FYBMM - TRANSLATION SKILLS NOTES Transcription: In a strict linguistic sense, transcription is the process of matching the sounds of human

speech to special written symbols, using a set of exact rules, so that these sounds can be reproduced later. A transcriptionist is a person who transcribes the sounds. In todays times, most people use some form of transcription in their day-to-day lives. Even newspapers use transcription when reporting news. Some examples are: Sanyas which is a Hindi word meaning (retiring from worldly affairs and turning to spirituality) is used in the transcribed form in some English Dailies. Eg. Signal, Tycoon This phenomenon is so wide spread that these transcribed words now find a place in the target language dictionaries for eg. roti ,dacoit, idli, bharat etc. are found in the Oxford Dictionary. After transcribing a word from one language to the script of another language:

one or both languages may develop further. The original correspondence between the sounds of the two languages may change, and so the pronunciation of the transcribed word develops in a different direction than the original pronunciation. the transcribed word may be adopted as a loan word in another language with the same script. This often leads to a different pronunciation and spelling than a direct transcription

Transliteration : From an information-theoretical point of view, transliteration is a mapping from one system of writing into another, word by word, or ideally letter by letter. Transliteration attempts to use a one-to-one correspondence and be exact, so that an informed reader should be able to reconstruct the original spelling of unknown transliterated words. To achieve this objective, transliteration may define complex conventions for dealing with letters in a source script which do not correspond with letters in a goal script. Transliteration is opposed to transcription, which specifically maps the sounds of one language to the best matching script of another language. Still, most systems of transliteration map the letters of the source script to letters pronounced similarly in the goal script, for some specific pair of source and goal language. If the relations between letters and sounds are similar in both languages, a transliteration may be (almost) the same as a transcription. One instance of transliteration is the use of an English computer keyboard to type in a language that uses a different alphabet, such as Hindi. Transliterated texts are often used in emails, blogs, and electronic correspondence where non-Latin keyboards are unavailable. It is sometimes referred to by special composite terms that demonstrate the combination of English characters and the original non-Latin word pronunciation: In a broader sense, the word transliteration may be used to include both transliteration in the narrow sense and transcription. Anglicizing is a transcription method. Transliterations are used in situations where the original script is not available to write down a word in that script, while still high precision is required.

Transliteration should be distinguished from transcription, which is a rendition of a word in a given script, based on the word's sound rather than as a process of converting of one script into another. Transcription will distinguish the different ways a word may be pronounced, no such requirement is there in transliteration. Transcription as a mapping from sound to script must be distinguished from transliteration, which creates a mapping from one script to another that is designed to match the original script as directly as possible. Transcription is often confused with transliteration, due to a common journalistic practice of mixing elements of both in rendering foreign names. The resulting practical transcription is a hybrid that is called both "transcription" and "transliteration" by the general public.

Field Dependent translation needs certain points to be focussed upon. The texts genre as in narrative, informative, audiomedial, operative needs to be considered when translating. If the text is narrative then different cultures may have different narrative styles. For example, certain Asian cultures give a lot of importance to the content of the message and do not give the context or background of the message. Other Asian cultures do the opposite. One style of narration may use the stream of consciousness technique where the beginning of a story may be placed anywhere in the text including the middle and the terminal sections. So when translating the ideas may need to be reorganised to suit the culture of the target language readers. Informative texts in certain cultures are to the point and may need elaboration as can be seen in the example of letters written by Americans in the early 1990s where they would only mention that a meeting has been postponed to another date and not give elaborate justifications as opposed to the Japanese who would write 2 pages long letters for the same purpose. Summarisation or adaptation would be techniques of translation used here. The subject matter, i.e. science, literature, mathematics, medicine, etc. will also influence translation depending on the society that the target language readers belong to. For example, scientific terms may not be available in the target language and may necessitate literal translation or transcription. Depending on the formality adopted in relationships in the target language society the tone and the register of language may need to be adapted to suit the readers. For example, You in English may be translated as Aap or Tum in Hindi. The level of vocabulary may change as per the context, for example, please sit down or have a seat may be translated as baitiye tashrif rakhiye or viraajiye or baito. The sentence structures may need to be changed from simple to complex or vice versa depending on the level of sophistication that the target language readers are expected to have. For example, academic writing may be complex in British Universities as compared to Indian Universities, though the language used may be English. In Britain passive voice structures would be used more than active voice structures which are predominant in American Universities.

