n|ng o Amer|can
troops |n ac|||t|es adequate to the task and the prov|s|on o the Armed Forces w|th ever more
soph|st|cated weaponry. The mutua| bene|t o the arch|tect and the c||ent h|nges on the ormer
be|ng ab|e to oer the |atter not mere|y a consumab|e ob|ect-product, but rather techn|ca|
expert|se app||cab|e to g|ven needs. S|nce |ts ear||est ma|or pro|ects, SOM demonstrated the
capac|ty or the e|c|ent organ|zat|on o spaces, bod|es and processes |n the context o ac|||t|es
or product|on, d|str|but|on and consumpt|on.
1 Foucau|t, 148.
Haav 2
ln th|s regard, SOM |s the c|earest man|estat|on o the type o arch|tect Manredo Taur|
suggests Ludw|g H||berse|mer ant|c|pated |n h|s G|css|ao|a|c|||e||0|:
But the act rema|ns that, |n ace o the new techn|ques o product|on and the
expans|on and rat|ona||zat|on o the market, the arch|tect as producer o ob|ects
had |ndeed become an |nadequate |gure. lt was now no |onger a quest|on o
g|v|ng orm to s|ng|e e|ements o the c|ty, nor even to s|mp|e prototypes. The rea|
un|ty o the product|on cyc|e hav|ng been |dent||ed |n the c|ty, the on|y su|tab|e ro|e
or the arch|tect was as organ|zer o that cyc|e. Carry|ng the propos|t|on to the
extreme, the act|v|ty o dev|ser [s|c] o mode|s o organ|zat|on, on wh|ch
H||berse|mer |ns|sted was the on|y one comp|ete|y re|ect|ng both the necess|ty o
Tay|or|z|ng bu||d|ng product|on and the new ro|e o techn|c|an that had become so
much a part o th|s necess|ty.
2

l the |rm has, s|nce the postwar per|od, cons|stent|y oered eect|ve, rat|ona| so|ut|ons to |ts
c||ents' des|gn prob|ems, |t has done so wh||e opt|m|z|ng |ts own unct|on|ng. The e|c|ency o
SOM's rea||zed des|gns, and the e|c|ency w|th wh|ch they are rea||zed, o||ows |og|ca||y rom the
|rm's own h|gh|y ordered |nterna| structure, the m|rror o that o many o |ts c||ents.
3
ln what o||ows, l ocus my ana|ys|s on the work o SOM beg|nn|ng |n the 1940s and
cont|nu|ng through the 1960s. More spec||ca||y, l w||| h|gh||ght one m|||tary pro|ect and one
c|v|||an pro|ect rom each decade, the ormer as an |ndex o the deve|opment o the .S. nat|ona|
secur|ty posture |n the Co|d War and the |atter as an |ndex o the deve|opment o consumer
soc|ety. lt w||| prove necessary to d|scuss other key pro|ects rom throughout th|s per|od to
proper|y convey the |mpact the |rm has had on Amer|can cu|ture and, because o the nature o
that |oca| |mpact, g|oba| cu|ture (many o SOMs c||ents produced or g|oba| markets or
managed g|oba| aa|rs). The |rm cont|nues to shape the bu||t wor|d today, serv|c|ng c||ents o
the same ca||ber as when |t began over seventy years ago. Th|s |ong, r|ch h|story and the
thousands o bu||d|ngs |t has generated are a rea||ty because o SOMs tested capac|ty or
2 Taur|, 107.
3 Bruegmann, 88. A|so, Hartmann, "S.O.M. Organ|zat|on",116.
Haav 3
des|gn|ng r|gorous|y ordered spaces.
Th|s propens|ty or order had been |normed by exposure to the m|||tary to the same
degree |t has answered to the needs o m|||tary c||ente|e. A number o those |n the |rms ear|y
|eadersh|p ought or worked |n the Armed Forces: Lou|s Sk|dmore and John O. Merr||| both
served |n Wor|d War l, Char|es Bassett |n Wor|d War ll. Merr|||, Gordon Bunshat, W||||am
Hartmann and Wa|ter Netsch served |n the .S. Army Corps o Eng|neers. Hartmann |n part|cu|ar
has been cand|d about the ormat|ve nature o h|s serv|ce |n The Ch|cago Arch|tects Ora| H|story
Pro|ect on record w|th the Art lnst|tute o Ch|cago. Here he descr|bes the sca|e o the work he
was |nvo|ved |n w|th the A|r Pro|ects Sect|on o the Corps o Eng|neers organ|z|ng a|r|e|ds and
actor|es or a|rcrat assemb|y. Th|s |nvo|vement pre|gures SOMs |ater work on numerous
a|rports and to some extent the A|r Force Academy Comp|ex |n Co|orado Spr|ngs. A|so worth
not|ng |s the urgency e|t w|th regard to th|s act|v|ty.
4
The pressure o the con||ct necess|tated
rap|d mob|||zat|on o mater|a| and |abor. E|c|ency proved essent|a| to v|ctory |n the context o
Wor|d War ll as |t wou|d soon prove essent|a| to the pro|tab|||ty o Amer|can bus|nesses |n the
context o the post-war econom|c boom.
Sc|ence F|nos, |no0s||, /oo||es, Van Ccn/c|ms
The ag|||ty necessary or the des|gn and execut|on o a new town to the extent that |t
cou|d support |tse| wh||e enr|ch|ng su|c|ent uran|um or the purpose o comp|et|ng the |rst
nuc|ear weapons between 1942 and 1945 that SOM mob|||zed |n response to the .S. Army
Corps o Eng|neers request or ass|stance d|d not emerge spontaneous|y. SOMs oundat|ona|
4 O|a| ||s|c|, c/ A||||am |a||mann, 47-49.
Haav 4
pro|ect at Oak P|dge, Tennessee has some precedent |n the |rms ear||est work dur|ng the
1930s. Lou|s Sk|dmore and Nathan|e| Ow|ngs co||aborated on |rst the Century o Progress
Exh|b|t|on o 1933 |n Ch|cago, and thereater - hav|ng estab||shed Sk|dmore & Ow|ngs as a
work|ng partnersh|p - the New York Wor|ds Fa|r o 1939. The Century o Progress Expos|t|on was
conce|ved by a number o Ch|cagos c|v|c and bus|ness |eaders to both commemorate the c|tys
100
th
year as we|| as g|or|y Amer|can |ndustry and techno|og|ca| |nnovat|on. Sk|dmore and
Ow|ngs took over p|ann|ng or the expos|t|on and |ts many prov|s|ona| structures rom Paymond
Hood who had been |n charge o des|gn pr|or to sh|t|ng h|s attent|on to Pockee||er Center.
5
At the event, Amer|can bus|nesses d|sp|ayed the|r wares |n pav|||ons des|gned by
Sk|dmore and Ow|ngs as "they sought to use des|gn to d|st|ngu|sh the v|rtues o the|r products
and serv|ces. Arch|tecture cou|d be used as advert|s|ng... Together the pa|r had to |ay out a c|ty
(m|nus res|dent|a| hous|ng), w|th a trans|t system and p|enty o enterta|nment to serve between
twenty-|ve and th|rty m||||on v|s|tors."
6
The act o the expos|t|ons extens|on or an add|t|ona| year
makes |ts success qu|te c|ear. Then, due presumab|y |n |arge part to Sk|dmores r|endsh|p w|th
New York State Parks Counc|| pres|dent Pobert Moses, Sk|dmore & Ow|ngs was chosen by the
New York Wor|d's Fa|r Comm|ss|on to prov|de the master p|an, des|gn coord|nat|on and
exh|b|t|on des|gn or the event. The New York Wor|ds Fa|r was |ntended to pro|ect the uture
|atent |n the very same pr|nc|p|es ce|ebrated |n Ch|cago, |t was to descr|be the "Wor|d o
Tomorrow" to some 60 m||||on v|s|tors. Many o the same c||ents rom the Century o Progress
Expos|t|on sought out Sk|dmores des|gn |nput.
