Logic in Computer Science

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Overview
Introduction to logic Propositional logic Predicate logic

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Introduction to Logic
The science or art of exact reasoning, or of pure and formal thought, or of the laws according to which the processes of pure thinking should be conducted. Aristotle Father of logic Recent developments resulted in symbolic logic
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Introduction to Logic
If you study well, you will pass the exam. You study well. Therefore you will pass the exam Is this valid?
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Structure of argument
A conclusion following from the assumptions A list of statement called premises or

assumptions
Note that arguments from different domains have similar structure. Can we have a general method to check their validity?
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Structure of argument
If you study well, -> p then you will pass the exam. -> q You study well. -> p Therefore you will pass the exam -> q If p, then q. p.Therefore q. Note that we can check the validity of the argument without really knowing what are p and q. C-DAC 2009-10
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Symbolic Logic
If p, then q. p.Therefore q. We could represent the argument in the previous slide using general symbols instead of domain specific terms. Unambiguous, precise Easy for automated reasoning

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Symbolic logic
Subclasses 1. Propositional logic (PL) 2. First order logic (FL) 3. Higher order logic 4. Modal logic

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Propositional Logic
with propositions or declarative sentences. Declarative sentence is a grammatically correct English sentence Deals
It is raining You are beautiful

Which can be put in place of in the sentence Is it true that ? so that result is a grammatically correct question
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Declarative sentence
Called as propositions in PL True or False Also called atoms Which of the following are declarative sentences?
Is it hot today? Dont sleep! It is true that some of you are not listening. Do you need a break? No break is needed.
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Syntax of PL
Propositional symbols
The basic unit Also called atoms We will represent using lower-case letters or words

Truth constants
Special constant symbols T (for True) and F (for False)
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Syntax of PL
Logical connectives
1. 2. 3.

Conjunction (and): Disjunction (or): Negation (not): Implication (if, then): -> Equivalence (If and only if): <-> Usually with precedence
; , ; ->, <->

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Topic #1.0 Propositional Logic: Operators

Operators / Connectives
An operator or connective combines one or more operand expressions into a larger expression. (E.g., + in numeric exprs.) Unary operators take 1 operand (e.g., 3); binary operators take 2 operands (eg 3 4). Propositional or Boolean operators operate on propositions or truth values instead of C-DAC 2009-10 on numbers. 13

Some Popular Boolean Operators

Formal Name Negation operator Conjunction operator Disjunction operator Implication operator Biconditional operator
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Nickname Arity NOT AND OR IMPLIES IFF Unary Binary Binary Binary Binary Binary

Symbol

ExclusiveExclusive-OR operator XOR

Topic #1.0 Propositional Logic: Operators

The Negation Operator

The unary negation operator (NOT) transforms a proposition into its logical negation. E.g. If p = I have brown hair. then p = I do not have brown p p hair. T F Truth table for NOT: F T
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Topic #1.0 Propositional Logic: Operators

The Conjunction Operator

The binary conjunction operator (AND) combines two propositions to form their logical conjunction. E.g. If p=I will have salad for lunch. and q=I will have steak for dinner., then pq=I will have salad for lunch and I will have steak for dinner.
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Topic #1.0 Propositional Logic: Operators

Conjunction Truth Table

p Note that a F conjunction p1 p2 pn F of n propositions T will have 2n rows T q F T F T pq F F F T

in its truth table. Also: and operations together are sufficient to express any Boolean truth C-DAC 2009-10 table!
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Topic #1.0 Propositional Logic: Operators

The Disjunction Operator

The binary disjunction operator (OR) combines two propositions to form their logical disjunction. p=My car has a bad engine. q=My car has a bad carburetor. pq=My car has a bad engine, or my car has a bad carburetor.
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Topic #1.0 Propositional Logic: Operators

Disjunction Truth Table

p q pq Note that pq means F F F that p is true, or q is true, or both are true! F T T T F T So, this operation is also called inclusive or, T T T because it includes the possibility that both p and q are true. and together are also universal.
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Topic #1.0 Propositional Logic: Operators

Nested Propositional Expressions

Use parentheses to group sub-expressions: I just saw my old friend, and either hes grown or Ive shrunk. = f (g s) (f g) s would mean something different f g s would be ambiguous By convention, takes precedence over both and . s f means (s) f , not (s f) C-DAC 2009-10
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Topic #1.0 Propositional Logic: Operators

