Money Matters

Coin Finds and Ancient Coin Use

edited by
Stefan Krmnicek & Jérémie Chameroy

Verlag Dr. Rudolf Habelt GmbH · Bonn 2019

 Coverabbildung: Le Catillon II hoard © Jersey Heritage Trust

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface and Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................ 1

Introduction
Why Money Matters. An Introduction
Stefan Krmnicek and Jérémie Chameroy.............................................................................................. 3

Method and Theory

Rethinking Coin Finds as a Process
David Wigg-Wolf ................................................................................................................................. 13
L’indice d’usure des monnaies en tant que substitut aux indices de fréquence
Jean-Marc Doyen ............................................................................................................................... 21
Datations numismatiques et datations céramiques : approches croisées
Fabien Pilon ....................................................................................................................................... 31
“This Extravagant Trade of False Money”: Commercial Speculation and Coin Distribution
Kevin Butcher ..................................................................................................................................... 45

Site Finds
Zwei griechische Münzen aus dem Bereich des niederrheinischen Vetera?
Holger Komnick .................................................................................................................................. 55
The Circulation of Nerva’s Neptune Coins in Britannia
Nathan T. Elkins.................................................................................................................................. 75
La fausse monnaie coulée au début du IVe siècle dans la vallée du Nil (Égypte).
État de la question
Pierre-Marie Guihard ......................................................................................................................... 83
Nummi nordafricani e occidentali (V–inizi VI secolo) in Palestina: nuovi dati
Bruno Callegher ............................................................................................................................... 101

Hoards
Between Ritual and Mundane: Coin Hoards within Non-Religious Buildings in Roman Britain
Adam Rogers......................................................................................................................................119
A Late Roman Workshop Producing Divo Claudio Coins in North Africa
Jérémie Chameroy ............................................................................................................................ 137
Homes for Hoards
Richard Reece ................................................................................................................................... 151
Il ripostiglio di Arpaia riscoperto e la moneta di bronzo ostrogota in Italia meridionale
Michele Asolati ................................................................................................................................. 163
VI

Ritual Depositions
Monetization of Piety and Personalization of Religious Experience: The Role of
Thesauroi in the Greek Mainland and the Cyclades
Sophia Zoumbaki .............................................................................................................................. 189
„Mos stipis“ – die Sitte des Geldopfers: Zu den Münzvotiven aus dem Heiligtum für Isis und
Mater Magna in Mainz
Joachim Gorecki ............................................................................................................................... 209
Stipes. Gesti e luoghi dell’offerta di monete nell’Italia settentrionale di età romana
Grazia Facchinetti ............................................................................................................................ 225
Heiliges Geld. Die Münzen aus dem Apollo-Grannus-Heiligtum von Neuenstadt am Kocher
(Germania superior)
Klaus Kortüm and Stefan Krmnicek ................................................................................................. 237
Coins as Votive Gifts in the Late Antique East
Sean V. Leatherbury .......................................................................................................................... 253

List of Contributors ................................................................................................................................ 271

 PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This book has its origins in the collection of
fourteen invited papers focusing on Greek and
Roman coin finds and the study of coin use in the
Ancient World. At a later stage, three new papers
were included that not only match the edited
volume’s scope but provide additional views on
the study of coin finds in the Greek East and the
north-western Roman provinces. These three
papers were originally presented at the international
workshop “Money and Ritual in the Greco-
Roman World”, held at the Institute of Classical
Archaeology, University of Tübingen, on 15–16
October 2015.
We are grateful to Susanne Biegert, Habelt
Verlag Bonn, for the professional support
throughout the editorial process. Financial support
for the publication was generously provided by
the Sonderforschungsbereich (SFB) 1391 “Andere
Ästhetik” and Paul-Francis Jacquier, Kehl am
Rhein. We are also grateful to Neil Mahrer, Jersey
Heritage Trust, for kindly providing permission to
use the image of the Le Catillon II hoard for the book
cover. We would like to thank all the contributors
for promptly preparing their contributions for
publication, and the two anonymous referees for
their valuable comments and suggestions. Clive
Bridger and Adam Rogers, University of Leicester,
kindly improved the English version of the abstracts
Tübingen and Mainz, April 2019
and the introduction. We are particularly grateful
to Sibel Kioukioukali, University of Tübingen,
for competently formatting the manuscripts for
publication.
Readers should note that, although we have
tried to make our chapters as consistent as possible,
we have left it to each author to cite the titles of
ancient sources according to his or her scholarly
background. Abbreviations of modern source
collections used in the chapters are listed in the
reference lists. Format and style are in line with
the guidelines set out by the Romano-Germanic
Commission (RGK) of the German Archaeological
Institute (DAI), with the only exception that all
journal titles in the reference lists are written out
in full. This is in order to facilitate the reception of
numismatic literature in German, French, English,
Italian, Spanish, Greek and Dutch among readers.
It is our great pleasure to dedicate this edited
volume to Hans-Christoph Noeske. Both editors
wish to sincerely thank him for his professional
support and personal guidance during their PhDs
at the University of Frankfurt over a decade ago.
Many hours of stimulating discussions about
various numismatic topics, ranging from coin finds
in Iron Age Central Europe to the monetary history
of Late Antique Egypt, will remain unforgotten.
Stefan Krmnicek and Jérémie Chameroy
 WHY MONEY MATTERS. AN INTRODUCTION
Stefan Krmnicek and Jérémie Chameroy
For decades, the study of money and coinage
has been an integral part for our understanding of
the Ancient World1. As part of the archaeological
record, coin finds provide unparalleled information
on the varying roles of coinage within society,
how these roles differed and changed over space
and time and how people also formed part of these
changes2. The eponymous Freshman Seminar
“Money Matters”, offered since 2016 by Evridiki
Georganteli at Harvard University3, corroborates
the general contemporary notion that money matters
for studying the past and that money already made
the Ancient World go round. However, while the
seminar at Harvard University aims “to engage
students with the economics, politics and aesthetics
of one of the most fascinating and enduring aspects
in human history”, this edited volume focuses on
coin finds and ancient coin use. A similar approach
was pursued in a seminal symposium on coinage
and monetary history at Oxford in 1993. The
symposium gathered international leading scholars
in the field of numismatics to present their research
on coin finds in the Roman world. The proceedings
of the workshop published shortly thereafter4 had
a great impact on future studies of coin finds. As a
result, it became mainstream agenda in international
numismatic scholarship to lean towards coin finds
and related phenomena and generally accepted
methodology to discuss monetary history and
circulation patterns through the lens of diagrams5.
1
Clain-Stefanelli 1965; for instance, on the early
evidence of the clades variana, see Mommsen 1885;
or the two coins of Domitian II proving the existence
of a rebel emperor in Gaul in the late third century
left out of the written sources, see Abdy 2004; for the
importance of numismatics in Roman archaeology, see
the discussion in Fischer 2002.
2
For a discussion on the archaeology of money, see
Haselgrove/Krmnicek 2012.
3
Harvard University, FRSEMR 36X - Money Matters
(108768 – Section 001).
4
King/Wigg 1996.
5 php?lang=de> (11.7.2018).
Fundamental discussion on the topic in Gebhart et al.
1956; for a brief introduction into the methodology and
Such diagrams – built up on a varying degree of
sophisticated statistical bedrock – were compiled
from all coins found on a site during professional
excavation or by chance6. In addition, research
results drawn from data based on the national
coin inventory “Fundmünzen der römischen Zeit
in Deutschland” (FMRD) underlined the great
importance of assembling a systematic corpus of
coin finds over an entire country’s territory and
thus make it possible to compare finds at a supra-
regional level.
Today, a quarter-century later, much has
changed. As for the coin inventories, in recent
years most national finds inventories and data have
been transferred to an electronic format. Currently,
the most abundant source for numismatic finds is
the database of the Portable Antiquities Scheme