7
ln terms o the nascent |rms persona| growth,
the h|r|ng o des|gner Gordon Bunshat or the occas|on was a de|n|ng move w|th regard to
5 Adams, 19.
6 |o|o., 20.
7 |o|o., 22.
Haav 5
sty||st|c tendency.
Such |arge-sca|e endeavors, and the coord|nat|on o des|gners and bu||d|ng contractors
they requ|red, prepared SOM the M added a|ong w|th John Ogden Merr|||, an arch|tect-
eng|neer made partner |n the Ch|cago o|ce |n 1939 or the pro|ect that wou|d cata|yze |ts
growth, both |n sca|e and methodo|og|ca| soph|st|cat|on. The |rm was contacted |n the w|nter o
1942 by the .S. Army Corps o Eng|neers to undertake the p|ann|ng and hous|ng des|gn or
Oak P|dge |n secret, as |ndeed the Manhattan Pro|ect as a who|e was then c|ass||ed. Merr||| was
d|spatched to Tennessee to oversee work on-s|te, d|rect|ng the creat|on o a town where
prev|ous|y there was ||tt|e other than rura| |andscape and scattered am||y arms. S|tuated at the
southwestern end o the new town, the K-25 p|ant used the gaseous d|us|on method to
separate uran|um-235 rom uran|um-238. Th|s and two other p|ants emp|oyed approx|mate|y
35,000 workers a|together.
8
Accommodat|ons and serv|ces had to be coord|nated to support th|s
new act|v|ty on a s|te o |ust under 9,000 acres. Preabr|cated apartments and modu|ar homes
were qu|ck|y des|gned and assemb|ed. A stra|ghtorward street system was dev|sed or
max|mum ease |n way-|nd|ng. Fo||ow|ng the creat|on o a town o a popu|at|on somewhere
between 42,000 and 75,000, the u|t|mate goa| o produc|ng an atom|c weapon was reached
ater two and a ha| years o SOMs |nvo|vement. "l Ow|ngs had |earned someth|ng about the
organ|zat|on o men at the Century o Progress, the construct|on o Oak P|dge taught an ent|re
generat|on o SOM emp|oyees about the |mportance o programm|ng, coord|nat|ng mater|a|,
and oversee|ng workmen or speed and e|c|ency."
9
ln add|t|on to these |essons |earned, the case o Oak P|dge man|ests the |rms ro|e |n
|n|uenc|ng the bu||d|ng |ndustry |n terms o construct|on methods and mater|a|s. Th|s |n|uence
8 Johnson, 3.
9 Adams, 24.
Top to bottom: Oak Ridge, Tennessee Plan (Source: Johnson, 1); Garden Apartments, Oak Ridge; (Photo: Torkel
Korling for Progressive Architecture); Garden Apartments, Oak Ridge; (Photo: Bill Hedrich, Hedrich-Blessing)
Haav 6
grew stronger throughout the per|od |n quest|on. But the germ o SOMs uture |nnovat|on was
there |n the|r co||aborat|on w|th the Ce|otex corporat|on |n the deve|opment o the Cemesto pane|
system. The product was used qu|te extens|ve|y throughout the Oak P|dge pro|ect, but was a|so
spec||ed by des|gners o other preabr|cated home pro|ects.
10
ln th|s SOM was beg|nn|ng to
rea||ze some o the asp|rat|ons o the Modern movement |n arch|tecture. ln genera| terms, the
transer o techn|ques rom one d|sc|p||ne to another was a goa| he|d |n common by the ear||est
theor|st-pract|t|oners o the movement, and paradox|ca||y, the progen|tors o |ts ear||est |nterna|
cr|t|que: Corbus|er recommended that arch|tecture |earn rom eng|neer|ng and that hous|ng be
mass-produced |n h|s ve|s 0ne /|c|||ec|0|e
''
, Fu||er was occup|ed w|th s|m||ar goa|s much |ater
and recommended reor|ent|ng the mechan|sms o the a|rcrat |ndustry towards the product|on o
preabr|cated hous|ng un|ts
12
, and |n 1956, the Sm|thsons wou|d advocate or absorb|ng the
strateg|es o mass product|on advert|s|ng.
13

At th|s same moment, SOM had succeeded |n synthes|z|ng these very |n|uences and
had more opportun|ty to emp|oy th|s hybr|d know|edge than any o the aorement|oned
arch|tects. The pr|mary reason why th|s |s so has much to do w|th SOM's sca|e o operat|ons,
someth|ng wh|ch emerged o necess|ty w|th Oak P|dge:
The s|ng|e des|gners who unct|on w|th|n th|s organ|zat|on have no ear o a |oss o
|nd|v|dua||ty. They are ab|e to work w|th|n the|r corporate ramework because they
understand and emp|oy the vocabu|ary and grammar wh|ch deve|oped rom the
esthet|c concept|ons o the twent|es. They work together an|mated by two
d|sc|p||nes wh|ch they a|| share the d|sc|p||ne o modern arch|tecture and the
d|sc|p||ne o Amer|can organ|zat|ona| methods.
14
10 |o|o., 23.
11 Le Corbus|er, 95 & 262.
12 Fu||er, P. Buckm|nster. "Des|gn|ng a New lndustry," |n Ockman, ed., /|c|||ec|0|e C0||0|e, 90.
13 Sm|thson, 1.
14 Museum o Modern Art, 5.
Haav 7
About one year pr|or to |n|sh|ng work at Oak P|dge, SOM comp|eted a m|xed-use pro|ect
|n C|nc|nnat| |n the orm o the Terrace P|aza Hote|. Thomas Emery & Sons, the rea| estate
component o Emery Chem|ca| Company (now Emery lndustr|es) requested the |rms proposa|
or the most pro|tab|e ut|||zat|on o a commerc|a| |ot |n the downtown d|str|ct.
15
The |rm was
awarded the pro|ect on the bas|s o the|r argument or expand|ng program to |nc|ude a hote|
above two street |eve| reta|| out|ets. ln add|t|on to th|s amb|t|ous exp|o|tat|on o the s|te, the
pro|ect |s noteworthy or |ts strateg|c dep|oyment o contemporary art and new techno|ogy. The
hote| |s 18 stor|es ta|| and has a tota| o 600,000 square eet. The reta|| program occup|es the
|rst seven |oors, an express e|evator conveys v|s|tors rom the street |eve| entrance to the e|ght
|oor hote| |obby, and two restaurants bookend the hote| the |rst on the e|ghth |oor and the
more exc|us|ve second at the penthouse |eve|. The hote| |s set back at the e|ghth |oor, y|e|d|ng
generous roo-top p|aza space that a||ows or a w|nter skat|ng r|nk. The restaurants eature
mura|s by Joan M|ro and Sau| Ste|nberg and the hote| |obby a mob||e by A|exander Ca|der.
ln the emp|oyment o mater|a|s and assemb|y systems a br|ck-c|ad stee| rame the
hote| exter|or was not as |nnovat|ve as, or even sty||st|ca||y consonant w|th, the canon|ca| SOM
h|gh-r|ses - wh|ch |s to say there was no curta|n wa||, no ||bera| use o g|ass |n the enve|ope.
lnnovat|on .as ach|eved |n terms o hybr|d|zat|on o program, the c|ear express|on thereo |n
bu||d|ng mass|ng (wh|ch ant|c|pates Lever House) and mechan|zat|on o hote| accommodat|ons
and overa|| serv|ces. Ad|acent rooms cou|d become su|tes w|th the automated retract|on o
part|t|on wa||s, dep|oyab|e motor-dr|ven soa-beds a||owed or var|ab|e degrees o openness,
e|ectr|ca||y out|tted k|tchenettes oered |ong-term v|s|tors cu||nary autonomy, bu||t-|n a|r-
cond|t|on|ng un|ts serv|ced each room, a centra||y regu|ated mechan|ca| system a||owed or
15 Adams, 58.
Haav 8
unprecedented contro| and pneumat|c ||ts conveyed de||very trucks to the basement |eve|s or
d|erent|ated re|ght e|evator access to e|ther department store or the hote|.