The above factors have to be kept in mind when translating from one source language to the target language as per the field of the extract. Translation Concepts

Ironically enough, traditional approaches to translation based on the nontranslating user's need for a certain kind of text have only tended to focus on one of the user's needs: reliability (often called "equivalence" or "fidelity"). A fully useroriented approach to translation would recognize that timeliness and cost are equally important factors. Let us consider these three aspects of translation as perceived from the outside translation users' desire to have a text translated reliably, rapidly, and cheaply in turn. Reliability Translation users need to be able to rely on translation. They need to be able to use the translation as a reliable basis for action, in the sense that if they take action on the belief that the translation gives them the kind of information they need about the original, that action will not fail because of the translation. And they need to be able to trust the translator to act in reliable ways, delivering reliable translations by deadlines, getting whatever help is needed to meet those deadlines, and being flexible and versatile in serving the user's needs. Let's look at these two aspects of translation reliability separately. Textual reliability A text's reliability consists in the trust a user can place in it, or encourage others to place in it, as a representation or reproduction of the original. To put that differently, a text's reliability consists in the user's willingness to base future actions on an assumed relation between the original and the translation. For example, if the translation is of a tender, the user is most likely the company to which the tender has been made. "Reliability" in this case would mean that the translation accurately represents the exact nature of the tender; what the company needs from the translation is a reliable basis for action, i.e., a rendition that meticulously details every aspect of the tender that is relevant to deciding whether to accept it. If the translation is done in-house, or if the client gives an agency or freelancer specific instructions, the translator may be in a position to summarize certain paragraphs of lesser importance, while doing painstakingly close readings of certain other paragraphs of key importance. The user's view Or again, if the translation is of a literary classic, the user may be a teacher or student in a class that is reading and discussing the text. If the class is taught in a mother-tongue or comparative literature department, "reliability" may mean that the users agree to act as if the translation really were the original text. For this purpose a translation that reads as if it had originally been written in the target language will probably suffice. If the class is an upperdivision or graduate course taught in a modern-language or classics department, "reliability" may mean that the translation follows the exact syntactic contours of the original, and thus helps students to read a difficult text in a foreign language. For this purpose, various "cribs" or "interlinears" are best like those New Testament translations published for the benefit of seminary students of Greek who want to follow the original Greek text word for word, with the translation of each word printed directly under the word it renders.

Or if the translation is of advertising copy, the user may be the marketing department in the mother company or a local dealer, both of whom will presumably expect the translation "reliably" to sell products or services without making impossible or implausible or illegal claims; or it may be prospective customers, who may expect the translation to represent the product or service advertised reliably, in the sense that, if they should purchase one, they would not feel that the translation had misrepresented the actual service or product obtained. As we saw above, this discussion of a text's reliability is venturing into the territory traditionally called "accuracy" or "equivalence" or "fidelity." These terms are in fact shorthand for a wide variety of reliabilities that govern the user's external perspectives on translation. There are many different types of textual reliability; there is no single touchstone for a reliable translation, certainly no single simple formula for abstract semantic (let alone syntactic) "equivalence" that can be applied easily and unproblematically in every case. All that matters to the non-translating user is that the translation be reliable in more or less the way s/he expects (sometimes unconsciously): accurate or effective or some combination of the two; painfully literal or easily readable in the target language or somewhere in the middle; reliable for her or his specific purposes. A text that meets those demands will be called a "good" or "successful" translation, period, even if another user, with different expectations, might consider it bad or unsuccessful; a text considered a failure by some users, because it doesn't meet their reliability needs, might well be hailed as brilliant, innovative, sensitive, or highly accurate by others. It is perhaps unfortunate, but probably inevitable, that the norms and standards appropriate for one group of users or use situations should be generalized to apply to all. Because some users demand literal translations, for example, the idea spreads that a translation that is not literal is no translation at all; and because some users demand semantic (sense-for-sense) equivalence, the idea spreads that a translation that charts its own semantic path is no translation at all. The user's view Thus a free retelling of a children's classic may be classified as an "adaptation" rather than a translation; and an advertising translation that deviates strikingly from the original in order to have the desired impact on target readers or viewers (i.e., selling products or services) may be thought of as a "new text" rather than as an advertising translation. Reliably translated texts cover a wide range from the lightly edited to the substantially rewritten, with the "accurate" or "faithful" translation somewhere in the middle; there is no room in the world of professional translation for the theoretical stance that only straight sense-for-sense translation is translation, therefore as a translator I should never be expected to edit, summarize, annotate, or re-create a text. While some effort at user education is probably worthwhile, it is usually easier for translators simply to shift gears, find out (or figure out) what the user wants or needs or expects, and provide that without attempting to enlighten the user about the variability and volatility of such expectations. Many times clients' demands are unreasonable, unrealistic, even impossible as when the marketing manager of a company going international demands that an advertising campaign in fourteen different languages be

