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Contents
This table of contents is a handy checklist of many of the suggestions given in this book for the study of chemistry.
Section
Keep this little book handy and refer to it often.
Know the makeup of your chemistry course.
Maintain an alert mind and cheerful attitude.
Apply what you learn to the world around you .
The essence of studying chemistry-have faith, study hard, think.
Study frequently and do problems.
Ask questions and get help from your instructor.
Get help from a tutor.
Alleviate anxiety.
Refine your understanding of topics through repetitive study.
Learn chemistry by writing.
Learn the bread and butter stuff well.
Learn the language of chemistry.
Memorize selected material.
Progress from the simple to the complex.
Explain things and learn generalizations.
Study your textbook with the full force of your intellect.
Study the chapter prior to attending lectures on it and keep good lecture notes.
Correlate material for better understanding and retention.
Distinguish between related items to increase your mental acuity.
Learn basic mathematics and solve many problems of all types.
Use the periodic table for learning the physical and chemical properties of the elements.
Learn general reactions and illustrate each general reaction with specific examples.
Organic chemistry : memorize types of organic compounds and types of organic reactions.
Study biochemistry like organic chemistry and learn metabolic pathways.
Study for tests well in advance.
Try to study when sickness strikes.
Introduction to sample ancillary pages.
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This little book gives realistic suggestions on how to study college general chemistry and high school chemistry. You may find
that some of the suggestions are also beneficial for the study of other subjects.
Alleviate anxiety.
Most scientific textbooks look formidable. The size and, more so, the content of your new chemistry textbook may cause
you to generate fear and anxiety, particularly so if you did not take chemistry in high school or if you think that you are not
scientifically-minded. You might ask-how could I hope to learn all this ? The cliché first-things-first seems appropriate here.
General chemistry is presented in a logical manner-the simpler methods and concepts preceded the more complex ones. You
gradually build upon existing knowledge at each stage of your study. This manner of learning chemistry requires that you keep
abreast of the lecturing by attending all lectures and by studying chemistry nearly every day. As you learn more and more, your
chemical intuition and confidence increase.
Items such as these are bread and butter stuff. Through repeated practice learn them so well that they become second nature
to you.
Magnesium reacts vigorously with oxygen to produce magnesium oxide. The chemical equation for this reaction is :
2 Mg + O2 → MgO
This reaction, which gives off heat and light, is the familiar flashbulb reaction. Passage of electricity through water
(electrolysis of water) causes water to decompose, producing hydrogen gas and oxygen gas. The chemical equation for this
reaction is :
2 H2O
→ 2 H2 + O2
electriccurrent
Nomenclature and chemical symbolism go hand in hand. Learn to name a chemical substance when given its chemical
symbol or chemical formula. Learn to write the chemical symbol or chemical formula of a substance when given its chemical
name. Most textbooks contain a chapter on chemical nomenclature. Learn this chapter well. Learn and practice writing chemical
symbols and formulas of substances, together with the corresponding names, at every opportunity as you study chapter after
chapter.
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Memorize selected material.
Memorization plays a significant role in learning chemistry. Much is memorized through repetitive study. Memorized facts
serve as fuel for running the machinery of one's mind. Memorize, for example, the chemical symbols and names of about 40
commonly used elements. Of these elements, the commonly used nonmetals are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
phosphorus, sulfur, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and the noble gases helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon. All
of the other elements commonly used are metals; a few are metalloids.
You also will be able to write the net ionic equation for the reaction :
element → simple and polyatomic ions → ionic compounds → chemical equations → net ionic equations
This sequence of topics illustrates just one line of continuity in the study of chemistry. The topics are studied in a logical
sequence and then the topics are put together to achieve a goal. In this example, the goal is to be able to write the chemical
equation for the reaction occurring between ionic substances.
Be aware of the cumulative nature of chemistry. In many instances new work can be understood only after earlier work has
been learned well. Progress from the simple to the complex by building upon existing knowledge at each stage of your study. Tie
topics together wherever possible; that is, formulate lines of continuity in the subject matter. Express each line of continuity in
the form of a sequential chart of related topics, as illustrated above.