These |atter two eatures |n part|cu|ar re|ect someth|ng o the organ|zat|ona| prowess o
SOM. ln that regard, l want to ca|| attent|on to an advert|sement that appears |n the |ssue o
/|c|||ec|0|a| Fc|0m o 1948 that reerences the hote|. The ad descr|bes the array o products put
to use |n Terrace P|aza, |nc|ud|ng t|me stamps, record-|ocks, attendance t|me recorders and
c|ocks. The copy reads: "Terrace P|aza Hote| T|me by lBM. An lBM Se|-regu|at|ng Master T|me
Contro| keeps every un|t at the same un|orm t|me."
16
One can be con|dent that here |s the |atest
|n t|me mon|tor|ng equ|pment to ensure we||-d|sc|p||ned work env|ronments, |n keep|ng w|th the
e|c|ent use o |ot, |oor and room, as we|| as the ordered work|ng processes o the |rm beh|nd
the bu||d|ngs des|gn.
Perhaps most cruc|a| to the warm cr|t|ca| recept|on o the pro|ect was the so||c|tat|on o
contemporary art|sts work. Joan Ockmans art|c|e on the ro|e art p|ays or the arch|tecture o
corporate Amer|ca (and v|ce versa), SOM and the Terrace P|aza Hote| |n part|cu|ar, |s espec|a||y
|normat|ve.
17
W||||am Hartmann o the |rms Ch|cago o|ce, and partner respons|b|e or the
overa|| organ|zat|on o the pro|ect, descr|bes the ro|e o art |n the |rms arch|tecture thus|y:
The modern arch|tecture that [SOM] |dent||ed w|th e||m|nated decorat|on. Bas|ca||y
|t was an evo|ut|on rom a hand|crat k|nd o bu||d|ng techno|ogy to an
|ndustr|a||zed bu||d|ng techno|ogy. That was the key to |t. When you gave up the
hand|crat part, you gave up the art|san and the cratsman who wou|d carve
||mestone and wood and other mater|a|s that |ed to the express|on o a bu||d|ng. ln
|ndustr|a||zed arch|tecture, you were us|ng components that were made by
mach|ne, and decorat|on wasnt appropr|ate or the mach|ne. So, when you come
to decorate an |ndustr|a||zed bu||d|ng, you decorate w|th an art|st.... We wanted to
co||aborate w|th the best art|sts. So, on theTerrace P|aza we had severa| art|sts.
We had an art|st named Sau| Ste|nberg, who d|d draw|ngs pr|mar||y o the
C|nc|nnat| scene |n the ma|n d|n|ng room |n pane|s. We had A|exander Ca|der do a
16 /|c|||ec|0|a| Fc|0m, 54.
17 Ockman, 1.
Clockwise from top: Axonometric, retractable
hotel room wall, Gourmet restaurant plan,
Joan Miro mural, distribution diagram, IBM
advertisement. (Source: all Architectural Forum.
Dec. 1948, except Miro photo from SOM.com.
Photos Ezra Stoller.)
Haav 9
mob||e |n the ma|n recept|on area. We had Ward Bennett des|gn severa| th|ngs
|nc|ud|ng ||ght|ng |n some exot|c spaces. And the most |mportant was we had M|ro
pa|nt th|s mura| or a spec|a| d|n|ng room on the roo o the bu||d|ng.
18

Hartmann commun|cates not on|y the essent|a||y |ndustr|a| nature o the |rms des|gn work, but
d|sc|oses an att|tude that puts artwork |n a compensatory pos|t|on re|at|ve to the arch|tecture. lt
seems that art-as-decorat|on must supp|ement the r|gorous|y ordered |ndustr|a| |d|om, a
surrogate sou| or the mach|ne-made env|ronment.
|| |s nc eae|a||cn |c sa, ||a| ||e c0||a|n .a|| |s ||ans/c|m|n ||e 0|oan en.||cnmen| c/ /me||ca.
7|e |e0|a| ||os c/ me|a| m0|||cn ano ||anscm, emoane||eo .||| s|ee|, |ass ano oc|ce|a|n
ename|, ||||e| /|cm a ||c0sano c|asms /c|me||, .enee|eo .||| o||c| ano s|cne, |||c0| ||e
s0o0|os ano |n|c ||e cc0n||,s|oe, |cc, ||e ne. a|c|||ec|0|e |s so|eao|n ||s |e0|a|eo oa||e|n.
19

ln the |rst ha| o the 1950s, SOM wou|d comp|ete a number o pro|ects or the .S. Navy:
the Gunners Mates Serv|ce Schoo| and the F|re Contro| Techn|c|ans, lnstrument Men and
Opt|ca| Men Serv|ce Schoo| at the Great Lakes Nava| Tra|n|ng Center |n Great Lakes, l|||no|s and
a ser|es o bu||d|ngs or the Nava| Postgraduate Schoo| |n Monterey, Ca||orn|a. Comp|eted
between 1952 and 1954, the Gunners Mates Serv|ce Schoo| |n part|cu|ar man|ests two
tendenc|es that de|ne the |rms work |n th|s dec|ded|y more pro|||c era: the use o the curta|n
wa|| and the pursu|t o |arger co|umn-ree spans. Th|s re|at|ve|y s|mp|e bu||d|ng, known to the
sa||ors-|n-tra|n|ng as Bu||d|ng 521, or the gun schoo|, p|ayed a centra| ro|e |n tra|n|ng Navy
gunners or severa| decades.
The |nter|or space compr|ses two mass|ve open bays, each equ|pped w|th decks, tra|n|ng
weapons o var|ous ca||bers and a 50 ton capac|ty overhead crane. These decks were |ntended
18 O|a| ||s|c|, c/ A||||am |a||mann, 78.
19 "Mach|ne-Made Amer|ca," 299.
Clockwise from top: Gunner Mates Service School exterior, plan, section, interior view of gun deck. (Source: Architec-
ture of Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, 1950-1962. Photos: Bill Hedrich, Hedrich-Blessing.)
Haav 10
to s|mu|ate a sa||ors exper|ence on board an act|ve Navy vesse|, theyre openness was made
poss|b|e by d|nt o |ong-span overhead trusses. .S. Nava| Gunnery educat|on rom the per|od
demanded s|mu|ated sh|pboard |nstruct|on a|ongs|de o c|assroom study - sa||ors spec|a||zed |n
e|ther guns or m|ss||es. A centra|, three story vo|ume conta|ns 54 c|assrooms and urn|shes
observat|on p|atorms over|ook|ng the gun deck s|mu|at|on bays. The ent|re vo|ume |s enc|osed
w|th a trans|ucent green, heat-absorb|ng g|ass curta|n wa||. The |nter|or o the g|ass |s rosted to
d|use ||ght and prevent sa||ors rom be|ng d|stracted am|dst the|r tra|n|ng. lt |s worth not|ng the
|mportance p|aced on ma|nta|n|ng the ocus o the sa||ors am|dst the|r stud|es, the bu||d|ng must
and does answer to the needs o d|sc|p||ne expected rom the student-sa||or. Much o what ||tt|e
has been wr|tten on the bu||d|ng emphas|zes |ts "rea||zat|on o the M|es|an concept o un|versa|
space." Accord|ng to SOM, |t exemp|||es the pr|nc|p|e that d|rect express|on o a bu||d|ngs
unct|on resu|ts |n endur|ng, we|| des|gned orm.