(PAS)7, which has recorded more than 250,000
Roman coins from England and Wales. From the
methodological point of view, diagrams are still
used as tools to compare sites and to visualize
basic circulation and distribution patterns, but
scholars have recognized the danger that these
diagrams overlook the individual archaeological
record of the coins in question8. Studying the
coins as individual archaeological objects can tell
us additional information about their use. This
awareness obviously reflects the general trend of
its relevance for Roman archaeology, see R.-Alföldi
1999.
6
For detailed information, see Reece 1979; for a
discussion of the methodology, see Kos 1997.
7
Portable Antiquities Scheme (PAS) <http://finds.org.
uk/database> (11.7.2018). See further “Coin Hoards
of the Roman Empire” <http://chre.ashmus.ox.ac.
uk> (11.7.2018); “NUMMUS. Monnaies en contexte
archéologique” <https://www.unicaen.fr/crahm/
Nummus> (11.7.2018). Some sites like Priene and
Pergamum have their own database <http://ww2.smb.
museum/mk_priene/index.php?lang=de> (11.7.2018);
<http://ww2.smb.museum/mk_pergamon/index.
8
von Kaenel 2009.
4 Stefan Krmnicek and Jérémie Chameroy
archaeological scholarship among numismatists
with the shift from a processual approach to a post-
processual movement9. Today, only few scholars
would subscribe to the positivism that statistical
analysis alone produces objective data. Instead,
international scholarship on coin finds has become
ever-increasingly concerned with the study of the
objects in their archaeological contexts10 and with
questions focusing on agency and phenomenology11.
The thorough examination of the archaeological
evidence from a number of recent investigations
of Roman sites has convincingly demonstrated that
it is only through the study of coin finds in their
archaeological context that questions relating to the
reasons why a particular find ended up in that context
and to its original function can be answered12.
Another prominent avenue in current numismatic
scholarship is concerned with questions of broader
cultural impact including studies on religious
and ritual practices13. The exponential increase
in the term “ritual” in the titles of archaeological
publications from the later 1990s onwards clearly
reflects a turn in (initially prehistoric) research
towards interpretative models in a non-profane
context; at the same time it indicates that the idea
of ritual has been modified14. The concept went
through a semantic shift, in the sense that “ritual”
came to be used to describe any archaeological
context which could not be fully understood.
Hence, the term has become an alternative for
anything that cannot be explained, a synonym for
the “odd,” whether secular or sacral in intent15.
Again, the deposition of coins in religious or ritual
contexts is a further example of a phenomenon
that can only be apprehended through recording
and taking into account the archaeological context.
9 16
Cf. Öhlinger 2015; for a general overview, see Hodder
2001.
10
Leins 2007; Kemmers/Myrberg 2011; for the
development of a “contextual approach” in Roman
Archaeology, see Hingley/Willis 2007.
11
Aarts 2005.
12
See, for example the work of Peter 1996 (Augst);
Kemmers 2006 (Nijmegen); Doyen 2007 (Reims);
Krmnicek 2010 (Magdalensberg); Chameroy 2013
(Rouen).
13
Cf. Dubuis et al. 1999; Sauer 2005.
14
For the development in German scholarship, see
Hänsel/Hänsel 1997; on the discussion of identifying
deliberate deposition (of coins) as opposed to
deposition deriving from rubbish disposal, see
Woodward/Woodward 2004; Schäfer 2013.
15
An overview provides Fogelin 2007; for domestic or
other small-scale rituals, see Bradley 2005; a most
recent study on the topic is Chadwick 2012.
Another prominent strand concerns the study
of coin hoards. While international research on
hoards16 has shifted its focus to archaeological
analyses, in order to discuss the nature and the
structure of depositions17, hoard finds still remain
the most important source of information for large-
scale studies on monetary circulation and economic
history18. This holds particularly true for regions and
periods where the archaeological evidence is less
well documented. We encounter such conditions
in the eastern and southern Mediterranean, where
there are hardly any find inventories established
and because a centralized record of single finds is
less well developed there than in western Europe19.
Inevitably, such substantial differences in research
have an influence on the theories and methods
applied in researching the medium of coinage20.
The most recent agenda in numismatic research
stems from archaeometry and the application of
scientific techniques. Such approaches not only
contribute to the technical processes involved in
a coin’s chaîne opératoire with determining its
chemical composition and provenance, but open
new paths in the study of the use and function of
coinage on the site-level21. Contributions from all
these different directions currently prevailing in
numismatic scholarship on coins finds and ancient
coin use are gathered in this volume.
Method and theory
The papers of David Wigg-Wolf, Jean-Marc
Doyen, Fabien Pilon and Kevin Butcher concern
questions on method and theory. Traditionally,
scholars divide coin finds into several categories
such as single finds, hoards, votive deposits, etc.
Cf. the projects “Crisis or continuity. Hoarding in Iron
Age and Roman Britain with special reference to the
3rd century AD” (University of Leicester and British
Museum) and “Coin Hoards of the Roman Empire”
(University of Oxford).
17
For microhistorical analyses, see Noeske 1991; von
Kaenel et al. 1993; Guihard/Allinne 2013; for recent