Study the chapter prior to attending lectures on it and keep good lecture notes.
Study the chapter prior to attending lectures on it. In this way you provide a skeleton on which to hang flesh. Prior study of
the chapter makes it easier to concentrate on the lecture, to follow the ideas, and to record notes more concisely and
completely.
Shortly after the lecture, review your lecture notes with an eye toward improving them. Particularly, transfer facts and
statements from your textbook to your lecture notebook to give more substance to your notes. Rewrite descriptions and
explanations in order to make them more complete and accurate, using clear, concise language. Give informative titles to
sections of your notes. State the significance of what is recorded in your notes and state generalizations, wherever these are
lacking. Do what is necessary to make your notes more legible, more accurate, more complete, more informative. The very act
of improving your lecture notes, as described here, is a good way to go about learning chemistry. Your lecture notes, now
modified and fortified, are like a second textbook. Lecture notes and textbook alike are sacred, to be studied and restudied, again
and again.
If your instructor approves, you may record lectures on cassette tapes, in addition to taking lecture notes. The taped lectures
can be used for modifying your written notes and as a resource for study and review.
– Read the preface of your textbook. The preface usually gives reasons for the choice and order of chapters and topics
appearing in the book. These reasons may help you correlate part of the book's contents.
– Frequent use of the index is helpful. Use the index to find all possible information on a given topic in your textbook.
– Here and there a textbook may give cross references. Follow up on these; study and tie together the cross-referenced
material.
– Study opening paragraphs of a chapter. These transitional paragraphs invariably correlate earlier work with new work to be
studied.
– Study chapter-end summaries. A nicely written summary will paint a unified picture of the chapter's contents.
Question :
Distinguish between an electron and a proton.
Possible answers :
(a) An electron has a negative one electrical charge whereas a proton has a positive one electrical charge.
(b) The mass of a proton is much greater than that of an electron; the mass of an electron is about 1/1837 of that of a proton.
(c) Protons are located in the nucleus of the atom whereas electrons are located outside the nucleus (extranuclear electrons).
Any one of the three possible answers is a good answer; all three possible answers together is a better answer. As you acquire
more and more knowledge, practice distinguishing between related items.
60 min 60 sec
2.0 hr × × = 7200 sec = 7.2 × 10 3 sec
hr min
Advantages of the factor-label method are : units and labels help you set up the problem; all units should cancel out except
those that should appear in the answer; when several factors are involved in the solution, the problem can be written in a single
line; it is an efficient method since separate steps are avoided. If unwanted units do not cancel out, then you know that an error
was made; find the error and correct the setup.
One way to begin a numerical problem, particularly a complicated one, is to record on your paper, in grocery list style, the
given data with units and labels, as you read the problem; also make a suitable notation of what is to be found, with units. If a
reaction is involved, copy the reaction on your paper. In this way, everything you need is set down on paper in front of you; you
do not have to go back again to the printed problem. The act of writing out the data and reaction will help you start thinking about
how to solve the problem. Think. Try to get a clear picture of the physical setup involved in the problem. Ask yourself questions.
What substances are present ? How are the substances reacting or behaving ? What chemical principles are applicable to the
solution of the problem ? Frequently refresh your knowledge of chemical principles. These principles form the basis for
understanding the methods used for solving numerical problems.
Even though you lack clear understanding of a particular type of numerical problem, go through the mechanics of writing
out detailed solutions to a number of problems of that type. There tends to be something magical about this approach;
somewhere along the line you will see the light of day. In your write-up of a solution to a problem, give explanatory statements
that indicate your understanding of the problem. After solving a problem, estimate whether or not the magnitude of your answer
is reasonable; if it is not, find the error and correct the solution.
Use the periodi c table for learning physical and chemical properties of the elements.