20
The c|ear span and |ts prom|se o un|versa| space was another goa| o Modern
arch|tecture, or|g|nat|ng w|th M|es as suggested above, and rea||zed |n vary|ng degrees by SOM
|n certa|n pro|ects o the 1950s and 1960s. The most str|k|ng o these |s the ln|and Stee|
Company Headquarters Bu||d|ng. Perhaps not so |nc|denta||y, ln|and Stee| wou|d become home
to the |rms Ch|cago o|ce. The mot|vat|on or the |rms pursu|t o th|s end seems to be that o
e|c|ency more than anyth|ng e|se, and we m|ght proper|y see the |ex|b|||ty o the "un|versa|" as
one var|ety o e|c|ency. At the Gunners Mates Serv|ce Schoo|, a c|ear span |s ach|eved |n
spaces ad|acent to a centra| core where such a span proved unnecessary, | not undes|rab|e. ln
th|s regard, |t |s not o the order o the pure c|ear span such as that at ln|and Stee| or M|es
Crown Ha||. However, th|s |oca||zed c|ear span answers to the programmat|c requ|rements o the
20 "Great Lakes Nava| Tra|n|ng Center Gunners Mates Serv|ce Schoo|," 1.
Clockwise from top: SOM drafting room at Inland Steel,
Lever House typical plan (Adams, 72), Lever House office
interior, Inland Steel typical plan (Bauen und Wohnen,
119). (Photos: Ezra Stoller).
Haav 11
bu||d|ng and st||| aords |arge swaths o |ex|b|e |oor area |n the absence o s|mu|ated gun
decks.
Judged a|ongs|de o what |s wr|tten about the curta|n wa|| |ater |n the decade, part|cu|ar|y
|n the /|c|||ec|0|a| Pe.|e.s "Mach|ne-Made Amer|ca" lssue, Bu||d|ng 521 |nd|cates a reg|men o
orma| so|ut|ons that answer to the |rms and |ts c||ents des|re or e|c|ency |n des|gn and
execut|on. At th|s stage, |t |s appropr|ate to speak o "d|sc|p||ned orm" when descr|b|ng the work
o SOM. From the perspect|ve o cost-e|c|ency, the curta|n wa|| proved extreme|y
advantageous. The ed|tors o the /|c|||ec|0|a| Pe.|e. argued that |t marks "the |rst t|me |n the
h|story o the modem movement that a common vocabu|ary o orm, pattern and proport|on |s
becom|ng acceptab|e to arch|tect, bu||der, c||ent and pub||c, |t |s the |rst t|me that preabr|cat|on
has been carr|ed out on a su|c|ent|y w|de sca|e or |t to be seen, through the |ncontrovert|b|||ty
o ba|ance sheets, to br|ng c|ear econom|c advantages."
21
Des|gn|ng w|th |ndustr|a||y produced,
standard d|mens|oned, rap|d|y dep|oyed rame components, pane|s and g|ass, oered sav|ngs
|n terms o mater|a| and construct|on |abor costs. "There are no other examp|es o preabr|cat|on
|n bu||d|ng where, on aesthet|c and econom|c grounds, these advantages have been made so
ev|dent to so broad a sect|on o the commun|ty."
22
So |t wou|d seem that SOM and numerous
other |rms cou|d count on a bu||d|ng pub||c ready to embrace the regu|ar gr|ds |ndustr|a|
bu||d|ng product|on was ready to urn|sh.
Th|s was certa|n|y the case w|th Lever Brothers |n New York. Perhaps the most we||-known
o SOMs bu||d|ngs, Lever House was comp|eted two years pr|or to the Gunners Mates Serv|ce
Schoo| |n 1952 and was as the name makes c|ear home to Lever Brothers, the Amer|can arm
o the Ang|o-Dutch company n||ever. The des|gn |s seem|ng|y a d|st|||at|on o Nathan|e| Ow|ngs
21 "Mach|ne-Made Amer|ca," 297.
22 |o|o.
Left to right: Machine-Made America analysis of Lever House curtain wall (Machine-Made America, 313); Lever
House section detail of curtain wall (Architecture of Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, 1950-1962, 16).
Haav 12
c||ent-|ess concept or an |dea| o|ce tower that was pub||shed some 4 years pr|or to the Lever
House comm|ss|on. Terrace P|aza Hote|, w|th |ts hote| perched on a commerc|a| base, had
h|nted at the overa|| concept as was ment|oned prev|ous|y. The setback at Lever House |s much
more drast|c, and the generos|ty o the open courtyard on|y re|norces what |s an extreme|y
||bera| use o the |ot. Presumab|y, the openness re|at|ve to Park Avenue, both at street |eve| and
throughout the u|| r|se o the bu||d|ng, presented a we|com|ng |mage to the buy|ng pub||c.
23
At |rst g|ance, th|s approach appears such a b|atant contravent|on o the pr|nc|p|es o
e|c|ency out||ned thus ar as to underm|ne the account be|ng deve|oped. But, the potent|a| or
arch|tecture to unct|on as advert|s|ng, as was ment|oned |n connect|on w|th Lou|s Sk|dmore and
the Century o Progress Expos|t|on, suggests an extreme|y p|aus|b|e exp|anat|on or the
apparent prod|ga||ty. Char|es Luckman, the act|ng head o Lever Brothers throughout the des|gn
process, c|a|ms |n h|s autob|ography to have persuaded h|s super|ors at n||ever to approve the
des|gn proposa| on the bas|s o an argument or embod|ed advert|s|ng he va|ued |n the ba||-park
o "m||||ons and m||||ons o do||ars."
24
The resu|tant openness o the s|te makes a strong
|mpress|on, |n pa|pab|e contrast to the un|orm|ty o the surround|ng bu||d|ng masses. The
curta|n wa||, wh|ch capt|vated cr|t|cs and commentators rom throughout the arch|tectura|
commun|ty, has been descr|bed by N|cho|as Adams as the touchstone or the adopt|on o
modern|sm by the Amer|can bus|ness commun|ty.
25
Lever House, and the many bu||d|ngs that ||ke |t dep|oyed the h|gh-r|se standard o
curta|n wa|| enc|osure, has not been w|thout cr|t|cs. Manredo Taur| descr|bes these phenomena
|n terms o an emergence o "a true and proper arch|tecture o bureaucracy" or|ented towards:
23 Adams, 64-66.
24 Luckman, 244.
25 Adams, 64.
Clockwise from top: Lever House section against silhouette of existing block, Lever House plans (Adams, 72),
street level view of Lever House (Photo: Ezra Stoller).
Haav 13
des|gn|ng or a vast|y greater demand. Th|s meant that the proess|on as a who|e
and |ts ways o work|ng had to be reorgan|zed and had to agree to not on|y a
drast|c reduct|on |n the t|me o p|ann|ng and bu||d|ng but a|so to the typo|og|ca|
standard|zat|on ca||ed or |n an |ndustr|a||zed bu||d|ng |ndustry. The |e|d came to
be dom|nated not by |nd|v|dua| arch|tects |ntent on commun|cat|ng the|r op|n|ons
o the wor|d but by |arge stud|os |n wh|ch the tasks were parce|ed out w|th v|rtua|
assemb|y-||ne standards. F|rms ||ke Sk|dmore, Ow|ngs & Merr||| or Harr|son &
Abramov|tz |n the n|ted States are equ|pped to work at an |ntense speed o
product|on and to u|||| demands or h|gh techno|og|ca| |eve|s |n bu||d|ngs as
anonymous as the arch|tectura| concerns that bu||d them. Even more than the
n|ted Nat|ons bu||d|ng, |t |s Lever House on Park Avenue |n New York... that |s the
v|rtua| man|esto o that |mpersona| and |||us|on|ess pur|sm wh|ch makes the
curta|n wa|| the so|e and s||ent e|ement o the |anguage.