identical to the original, and that the translators in all fourteen languages show that this demand has been met by providing literal backtranslations of their work. Types of text reliability / Translation 1 Literalism The translation follows the original word for word, or as close to that ideal as possible. The syntactic structure of the source text is painfully evident in the translation. 2 Foreignism The translation reads fairly fluently but has a slightly alien feel. One can tell, reading it, that it is a translation, not an original work. 3 Fluency The translation is so accessible and readable for the target-language reader as to seem like an original in the target language. It never makes the reader stop and reflect that this is in fact a translation. 4 Summary The translation covers the main points or "gist" of the original. 5 Commentary The translation unpacks or unfolds the hidden complexities of the original, exploring at length implications that remain unstated or half-stated in the original. 6 Summary-commentary The translation summarizes some passages briefly while commenting closely on others. The passages in the original that most concern the user are unpacked; the less important passages are summarized. 7 Adaptation The translation recasts the original so as to have the desired impact on an audience that is substantially different from that of the original; as when an adult text is adapted for children, a written text is adapted for television, or an advertising campaign designed to associate a product with sophistication uses entirely different images of sophistication in the source and target languages. 8 Encryption The translation recasts the original so as to hide its meaning or message from one group while still making it accessible to another group, which possesses the key. Timeliness But it is not enough for the user of a translation that both it and its creator be reliable; it must also be timely, in the sense of not arriving past the time of its usefulness or value. Timeliness is most flexible in the case of literary translations, which are supposedly timeless; in fact, of course, they are not timeless but simply exist in a greatly extended time frame. Timeliness is least flexible when the translation is tied to a specific dated use situation.

One of the most common complaints translators make about this quite reasonable demand of timeliness is that all too often clients are unaware of the time it takes to do a translation. Since they have written proposals or bids themselves, they think nothing of allowing their own people two weeks to write a forty-page document; since they have never translated anything, they expect a translator to translate this document in two days. The frustrating slowness of translation (as of all text-production) is one of several factors that fuel dreams of machine translation: just as computers can do calculations in nanoseconds that it would take humans hours, days, weeks to do, so too would the ideal translation machine translate in minutes a text that took five people two weeks to write. User-oriented thought about translation is product-driven: one begins with the desired end result, in this case meeting a very short deadline, and then orders it done. How it is done, at what human cost, is a secondary issue. If inhouse translators regularly complain about ungodly workloads before critical deadlines, if agencies keep trying to educate you regarding the difficulty and slowness of translation, you begin to shop around for machine translation software, or perhaps commission a university to build one especially for your company. The main thing is that the translations be done reliably and quickly (and cheaply more of that in a moment). If human translators take too long, explore computer solutions. Computer Adapted Translation Translation memory software Many freelance translators and agencies increase translation speed through the purchase and use of translation memory (TM) software. These programs notably TRAD OS Translation Workbench, Atril's DejaVu, IBM Translation Manager, Star Transit, and SDLX are all fairly expensive, and mainly useful with very repetitive translation tasks, such as a series of user's manuals from the same client, so their most spectacular application has been in the translation divisions of large corporations ("in-house" translating). TM software makes it possible for a new hire to translate like an old hand after just a few hours of training in the software. If you are a freelancer, however, or planning to become one, you may well want to think twice before getting out your credit card as: if your work involves little or no repetition (each job you get is unique), you will probably not improve your speed (and, thus, productivity) enough to warrant the cost of the software Context The setting in which a thing is found or occurs is extremely important for the associations that are so crucial to memory. Without that context it is just an isolated item; in context, it is part of a whole interlocking network of meaningful things. Relevance The less relevant a thing is to you, the harder it will be for you to remember it. The more involved you are with it, the easier it will be for you to remember it. Things that do not impinge on our life experience "go in one ear and out the other." This is why it is generally easier to learn to translate or interpret by doing it, in the real world, for money, than it is in artificial classroom environments and why the most successful translation and interpretation (T&I) programs always incorporate realworld experience into their curricula, in the form of internships, apprenticeships, and independent projects. It is why it is generally easier to remember a word or phrase that you needed to know for some purpose to communicate some really important point to a friend or acquaintance, to finish a translation job than one you were expected to memorize for a test. And it is why it is easier to