A Simple Exercise
Let p=It rained last night, q=The sprinklers came on last night, r=The lawn was wet this morning. Translate each of the following into English: p r p rpq
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Topic #1.0 Propositional Logic: Operators

The Exclusive Or Operator

The binary exclusive-or operator (XOR) combines two propositions to form their logical exclusive or (exjunction?). p = I will earn an A in this course, q = I will drop this course, p q = I will either earn an A for this course, or I will drop it (but not both!)
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Topic #1.0 Propositional Logic: Operators

Exclusive-Or Truth Table

p q pq Note that pq means F F F that p is true, or q is true, but not both! F T T T F T This operation is T T F called exclusive or, because it excludes the possibility that both p and q are true. and together are not universal.
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Topic #1.0 Propositional Logic: Operators

The Implication Operator

The implication p q states that p implies q. I.e., If p is true, then q is true; but if p is not true, then q could be either true or false. E.g., let p = You study hard. q = You will get a good grade. p q = If you study hard, then you will get a good grade. (else, it could go either way)
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Topic #1.0 Propositional Logic: Operators

Implication Truth Table

p q is false only when p is true but q is not true. p q does not say that p causes q! p q does not require that p or q are ever true! E.g. (1=0) pigs can fly is TRUE!
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p F F T T

q pq F T T T F F T T

Topic #1.0 Propositional Logic: Operators

Examples of Implications
If this lecture ends, then the sun will rise tomorrow. True or False? If Tuesday is a day of the week, then I am a penguin. True or False? If 1+1=6, then Bush is president. True or False? If the moon is made of green cheese, then I am richer than Bill Gates. True C-DAC 2009-10 26 or False?

Topic #1.0 Propositional Logic: Operators

English Phrases Meaning pq

p implies q if p, then q if p, q when p, q whenever p, q q if p q when p q whenever p
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p p q p q q

only if q is sufficient for q is necessary for follows from p is implied by p

We will see some equivalent logic expressions later.

Topic #1.0 Propositional Logic: Operators

The biconditional operator

The biconditional p q states that p is true if and only if (IFF) q is true. p = X wins the 2009 election. q = X will be president for all of 2010. p q = If, and only if, X wins the 2009 election, X will be president for all of 2010.

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Topic #1.0 Propositional Logic: Operators

Biconditional Truth Table

p q means that p and q

p have the same truth value. F Note this truth table is the F exact opposite of s! T p q means (p q) T

p q does not imply p and q are true, or cause each other.

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q p q F T T F F F T T

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Topic #1.0 Propositional Logic: Operators

Boolean Operations Summary

truth tables of 1 unary operator and 5 binary operators.

p F F T T

q F T F T

p pq pq pq pq pq T F F F T T T F T T T F F F T T F F F T T F T T
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Express with symbolic logic

The following facts are known about a robbery: 1. If A is guilty and B is innocent, then C is guilty. 2. C never works alone. 3. A never works with C. 4. No one other than A, B, or C was involved, and at least one of them is guilty.

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p represents the statement A is guilty, q the statement B is guilty and r the statement C is guilty. 1.If A is guilty and B is innocent, then C is guilty. p q r 2.C never works alone. rpq 3. A never works with C. p r 4. No one other than A, B, or C was involved, and at least one of them is guilty. pqr
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Topic #1.1 Propositional Logic: Equivalences

Propositional Equivalence
Two syntactically (i.e., textually) different compound propositions may be the semantically identical (i.e., have the same meaning). We call them equivalent. Learn: Various equivalence rules or laws. How to prove equivalences using symbolic derivations.
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Topic #1.1 Propositional Logic: Equivalences

Tautologies and Contradictions

A tautology is a compound proposition that is true no matter what the truth values of its atomic propositions are! Ex. p p [What is its truth table?] A contradiction is a compound proposition that is false no matter what! Ex. p p [Truth table?] Other compound props. are contingencies.
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Topic #1.1 Propositional Logic: Equivalences

Logical Equivalence
Compound proposition p is logically equivalent to compound proposition q, written pq, IFF the compound proposition pq is a tautology. Compound propositions p and q are logically equivalent to each other IFF p and q contain the same truth values as each other in all rows of their truth C-DAC 2009-10 tables.
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Topic #1.1 Propositional Logic: Equivalences

Proving Equivalence via Truth Tables

Ex. Prove that pq (p q).
p F F T T q F T F T p q F T T T p T T F F q p q (p q) T T F F F T T F T F F T

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Find whether the statements are Equivalent via Truth Tables (1) (pq)r p(qr)

(2) pq (pq) (qp)

(3) (pq) p q

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Translate into propositional logic (abbreviating `it has rained' as r, `it's been cold' as c and `the plant is dead' as d): (a) If it has rained and it's been cold then the plant is dead (b) If it has rained then either it hasn't been cold or the plant is dead. Use truth tables to determine whether one of these is logically equivalent to the other.