26
He goes on to suggest "beh|nd that orma| vo|d [o the curta|n wa||] |s on|y the need or
m|n|mum certa|nt|es that ra|se no bothersome quest|ons. Symbo|s o e|c|ency and a w||||ngness
to bow to the |mperat|ve o organ|zat|on, the stee| and g|ass skyscrapers speak o an
|nescapab|e co||ect|ve dest|ny...".
27
SOMs des|gns or h|gh-r|se o|ce towers are cons|stent|y
or|ented towards the purpose o cost-eect|ve ut|||zat|on o rea| estate, whether through max|ma|
|ot ut|||zat|on or bo|d, seem|ng|y wasteu| mass|ng w|th advert|s|ng potent|a|, and thereore wou|d
seem to con|rm th|s assessment.
But the quest|on ar|ses o how these "stee| and g|ass skyscrapers speak" wh||e M|es
Seagram Bu||d|ng rema|ns s||ent. Does |t not "bow to the |mperat|ve o organ|zat|on" |n the way
the h|gh-r|ses o SOM do? ls the Seagram Company and the use |t made o M|es s||ence
percept|b|y d|erent rom the n||ever Corporat|on and the use |t made o SOMs ostens|b|e
announcement o an "|nescapab|e co||ect|ve dest|ny"? Whatever d|spute there may be as to the
eect|ve ro|e e|ther the Seagram Bu||d|ng or Lever House p|ays |n the context o Amer|can
consumer cu|ture, there |s no d|sput|ng what Taur| recogn|zes as "the |mmed|ate exp|o|tab|||ty"
o bu||d|ngs ||ke those SOM has des|gned or Amer|cas c|t|es. lt |s th|s qua||ty o exp|o|tab|||ty
26 Taur|, Manredo, and Francesco Da| Co, 339.
27 |o|o.
Haav 14
that "rea||zes the dream o an arch|tecture that uses a common and eas||y ass|m||ab|e |anguage
and that |s |nt|mate|y connected w|th orms adaptab|e to commerc|a| exp|o|tat|on and w|th the
|aws o the rea| estate market."
28
lt |s on th|s po|nt that cr|t|cs such as Taur| on the one hand and
the ed|tors o the /|c|||ec|0|a| Pe.|e. on the other seem dest|ned to ta|k past one another,
|nsoar as the ormer cou|d not perce|ve any potent|a| |n an arch|tectura| |anguage so str|pped
down as that man|ested |n the pro||erat|ng stee| and g|ass skyscrapers o the 1950s.
Converse|y, the |atter cou|d not seem to do other than embrace the apparent rea||zat|on a|be|t
somewhat comprom|sed o the Modern movements a|ms |n such arch|tecture. ln the ed|tors
words: The p|oneers o the modern movement saw the |ndustr|a||zat|on o arch|tecture as the
concom|tant o a p|anned economy, but the curta|n wa|| |s the product o |ndustr|a||zat|on |n a
ree one. lt oers the prom|se and the prob|ems o a new arch|tectura| vernacu|ar.
29
|n c0| e|a, soace o|esen|s ||se|/ |c 0s |n ||e /c|m c/ oa||e|ns c/ c|oe||n.
30
The .S. A|r Force Academy (AFA) Comp|ex, as a ac|||ty or the tra|n|ng o combat p||ots,
had a undamenta| ro|e to p|ay |n Amer|cas susta|ned conrontat|on w|th the threat o
commun|sm dur|ng the Co|d War. By work|ng to estab||sh a check to Sov|et |n|uence, and
secure markets or ree enterpr|se, the .S. ushered |n the permanent war economy. Pe|at|ve to
the Army and Navy, the A|r Force rece|ved the |argest share o DoD budget a||ocat|ons rom
1951 unt|| 1973, as |ndeed |t wou|d prove the centerp|ece to the Deense Departments strategy
throughout the Co|d War.
31
Congress author|zed the a||ocat|on o unds or an A|r Force academy
28 |o|o, 340.
29 "Mach|ne-Made Amer|ca," 299.
Foucau|t, M|che|. "O Other Spaces: top|as and Heterotop|as," |n Ockman, ed., /|c|||ec|0|e C0||0|e, 421.
31 Lew|s, 10-11.
Clockwise from top-left: graph of Department of Defense
budget over time, corresponding table (Lewis, 10-11),
Air Force Academy - Academic Complex from the east
(Photo: Stewarts).
Haav 15
|n Apr|| o 1954 and a s|te was chosen outs|de o Co|orado Spr|ngs, Co|orado. SOM was
awarded the comm|ss|on |n Ju|y, one o some three hundred . Des|gn deve|opment on the
pro|ect began |n August o that year, but wou|d not meet w|th u|| approva| unt|| 1959 g|ven the
|ntens|ty o the re|ated debate |n Congress. Th|s de||berat|on wou|d br|ng about the d|rect
conrontat|on between Henry-Pusse|| H|tchcocks chosen representat|ves o gen|us and
bureaucracy, Frank L|oyd Wr|ght and SOM respect|ve|y
32
. Wr|ght test||ed beore Congress |n
1955, denounc|ng the |rms des|gn proposa| as a "v|o|at|on o nature."
33
lt has been argued that
the harshness o the campus w|th|n the |andscape may have been m|t|gated by certa|n
|andscape e|ements |ost |n the des|gn rev|ew process. Construct|on d|d not conc|ude unt|| 1962.
The AFA Comp|ex was the most comp|ete s|ngu|ar express|on o SOMs organ|zat|ona|
and des|gn ab|||t|es. The overa|| coherence o c|rcu|at|on throughout a s|te o such extent, the
r|gorous|y ma|nta|ned matr|x w|th|n the vast academ|c area |n p|an and acade, the cons|stency
o |nter|or and urn|sh|ng deta||s: th|s un|ty o product|on resu|ted rom and was perhaps
|nconce|vab|e w|thout the coord|nated eort o the |rms |ex|b|e nat|ona| network o o|ces. A
d|st|nct|y Modern monumenta||ty emerged w|th the str|ct orthogona||ty o the comp|ex, the
des|gn man|ests c|ear|y the d|sc|p||ne the |nst|tut|on |nst|||s |n |ts cadets. The |mmens|ty o the
pro|ect requ|red coord|nat|on on an order o sca|e that had not yet been requ|red o the |rm, but
wh|ch they neverthe|ess were ab|e to prov|de g|ven the exper|ence ga|ned |n the execut|on o
Oak P|dge.
SOM h|red a number o outs|de consu|tants to ach|eve th|s "tota| des|gn env|ronment,"
such as |andscape arch|tect Dan K||ey, Ho||ywood d|rector Cec|| B. Dem|||e and |ndustr|a|
des|gners Wa|ter Dorw|n Teague Assoc|ates. The deta||s everywhere adhere to and thereby
32 H|tchcock, 3-5.
33 Quoted |n Adams, 145.
Clockwise from top-left: Air Force Academy -
Academic Complex aerial view (Photo: Stew-
arts), cadets in uniform on Dining Hall stairs
(Photo: William Belknap, National Geographic
Society), library and parade grounds (Photo:
Stewarts), Academic Complex plan (Brueg-
mann, 168.)
Haav 16
con|rm the order o the who|e. lt |s suggested that the use o co|or throughout the campus
re|norces the system o rank and c|ass.