remember a translation theory that you worked out on your own, in response to a complex translation problem or a series of similar translation jobs, than one that you read in a book or saw diagrammed on the blackboard. Processing Different learners also process information in strikingly different ways. Jensen (1995a: 136 7) sorts the various processing models into four main types: contextualglobal,sequentialdetailed/linear, conceptual, and concrete. Contextual-global Contextual-global learners are sometimes described as "parachutists": they see the big picture, as if they were floating high above it, and often care less about the minute details. They want to grasp the main points quickly and build a general sense of the whole, and only later, if at all, fill in the details. They first want to know what something means and how it relates to their experience its relevance, its purpose and only then feel motivated to find out what it's like, what its precise nature is. They are "multitaskers" who like to work on many things at once, jumping from one problem to another as they grow bored with each and crave a change. They process information intuitively and inferentially, and often get a "gut-feeling" for the answer or solution or conclusion halfway through a procedure. Contextual-global translators and interpreters tend to prefer jobs where minute accuracy is less important than a general overall "fit" or target-cultural appropriateness: escort interpreting over court interpreting; literary and commercial translating over scientific and technical translating. They want to get a general "feel" for the source text and then create a target text that feels more or less the same, or seems to work in more or less the same way. When they are required by the nature of the job to be more minutely accurate, contextualglobal translators prefer to do a rough translation quickly (for them the enjoyable part) and then go back over it slowly, editing for errors (for them the drudgery). Contextual-global freelancers tend to be somewhat sloppy with their bookkeeping, and often lose track of who has paid and who hasn't. They own dictionaries and other reference works, but have a hard time remembering to update them, and often prefer to call an expert on the phone or check a word with Internet friends than own exactly the right dictionary. When contextual-global translators and interpreters become theorists, they tend to build loosely knit, highly intuitive theories based on the translator's subjectivity and/or activity as guided by target-cultural purpose.
Translation Skills Self Perception

Many people today think that Translation Studies is mainly: Literary theory Cultural studies And, possibly: Communication studies Stylistics & Genre analysis Most translation theories are: - Product oriented focuses on the translation - Function oriented examines the context and the purpose of translation - Process Oriented analyses the psychology of translation and process But has usually element of all 3.

Most translation practioners and teachers are split between theory and practice. Bassnett & Lefevere (1991) dismissed linguistic theories as having moved from word to text as a unit, but not beyond and talked of painstaking comparisons between orginals and translations which do not consider the text in its cultural environment. Lefevere Power and Patronage Professionals within the literary system make their own choices and select matter as per their own prefernces and adpat it accordingly. Patronage outside the literary system The ideological component For eg punishing a child may be allowed in some cultures and not in the target language How does one justify this in the target language then? The economic component the number of words/pages allowed may result in elimniating some important sections/explanations in the translation The status component the importance accorded to any one person / event may result in certain deragotary remarks NOT being translated. Editors/ Publishers may not want to offend a particular community/ person who has access to the target language.

Give Examples for each in your own words. Challenges to the translator would involve the types/ reliability and Lefeveres theory to an extent. Importance of Translation in India - Regional media prominent - Leading English Daily The Times of India ranked no. 13 In India after regional television. - Therefore, advertisements and articles need to be translated from one language to the other. - With blogs allowing for regional languages, scope is expanding. - Need for accurate translation to avoid misinterpretation GIVE EXAMPLES FOR EACH TO EXPAND YOUR ANSWER Evolution of Indian Theories of Translation

Translation theory in the Indian languages has always been something inherent in practice. In the ancient period, no specific theory of translation was recorded since creative writing and translation were never considered as two separate process in India. But the modern period has shown some difference as many individual translators have recorded their experiences and reflections. The development of theory literature as part of the translators training and higher studies in translation introduced in some of the academic institutions in India after the seventies, have also contributed for a change in the attitude. Even then, very few attempts have been made to churn out the theories of translation in India, since the theories are embedded in the practice itself. In the ancient period, much translation was done between allied classical languages like Sanskrit and Prakrits. These translations were called to chaya chaya or translation as shadow of the original text was practiced during this period. This theory has a few implications:

1. A translation should follow the original text exactly like a shadow, which follows the original object. 2. As a shadow can differ from its original object, depending on the intensity and the angle of light falling on it, a translation may also have a different form depending on the nature of light thrown on it by the translator by his interpretation. However, with the emergence of the modern Indian languages, translation activity became intensified and the theory of translated text following the original like a shadow, was not strictly adhered to. The contact with western languages like English, French, German, etc also has influenced the theoretical stand point of the translators to a greater extent. As a result of these historical changes, translation theory has also been evolving along with the developments in the creative writing and the changing tastes and socio-cultural situations. The evolution of translation theory in Hindi and other modern Indian languages can be traced as follows: 1. The tradition of Transcreation: The people oriented and the time oriented creative translations of the ancient Sanskrit spiritual texts are generally termed as Transcreation. Transcreation has been the general mode of translation in modern Indian languages from the olden days. Transcreation can offer the best possible solution for the problems of culturally oriented literary texts. Transcreation in this context can be understood as a rebirth or incarnation (Avatar) of the original work. In a general sense, it can be defined as an aesthetic reinterpretation of the original work suited to the readers/audience of the target language in the particular time and space. This re-interpretation is done with a certain social purpose and is performed with suitable interpolations, explanations, expansions, summarising and aesthetic innovations in style and techniques. Usually such texts, like the Ramayana of Tulasidas, in Hindi, and that of Kamba in Tamil, are used as meta texts in the religious and spiritual fields. These translators had the aim of spiritually educating the people of their time who were separated from the ancient age by the time factor and also by language factor since they were ignorant of the Sanskrit language. The relevance of transcreation is universal since it can be used as a device to break the myth of untranslatability. In fact it is a holistic approach in which all possible techniques like elaboration, interpolation, image transpolation, explaining the cultural value of the original text, image change, image recreation, translative explanations and elucidations, are possible. In such texts, the translator enters into the sole of the original author and then he himself becomes creator. 2. The Nationalistic Theory of Translation: During the freedom movement, the spirit of Nationalism was kindled by the renaissance in Indian culture and literature. The translation of Bible in Indian languages proved to be a good model of modern prose. At the same time it could also pose some challenging before the nationalist Indians who wanted to regenerate the cultural values of ancient India. Many of the translations done by the social reformers and national leaders should be interpreted in the light of this cultural crisis. Ram Mohan Roy (1774-1833) was perhaps the first writer in India to create a revolution by translating two vedanta treatises (1815) and the upanishads in to simple modern Bangali Prose. Afterwards Dayananda Saraswathy wrote Satyarth Prakash (1974) as a summary translation and interpretation of the vedic truth for the common man. This trend can be seen throughout India. Bhagavad Gita was translated with a political orientation by leaders like Tilak and Gandhi. The literary and social leaders like Bharatendu

in Hindi and Bharati in Tamil wanted to develop their mother tongues by translating all best works from other languages. As a yard stick of translation, Bharati suggested that first of all you read out your sentence to a Tamilian who does not know English. If he understands it without any difficulty, you use that sentence. Then only your writings will be of use to Tamilnadu. Otherwise it simply means that you are troubling yourself as well as the readers 3. The psycho-spiritual theories of Translation The psycho spiritual theories of translation developed by Sri Aurobindo are very important in the context of modern Indian languages. His own philosophy is based on the psychospiritual interpretations of the ancient Indian thinking in the Upanishads. He seems to have been especially influenced by the cognitive philosophy of ancient India, the tradition of which goes back to the pre-Buddhist and the Buddhist period. In the light of Sri Aurobindos view, it can be said that a text can be analysed linguistically and intellectually at the two levels of word and its form of meaning, but at the highest level, the analysis can be done only intuitively and perhaps at this level, the actual translation takes place. In translation, the process of text analysis, comprehension of the literal as well as the suggested meaning, and the process of decision making will also have three levels. The flashes from the Supermind through the medium of intuition will be of great help for the translator. The use of the mechanical mind of the translator will produce only a mechanical type of translation, whereas a translation made by the proper use of the intuition will produce better results. The fundamental problem of translation can be seen as the problem of how to communicate the suggestive meaning in the target text. The theories of translation in Hindi and other modern Indian languages are only evolving through the process of critical analysis and evolution which has started only recently. The tradition of transcreation has its roots in Indias very ancient culture and it is still influencing the writers. The nationalist theory of enriching the regional languages through translation and the idea of swadeshi and Indianisation is part of the vibrant historical consciousness. The psychospiritual theories of Sri Aurobindo have deep impact on many modern Indian writers and translators and is futuristic in nature.