Make the periodic table your friend. Every chemistry textbook has a table printed on the inside front cover or back cover as
well as within the textbook. Every chemistry lecture room has one hanging on the wall. The periodic table is a systematic
arrangement of the elements. It is a summary of data. It is useful for correlating and understanding chemical and physical
properties of the elements. It is useful because you can derive information from it as you study. The periodic table will become
more and more useful to you as you continue your study of chemistry.
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Learn general reactions and illustrate each general reaction with specific examples.
When studying chemical properties (chemical reactions) of substances, note whether or not the chemical reaction is a
general one. Knowledge of general reactions makes it easier to learn chemical properties and to predict the products of a
reaction from the given reactant(s). This is true for studying inorganic and organic reactions.
For inorganic reactions, keep in mind that elements in the same group of the periodic table are known to have the same or
similar chemical properties. Knowing how one element in the group reacts enables you to predict how another element in the
same group will react. For example, both sodium (Na) and potassium (K) are in Group IA of the periodic table. If sodium (Na)
reacts with chlorine (Cl 2) to produce sodium chloride (NaCl), then, by analogy, we would expect that potassium (K) would react
with chlorine (Cl 2) to produce potassium chloride (KCl) :
2 K + Cl 2 → 2 KCl
This reaction does indeed occur. In fact, any Group IA alkali metal (Li, Na, K, Rb, and Cs) reacts with any Group VIIA halogen
(the nonmetals F2, Cl 2, Br 2, and I2) to form an ionic compound (a salt) consisting of alkali metal cations with a +1 charge and
halide anions with a -1 charge. The general equation for this type of reaction is :
2 M + X2 → 2 MX
These reactions, together with other reactions, also allow us to write a more general reaction :
Learn general reactions. Practice writing specific reactions that illustrate each general reaction. Where appropriate, write
the general reaction that corresponds to the specific reaction(s) studied.
Chemical reactions also are classified more broadly as combination (synthesis), decomposition, oxidation-reduction, single
displacement, and metathesis (double displacement). Many reactions fit into more than one class. For example, the reaction of
an alkali metal with a halogen to give a salt, as described above, is both a combination (synthesis) reaction and an oxidation-
reduction reaction (involves electron transfer). Learn to recognize these broad classes of reactions. Know the significance of all
reactions studied.
Organic chemistry : memorize types of organic compounds and types of organic reactions.
Suggestions for the study of chemistry given so far in this book also apply to the study of the organic chemistry portion and
the biochemistry portion of the general chemistry course. A few of these suggestions will be repeated here; several new ones
will be added.
Repetitive study is necessary for learning organic chemistry. Go over the material again and again. Use pen and paper as you
study. Practice writing structural formulas of organic compounds and chemical reactions at every opportunity.
The large number of known organic compounds are classified according to types. Each type of organic compound is
distinguished by its functional group (center of reactivity). At the beginning of your study of organic chemistry, learn to write
the general structure of each type of organic compound. Practice writing structural formulas of specific compounds that
illustrate each type. Be able to recognize the type of compound from inspection of the structural formula of a specific example.
Knowledge of types of organic compounds serves as a framework for your study of organic chemistry.
Initially, practice writing structural formulas of organic compounds in the expanded form; thereafter, write them in the
condensed form. The condensed form is easier on the eyes and faster to write.
Consider an example. Alkenes are one type of organic compound. The general formula of alkenes may be represented by
RCH=CH2. The C=C (carbon-carbon double bond) is the functional group of alkenes. Expanded and condensed structural
formulas of a specific alkene are shown below. The formal name of this alkene is ethene; the common name, ethylene.
H H
C C CH2 CH2
H H
Organic molecules are three-dimensional. Make molecular models of organic molecules to help you visualize the spatial
relationships of the atoms and groups of atoms in the molecule. Inexpensive modal kits may be purchased from the chemistry
storeroom or from the student bookstore.