34
A|though d||cu|t to con|rm, th|s |dea o mark|ng the
ordered e|ements o the campus, o d|erent|at|on w|th|n the cohes|ve who|e reca||s Foucau|ts
descr|pt|on o the app||cat|on o o d|sc|p||nary techn|que to space: "D|sc|p||ne |s an art o rank, a
techn|que or the transormat|on o arrangements. lt |nd|v|dua||zes bod|es by a |ocat|on that does
not g|ve them a |xed pos|t|on, but d|str|butes them and c|rcu|ates them |n a network o
re|at|ons."
35
The |mage o un|ormed cadets |n ormat|on am|dst the bu||d|ngs o the academ|c
comp|ex |s the c|earest representat|on o the order SOMs |n|uence he|ped br|ng to th|s era, and
yet |t |s on|y a very sma|| p|ece o the overa|| network o spaces and processes to wh|ch they
contr|buted.
The |rms ro|e |n the |ndustr|a||zat|on o bu||d|ng pract|ce |s made c|ear |n th|s pro|ect as |t
en||sted the a|d o a var|ety o manuacturers to ca||brate mater|a|s to the spec||c requ|rements
o the des|gn:
The huge sca|e o the A|r Force Academy comm|ss|on prov|ded Sk|dmore, Ow|ngs
& Merr||| a un|que opportun|ty to move |nto the bu||d|ng |ndustry many
techno|og|ca| advances that had been deve|oped |n the preced|ng years -
spec||ca||y by the m|||tary dur|ng Wor|d War ll. Th|s transer o techno|ogy rom
manuactur|ng to arch|tecture had |ong been a dream o modern arch|tects, but |t
took a |arge |rm, managed a|ong the ||nes o successu| Amer|can corporat|ons, to
make the dream rea|.
36
Wa|ter Netsch, D|rector o Des|gn or the pro|ect, appo|nted Pobertson Ward to |ead a techn|ca|
and mater|a|s research group devoted exc|us|ve|y to the opt|m|zat|on o components or e|c|ent
assemb|y |n the construct|on phases. The |rm was ab|e to encourage the a|um|num
34 Pusse||, James S. "Learn|ng rom lndustry: Arch|tectura| Techno|ogy at the .S. A|r Force Academy," |n
Bruegmann, ed., Vcoe|n|sm a| V|o-Cen|0|,, 148.
35 Foucau|t, 146.
36 Pusse||, James S. "Learn|ng rom lndustry: Arch|tectura| Techno|ogy at the .S. A|r Force Academy," |n
Bruegmann, ed., Vcoe|n|sm a| V|o-Cen|0|,, 149.
Clockwise from top: AFA cadets in formation on terrazzo (Photo: Stewarts), Mitchell (Dining) Hall interior - note
the column-free expanse - (Photo: Hedrich-Blessing), Chapel interior (Photo: Balthazar Korab).
Haav 17
manuacturer to produce extruded components at the d|mens|ons needed or exter|or c|add|ng,
L|bbey-Owens Ford and P|ttsburgh P|ate G|ass to deve|op the necessary t|nt|ng and re|ectance
or the curta|n wa|| g|az|ng and Armstrong |oor|ng to make v|ny|-asbestos t||es o the requ|red
spec||cat|ons. A new |ame-|n|sh|ng process was used on the gran|te t||es that appear
throughout the campus and the var|ous br|dges on s|te dep|oy what was at the t|me a st|||
deve|op|ng advance |n structura| components: prestressed, precast concrete.
37
The one g|ar|ng |nterrupt|on |n an otherw|se cons|stent, r|g|d|y orthogona| p|an |s the
Cadet Chape|. The d|spute |n Congress tended to ocus on th|s part o the proposa|. From a
certa|n perspect|ve, the prob|em o |ncorporat|ng the re||g|ous |nto a p|an so de|ned by the
mach|ne |s |nso|ub|e, there |s s|mp|y no p|ace or anachron|st|c be||e |n any power beyond that
o the advanced techno|ogy so c|ear|y man|ested here, rom the a|r-crat to the |ndustr|a||y-
produced arch|tecture. Nonethe|ess, god|essness was the |ot o the Sov|ets and not that o
Amer|ca, and the chape| wou|d work to make th|s d|st|nct|on c|ear.
38
A|| o th|s sa|d, the chape|
des|gn seems v|ab|e at a conceptua| |eve|: |t |s de|ned by a cont|nuous geometr|c pattern, even
| d|st|nct rom the orthogona| that appears everywhere e|se, |t answers to the requ|rements o
the c||ent w|th the same |og|ca| th|nk|ng that one has come to expect rom the |rm, and |ts orm
and mater|a|s are suggest|ve o the a|r-crat that const|tute the comp|exs very |a|scn oe||e.
Perhaps |ts perce|ved a||ure cons|sts |n the undamenta| d|scordance between a a|th |n God
and the a|th |n reason enshr|ned |n the Modern |d|om |n wh|ch SOM worked |n th|s per|od.
SOMs recent|y constructed Cathedra| o Chr|st the L|ght and |ts comparat|ve success re|ects
the act that s|nce 1963 the |rm has a|tered |ts des|gn att|tude to the extent that the constra|nts
o the estab||shed Modern sty|e have been |ett|soned, but a|so that the Amer|can pub||c now
37 |o|o., 149-151.
38 Adams, 150.
Haav 18
accepts non-trad|t|ona| orma| so|ut|ons or re||g|ous bu||d|ngs more read||y.
Hawa||s ro|e as tour|st dest|nat|on |s concurrent w|th |ts serv|ng as headquarters or the
.S. Pac||c A|r Forces at H|ckam A|r Force Base, and so the trans|t|on rom the A|r Force
Academy at Co|orado Spr|ngs |s a b|t |ess abrupt. The adm|ss|on o Hawa|| |nto the n|on |n
1959 |s a token o a k|nd o rev|va| o the |deo|ogy o Man|est Dest|ny. Beyond the second
sh|n|ng shore and deep |nto the Pac||c, th|s heterotop|a o consumer cu|ture ex|sts happ||y |n the
|s|ands a|ongs|de the orces necessary to deend |ts ostens|b|y precar|ous pos|t|on |n the wor|d
aga|nst the perce|ved threat o commun|sm. H|ckam w||| be an |mportant base o operat|ons
throughout the war |n \|etnam. SOMs |egacy on the |s|and comes not |n the orm o th|s m|||tary
outpost, but rather an a|together c||e| space.
One o the character|st|cs cruc|a| to SOMs cont|nued success over the years has been
the re|at|ve reedom w|th wh|ch each o|ce operates, and the |ex|b|||ty th|s aords the |rm as a
who|e. Th|s |s made man|est not on|y |n the organ|zat|on o the des|gn work, but a|so |n sty||st|c
d|erences, however subt|e these may be. ln the per|od |n quest|on, the d|erences are
|ncred|b|y subt|e, a|most neg||g|b|e. The case o the San Franc|sco o|ce and the work overseen
by Char|es Bassett |s espec|a||y noteworthy |n th|s regard, and d|rects our attent|on to h|s des|gn
or the Mauna Kea Beach Hote| |n Kamue|a, Hawa||. Th|s pro|ect, |n add|t|on to the
Weyerhaeuser Company Headquarters Bu||d|ng |n Tacoma Wash|ngton a ew years |ater,
const|tutes the most contextua||y sens|t|ve work o the |rm at the t|me, at |east |n terms o
|ntegrat|on w|th the ex|st|ng |andscape. Deve|oped under the ausp|ces o the econom|c
deve|opment o the Ne|ghbor ls|ands, the 500 acre s|te |s character|zed by sparse desert
growth over a |ava |ow. The bu||d|ng comp|ex covers |ust 23 acres o th|s tota|, and these were
Clockwise from top: Mauna Kea Beach Hotel guest quarters, dining pavilion overlooking beach, plans (Archi-
tecture of Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, 1963-1973, p. 258). (Photos: Yukio Futugawa).