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(a) If it has rained and it's been cold then the plant is dead. (r c) d (b) If it has rained then either it hasn't been cold or the plant is dead. r ( c d)

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Topic #1.1 Propositional Logic: Equivalences

Equivalence Laws
These are similar to the arithmetic identities you may have learned in algebra, but for propositional equivalences instead. They provide a pattern or template that can be used to match all or part of a much more complicated proposition and to find an equivalence for it.
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Topic #1.1 Propositional Logic: Equivalences

Equivalence Laws - Examples

Identity: pT p pF p Domination: pT T pF F Idempotent: pp p pp p Double negation: p p Commutative: pq qp pq qp Associative: (pq)r p(qr) (pq)r p(qr)
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Topic #1.1 Propositional Logic: Equivalences

More Equivalence Laws

Distributive: p(qr) (pq)(pr) p(qr) (pq)(pr) De Morgans: (pq) p q (pq) p q Trivial tautology/contradiction: p p T p p F

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Topic #1.1 Propositional Logic: Equivalences

Defining Operators via Equivalences

Using equivalences, we can define operators in terms of other operators. Exclusive or: pq (pq)(pq) pq (pq)(qp) Implies: pq p q Biconditional: pq (pq) (qp) pq (pq)
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Proof of consistency
A statement, or set of statements is logically consistent when it involves no

logical contradiction
A logical contradiction is the conjunction of a statement S and it's denial not-S.

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Resolution Principle

(pq)(pr)](pr)
If we have two true disjunctions that have mutually exclusive propositions, then we can conclude that the disjunction of the two non-mutually exclusive propositions is true.

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Using the resolution rule (an example)

1. p r 2. r q
p Anna is skiing q r Bart is playing hockey it is snowing

pq p r q r

Resolution rule

1. Anna is skiing or it is not snowing. 2. It is snowing or Bart is playing hockey. Consequently Anna is skiing or Bart is playing hockey
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Use equivalences to prove that (r s) s r. (r s) (De Morgan) r s (Commutativity) s r (2x Double Negation) sr

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Topic #1.1 Propositional Logic: Equivalences

An Example Problem
Check using a symbolic derivation whether (p q) (p r) p q r.
(p q) (p r) [Expand definition of ] (p q) (p r) [Defn. of ] (p q) ((p r) (p r)) [DeMorgans Law] (p q) ((p r) (p r)) [associative law] cont.
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Topic #1.1 Propositional Logic: Equivalences

Example Continued...
(p q) ((p r) (p r)) [ commutes] (q p) ((p r) (p r)) [ associative] q (p ((p r) (p r))) [distrib. over ] q (((p (p r)) (p (p r))) [assoc.] q (((p p) r) (p (p r))) [trivail taut.] q ((T r) (p (p r))) [domination] q (T (p (p r))) [identity] q (p (p r)) cont.
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Topic #1.1 Propositional Logic: Equivalences

Example Continued
q (p (p r)) [DeMorgans] q (p (p r)) [Assoc.] q ((p p) r) [Idempotent] q (p r) [Assoc.] (q p) r [Commut.] p q r
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Topic #1.0 Propositional Logic: Operators

Converse, Inverse, Contrapositive

Some terminology, for an implication p q: Its converse is: q p. Its inverse is: p q. Its contrapositive: q p.

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Topic #1.0 Propositional Logic: Operators

Proving the equivalence of p q and its contrapositive

Using truth tables:

p F F T T

q F T F T

q T F T F

p T T F F

pq q p T T T T F F T T
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Logical Consequence
Given a set of formulae, does a given formula logically follows from the set? A formula g is said to be logical consequence (LC) of a set of formulae f1, f2, .., fn if
Whenever all fi evaluates to T under any interpretation, g also evaluates to T under the same interpretation, OR The formula f1 f2 .. fn -> g is valid

Logical consequence
Premises (1)It rains (2)If it rains the roads will be wet. Prove that the roads will be wet is the consequence of the given premises(1) and (2).

Class room exercise