Memorize general types of reactions. Types of reactions are reactions of functional groups. A general reaction is one for
which a large number of specific examples are known. Practice writing the general equation for each type of reaction. Note the
net change in structure that occurs in going from reactant to product. Using structural formulas, practice writing specific
reactions that illustrate each general type of reaction. Reactions also are classified more broadly as addition, elimination,
substitution, condensation, and so on. Learn to recognize these classes of reactions.
Consider an example. Catalytic hydrogenation (reduction) of a ketone gives a secondary alcohol.
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R C R H2, Ni R CH R
O OH
ketone secondary alcohol
This reaction is a general reaction. The reaction involves addition of H2 to the carbonyl group (>C=O) of the ketone to give
a hydroxyl group (>CH–OH). A specific example is shown below.
As an aid in learning organic reactions, make a scheme of related general reactions whenever possible. An example is shown
as follows. This scheme summarizes some of the addition reactions of alkenes (addition of reagents to the carbon-carbon
double bond, >C=C<) and some of the elimination reactions that give an alkene as product. In general, schemes of this sort give
you a bird's eye view of related organic reactions. Making the scheme itself forces you to correlate and unify related reactions.
During your study of organic chemistry, make schemes of this sort, whenever possible, as an aid in learning organic reactions.
R CH2 CH R
X
haloalkane (alkyl halide)
ethanolic KOH,
heat HX
dehydrohalogenation hydrohalogenation
(-HX)
X2 halogenation H2 , Ni
R CH CH R
R CH CH R R CH2 CH2 R
X X Zn dehalogenation catalytic hydrogenation
alkene (olefin) alkane (paraffin)
vicinal dihalide (-X2) (reduction)
+
acid, heat H 2O, H
dehydration hydration
R CH2 CH R
OH
alcohol
Using pen and paper, answer all assigned problems. When doing problems, take the opportunity to do more than give the
desired answer to the problem. Note the functional group or groups present in the molecule. Classify each compound according
to type. Give the formal and common names of the compound. If a reaction is involved, note the net change in structure that
occurs in going from reactant to product. Write the general reaction that corresponds to the specific reaction studied. Classify
the reaction as addition, elimination, substitution, condensation, and so on. These practices help you distinguish the forest from
the trees. If you cannot answer a problem, study again the cognate material in your textbook and lecture notes; then make a
second attempt to answer the problem. Check your answers against those given in the study guide. The study guide may give
alternate ways to answer a problem.
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Study biochemistry like organic chemistry and learn metabolic pathways.
The study of biochemistry is an extension of the study of organic chemistry. The biomolecules are organic compounds; the
metabolic pathways involve reactions of organic compounds. Learn the structures of the biomolecules, the typical enzymatic
and non-enzymatic reactions the biomolecules undergo, the steps in the main metabolic pathways, and the significance of each
pathway in the life of the organism.
Most of the chemical reactions the biomolecules undergo are of the same type as regular organic reactions. For example,
dehydration of a tertiary alcohol to give an alkene is a general reaction. Loss of H2O from the tertiary alcohol generates a new
carbon-carbon double bond, >C=C< :
R R
conc. H2SO4, heat
R C CH2 R R C CH R
(loss of H2O)
OH
tertiary alcohol alkene
The same type of chemical reaction - dehydration of a tertiary alcohol-occurs in the biochemical transformation of citrate
to cis-aconitate in the Krebs cycle :
- -
CH2 COO CH2 COO
- enzyme -
HO C COO (loss of H2 O) C COO
- -
CH2 COO CH COO
citrate cis-aconitate
Here, too, loss of H2O from the tertiary alcoholic group of citrate gives a new carbon-carbon double bond. Study the
reactions of the biomolecules in the same way you study regular organic reactions.
The purpose of this little book is to provide realistic suggestions for the study of chemistry. My hope is that you will put
these suggestions into practice and that you will be successful in your study of chemistry. The study of chemistry takes time,
but, then, anything worthwhile takes time. The study of chemistry is hard work; and I never said it was anything else. Your
comments and suggestions for improving this little book are welcome.