Haav 19
|andscaped w|th reg|ona| p|ant|ngs. An add|t|ona| 125 acres o the s|te were set as|de or an 18-
ho|e go| course, |eav|ng 352 acres und|sturbed.
39
The hote| |s |ocated at the oot o ext|nct vo|cano Mauna Kea on the northwest coast o
the |s|and o Hawa||. The comp|ex compr|ses three e|ements: the ma|n guest accommodat|ons
w|th |ower |eve| pub||c spaces and 154 guest rooms above, a detached pav|||on or d|n|ng, and a
serv|ce corr|dor be|ow grade. The ma|n bu||d|ng over|ooks the beach rom a h||| that s|opes
gent|y to sea-|eve|. Because the pub||c spaces were p|aced on d|erent |eve|s, more e|c|ent use
|s made o the ex|st|ng topography. The top |eve| houses the ma|n entrance, adm|n|strat|ve
o|ces and a recept|on |ounge. The |ower |eve| eatures a bar, buet and stores. Generous|y
proport|oned terraces resu|t rom the arrangement o guest rooms |n three stepped t|ers. These
are shaded rom the sun and protected rom v|ews rom above by wood tre|||ses. Guest rooms
eature v|ews to e|ther the ocean rom one s|de or to mounta|ns on the other, and trans|t|on
smooth|y w|th three |nter|or, open-a|r ga||er|es. Lush vegetat|on |||s these |nterna| ga||er|es. The
|oor |eve| r|ses |n two t|ers |nto the |nter|or o the d|n|ng pav|||on. Th|s urn|shes each guest an
unobstructed v|ew o the sea. The |nter|or eatures a ce|||ng o dark wood and accommodates
200 d|ners w|th space or many more on outdoor terraces. A serv|ce b|ock and an
aud|tor|um/banquet|ng ha|| are bu||t be|ow grade |mmed|ate|y beh|nd the d|n|ng pav|||on. The
cho|ce and treatment o mater|a|s |s a s|gn||cant departure rom the preabr|cated components
that eature so prom|nent|y |n the pro|ects cons|dered thus ar. The poured-|n-p|ace concrete
structure bears tr|angu|ar-pro||e ornamenta| deta|||ng, emphas|z|ng the hor|zonta| or vert|ca|
or|entat|on o beam or co|umn. Other mater|a|s |nc|ude lta||an quarry t||e, |oca||y sourced |ava,
Mex|can |agstone and sand-|n|sh p|aster.
40

39 S||omc|e, O.|ns & Ve|||||, vc|.7., Mauna Kea Beach Hote|.
40 /|c|||ec|0|e c/ S||omc|e, O.|ns & Ve|||||, '93-'973, 256.
Clockwise from top-left: section showing site slope (Architecture of Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, 1963-1973, p.
258), interior open air-galleries, guest rooms viewed from below, section of guest quarters (SOM, Thames &
Hudson, 1970). (Photos: Yukio Futugawa).
Haav 20
Mauna Kea may seem an out o p|ace re|at|ve to the other pro|ects cons|dered thus ar.
However, the exot|c resort serves a part|cu|ar unct|on that when proper|y understood c|ar||es
the p|cture o Amer|can consumer cu|ture at th|s moment. Laurance Pockee||er asked SOM to
des|gn a resort "or peop|e to restore themse|ves |n natura| surround|ngs."
41
lt |s th|s not|on o
restorat|on that makes the pro|ect re|evant to any study o the cu|ture emerg|ng |n postwar
Amer|ca. The |ns|stence on e|c|ency and the ub|qu|ty o |ndustr|a| techn|que |n the day-to-day
||e o Amer|cans |n the context o product|on and consumpt|on a||ke coup|ed w|th the
perpetua| anx|ety o the Co|d War and the threat o nuc|ear con||ct contr|butes to the creat|on o
new requ|rements or compensatory measures. A|ongs|de o the resort, |t |s worth cons|der|ng
the ro|e o the p|ohn Corporat|on |n th|s unct|on, w|th |ts product|on o drugs such as Xanax,
Ha|c|on and Poga|ne or the treatment o anx|ety, |nsomn|a and ha|r |oss respect|ve|y, SOM
comp|eted the|r corporate headquarters |n Ka|amazoo, M|ch|gan |n 1961. The resort and the
prescr|pt|on are d|erent measures or manag|ng the same stra|ns assoc|ated w|th pervas|ve
ear and anx|ety, and yet they are themse|ves const|tut|ve o a new serv|ce sector.
ln conc|us|on, l want to emphas|ze the |mportance o one substant|a|, but
underrepresented segment o SOMs work that |s the bas|s o the postwar cu|ture wh|ch has
been descr|bed on|y |n representat|ve ragments thus ar, name|y |ts des|gn o |ndustr|a|
ac|||t|es. Wh||e the known canon o the |rms output eatures most|y corporate headquarters and
o|ce or m|xed-use h|gh-r|ses, SOM has |ong |nvo|ved |tse| |n the |ess g|amorous work o
p|ann|ng actor|es, warehouses and product|on s|tes. That |s to say, the |rm has been
respons|b|e or the des|gn o ac|||t|es where the very products that popu|ated the domest|c
41 S||omc|e, O.|ns & Ve|||||, vc|.7., Mauna Kea Beach Hote|.
Top to bottom: conveyor bridge be-
tweenHeinz vinegar plant and ware-
house, Container Corporation of Amer-
ica paper carton manufacturing plant
interior, Kimberly Clark plant machine
room. (Source: Skidmore, Owings &
Merrill Vol. 7, photos: SOM)
Haav 21
|andscape o postwar Amer|ca and beyond were generated |n accordance w|th |ndustr|a|
methods:
[SOMs] d|vers||ed comm|ss|ons have |nc|uded severa| newspaper p|ants,
d|str|but|on centers and prototype stores or Sears, Poebuck and Company, a
conta|ner sh|pp|ng warehouse or Seatra|n L|nes, a v|negar p|ant and warehouses
or the H.J. He|nz Company, a med|ca| systems manuactur|ng p|ant or the
Genera| E|ectr|c Company, paper m|||s or K|mber|y-C|ark, and tobacco actor|es
or Ph|||p Morr|s |n Amer|ca and W.D. & H.O. W|||s |n Eng|and. For Conta|ner
Corporat|on o Amer|ca, the |rm has des|gned a range o ac|||t|es |nc|ud|ng
o|d|ng carton p|ants, corrugated box p|ants, and a research and des|gn
|aboratory. SOM has worked w|th the S|gnode Stee| Strapp|ng Company s|nce
1956, prov|d|ng des|gn and construct|on superv|s|on or var|ous p|ant bu||d|ngs as
we|| as |ong term master p|an deve|opment. These pro|ects represent a broad
spectrum o |ndustr|a| c||ents, each w|th part|cu|ar procedura|, process and
equ|pment needs. Th|s exposure to a var|ety o |ndustr|a| comm|ss|ons and
requ|rements has perm|tted SOM to br|ng greater expert|se to conceptua|
p|ann|ng, and through the comb|ned ab|||t|es o an |nterd|sc|p||nary sta, deve|op
|nnovat|ve des|gn concepts, advanced construct|on techn|ques, t|ght cost contro|
and r|gorous schedu||ng or each pro|ect undertaken.
42
The above |s g|ven |n the |ntroduct|on to the |th o n|ne vo|umes o type-spec||c cata|ogues
SOM se|-pub||shed |n 1973, and |t makes c|ear the pervas|veness o the |rms |mpact. Beyond
the spaces |n wh|ch products as we|| as the packag|ng and conta|ners |n wh|ch they trave|
are generated, SOM has des|gned |c. those products are d|str|buted to the spaces |n wh|ch
they are so|d spaces that they have a|so des|gned (vo|ume s|x |s devoted |n part to reta||
pro|ects). G|ven such acts, one cant he|p but reca|| Taur|s account o the sh|t|ng ro|e o the
arch|tect |n the ear|y Twent|eth Century: l arch|tecture |s now synonymous w|th the organ|zat|on
o product|on, |t |s a|so true that, beyond product|on |tse|, d|str|but|on and consumpt|on are the
determ|n|ng actors o the cyc|e. The arch|tect |s an organ|zer, not a des|gner o ob|ects.
43
42 S||omc|e, O.|ns & Ve|||||, vc|.5., Des|gn o lndustr|a| Fac|||t|es.
43 Taur|, 125.
Top to bottom: Philip Morris Making and Packing Building, Otis Elevator Company manufacturing and ware-
house building. (Source: Skidmore, Owings & Merrill Vol. 7, photos: SOM)
Haav 22
When h|story |s wr|tten |n uture centur|es, Sk|dmore, Ow|ngs &
Merr||| w||| probab|y not be the greatest creat|ve arch|tects o th|s
century, but w||| be the most |mportant o th|s century because they
d|dnt ant|c|pate, had noth|ng, no ph||osophy. ... The |rm had one
bas|c th|ngl th|nk a|| the peop|e |nvo|ved were sound, |og|ca|
th|nkers. They were not dreamers. SOM ex|sts today because they
cou|d serv|ce the needs o the bu||d|ng pub||c. Ha| the |obs they
get, nobody e|se cou|d do. They dont have the organ|zat|on to do |t.
SOM grew w|th the t|mes. They were a|ways there to grow. . The
|rm |s hungry or ta|ent. Ta|ent moves up the |adder, and theres no
head man. ... Thats why |t succeeds. The |rm |s |ex|b|e.
44
44 Bunshat, 120-121.
Haav 23
- Works C|ted -
Adams, N|cho|as. S||omc|e, O.|ns & Ve|||||. SOV s|nce '93. M||an: Mondador| E|ecta, 2007.
/|c|||ec|0|a| Fc|0m. 89 (Dec. 1948). New York: B|||board Pub||cat|ons, 1948.
Bruegmann, Pobert. Vcoe|n|sm a| V|o-Cen|0|,. 7|e /|c|||ec|0|e c/ ||e Ln||eo S|a|es /|| Fc|ce
/caoem,. Ch|cago: o Ch|cago Press, 1994.
Bunshat, Gordon. O|a| ||s|c|, c/ Gc|ocn 50ns|a/|, F./.|./. / |n|e|.|e.eo o, 5e||, J. 5|0m,
ccmo||eo 0noe| ||e a0so|ces c/ ||e C||cac /|c|||ec|s O|a| ||s|c|, ||c/ec|, Deoa||men|
c/ /|c|||ec|0|e, ||e /|| |ns|||0|e c/ C||cac. Ch|cago: The lnst|tute,1990.
Foucau|t, M|che|. D|sc|o||ne ano |0n|s|. 7|e 5|||| c/ ||e |||scn. Trans. A|an Sher|dan. New York:
\|ntage, 1995.
Great Lakes Nava| Tra|n|ng Center - Gunners Mates Serv|ce Schoo| A...scm.ccm. Web. 05
Dec. 2010. http://www.som.com/content.cm/gunners_mates>.
H|tchcock, Henry-Pusse||. "The Arch|tecture o Bureaucracy and the Arch|tecture o Gen|us."
/|c|||ec|0|a| Pe.|e.. \o|. 101 (January 1947), 3-6. London: Arch|tectura| Press LTD.,1947.
Hartmann, W||||am. O|a| ||s|c|, c/ A||||am |a||mann / |n|e|.|e.eo o, 5e||, 5|0m, ccmo||eo 0noe|
||e a0so|ces c/ ||e C||cac /|c|||ec|s O|a| ||s|c|, ||c/ec|, ||e F|nes| P. G|a|am S|0o,
Cen|e| /c| /|c|||ec|0|a| D|a.|ns, Deoa||men| c/ /|c|||ec|0|e, ||e /|| |ns|||0|e c/ C||cac.
Ch|cago: The lntst|tute, 2003. Web. 07 Dec. 2010. http://d|g|ta|-
||brar|es.sa|c.edu/cdm4/document.php?
ClSOPOOT~/caohp&ClSOPTP~23045&PEC~1>.
- - . "S.O.M. Organ|zat|on" 5a0en 0no Ac|nen 11:4 (Apr|| 1957), p. 116 . Zur|ch: Bauen und
Wohnen GmBH, 1957.
Johnson, Le|and, and Dan|e| Schaer. Oa| P|oe Na||cna| |aoc|a|c|,. ||e F||s| F|/|, Yea|s.
Knoxv|||e: n|vers|ty o Tennessee, 1994.

Le Corbus|er, Jean-Lou|s Cohen, and John Goodman. 7c.a|o an /|c|||ec|0|e. Los Ange|es:
Getty Pesearch lnst|tute, 2007.
Lew|s, Kev|n N. 7|e L.S. /|| Fc|ce 50oe| ano |cs|0|e c.e| 7|me. Santa Mon|ca: PAND, 1990.
Web. 3 Oct. 2010. http://www.rand.org/pubs/reports/2009/P3807.pd>.
Luckman, Char|es. 7.|ce |n a ||/e||me. /|cm Scao |c S|,sc|aoe|s. New York: W.W. Norton, 1988.
Haav 24
"Mach|ne-Made Amer|ca." /|c|||ec|0|a| Pe.|e.. \o|. 121 (May 1957). London: Arch|tectura|
Press LTD., 1957.
Museum o Modern Art. V0se0m c/ Vcoe|n /|| 50||e||n. \o|. 18, no. 1 (Fa|| 1950). New York:
MoMA, 1950.
Ockman, Joan. "Art, Sou| o the Corporat|on: Patronage, Pub||c Pe|at|ons, and the lnterre|at|ons
o Arch|tecture and Art ater Wor|d War ll." Ost||dern-Pu|t, Germany: Hat|e Cantz, 2008.
Web. 02 Dec. 2010. http://www.som.com/content.cm/art_sou|_o_the_corporat|on>.
Ockman, Joan, and Edward E|gen. /|c|||ec|0|e C0||0|e. '943 '98, / Dcc0men|a|, /n||c|c,.
New York: P|zzo||, 1993.
Sk|dmore, Ow|ngs & Merr|||. /|c|||ec|0|e c/ S||omc|e, O.|ns & Ve|||||, '950-'92. New York:
Monace|||, 2009.
- - . /|c|||ec|0|e c/ S||omc|e, O.|ns & Ve|||||, '93-'973. New York: Monace|||, 2009.
- - . S||omc|e, O.|ns & Ve|||||. London: Thames and Hudson, 1970.
- - . S||omc|e, O.|ns & Ve|||||. \o|s. 5-7. Ch|cago: SOM, 1973.
Sm|thson, A||son and Peter. "But Today We Co||ect Ads." /||, No. 18 (Nov. 1956). London: Poya|
Co||ege o Art, 1956.
Taur|, Manredo. /|c|||ec|0|e ano L|co|a. Des|n ano Cao||a||s| De.e|comen|. Trans. Barbara
Lu|g|a La Penta. Cambr|dge: MlT, 1976.
Taur|, Manredo, and Francesco Da| Co. Vcoe|n /|c|||ec|0|e/2. Trans. Pobert Er|ch Wo|. New
York: P|zzo||, 1986.