directions in studying coin hoards, see Score 2011;
Guest 2015.
18
An overview to the subject matter from a British
perspective is provided by Bland 2014.
19
For the structural constraints of scholarship on Greek
coinage, see de Callataÿ 2006. However, a greater
interest in Greek coin finds as an archaeological source
has developed in recent years, see Faucher et al. 2011;
Duyrat/Grandjean 2016.
20
See the methodology for Greek coins found in Ancient
Egypt outlined in Noeske 2000.
21
Nüsse 2013; Nieto-Pelletier 2013; Faucher 2013.
 Why Money Matters. An Introduction
Dissatisfied with the traditional find categories
when it comes to the recording of coin finds in
a database, David Wigg-Wolf argues for new
approaches of data analysis. Drawing on the
methodological concepts expounded in Hans-
Christoph Noeske’s influential article on the
category of settlement finds22, David Wigg-Wolf
convincingly calls for a focus on the various
processes involved in the genesis of complexes
of coin finds, rather than identifying coin finds as
static entities. Both Jean-Marc Doyen and Fabien
Pilon discuss criteria in order to develop the
date of loss of a coin. Thanks to chronologically
relevant information disclosed in a coin legend,
such as the number of times an emperor held the
position of consul or the annual magistrates’ names
and adjunct symbols on Hellenistic coinage, the
year of production of an ancient coin is (almost)
always well known. However, the date of its loss
or deposition – i.e. the moment when the object
entered the archaeological process – can only be
reconstructed via the interpretation and analysis of
related data. Jean-Marc Doyen argues that the date
of loss of a coin can be advanced through a study of
its surface condition or state of wear. Drawing on
hoard evidence, he discusses how to determine the
lifespan of a coin in circulation. In contrast to this,
Fabien Pilon introduces a method for chronological
approximation on the basis of the archaeological
context and accompanying finds such as pottery.
Case studies of coin finds from two necropolises
and smaller settlements in Roman Gaul feature his
proposed method for estimating the date of loss,
the Date Estimative de Perte (DEP). The last paper
in the section on method and theory by Kevin
Butcher concerns the intertwined mechanisms of
monetary circulation and movement of coins. His
comparative analysis of data from the Ottoman
Empire during the early modern period helps to
reassess the common interpretation of the mass
movement of coins, and particularly small change
in antiquity, as evidence for regular payments or
transfers of money.
Site finds
Site finds or single finds are categorized as the
result of accidental loss and thus are generally
considered to mirror ancient coin circulation and
coin use at site level. The papers of Holger Komnick,
Nathan T. Elkins, Pierre-Marie Guihard, and Bruno
Callegher present case studies in the interpretation
of site finds or single finds in order to advance
22
Noeske 1979.
5
different socio-cultural phenomena of the Ancient
World. In his paper, Holger Komnick discusses
two coins with Greek legends which were found
at the Roman site of Vetera on the Lower Rhine,
Germany. Against the backdrop of the phenomenon
of Greek bronze coins found in the north-western
Roman provinces and drawing from the data of
the inventory of Roman coin finds in Germany
(FMRD), Holger Komnick highlights the potentials
and pitfalls in studying uncontextualized coin
finds. Nathan T. Elkins examines coins of Nerva
found in Britain, where there is a clear prominence
of asses depicting Neptune on the reverse with a
legend referring to games in the Circus Maximus.
Identifying a broader anomaly of coin circulation
in Britain during the reign of Nerva, Nathan
T. Elkins argues for a connection of the unusual
concentration of Neptune coins in the region
with Nerva’s foundation of the Roman colony at
Gloucester. Pierre-Marie Guihard discusses the
evidence of clay moulds and coin finds in order to
expound the production of early fourth century CE
counterfeit nummi in Roman Egypt. In the last paper
of the section, Bruno Callegher analyses finds of
sixth century CE Carthage’s Proto-Vandal, Vandal
and Byzantine nummi, their imitations and issues
minted under the Ostrogoths (especially Baduila)
and, in a rather exceptional case, the Merovingian
king Childebert I (511–558) from Syro-Palestine.
On the basis of the coin evidence, Bruno Callegher
deduces new insights into monetary circulation and
economic history in the Southern Levantine around
the time of the monetary reform of Anastasius I.
Hoards
The interpretation of coin hoards is an integral
part of the study of monetary history and coin finds.
Adam Rogers, Jérémie Chameroy, Richard Reece
and Michele Asolati present different approaches
to subject matter that are currently prevailing in
numismatic scholarship. Adam Rogers examines
the contextual details and interpretative possibilities
for thinking about coin hoards found within
building contexts in Roman Britain. Through
a reanalysis of this material within structural
contexts, Adam Rogers not only questions the
division conventionally made between ritual and
mundane activity, but opens a new avenue for
anthropological and ethnographical interpretations
of coin hoards. In his paper, Jérémie Chameroy
examines a third century CE coin hoard from
Tunisia. The paper combines scientific techniques
with numismatic analyses in order to identify local
Divo Claudio imitative coinage. The production
and circulation of Divo Claudio imitations in North
6 Stefan Krmnicek and Jérémie Chameroy
Africa convincingly indicate that the provinces
Numidia and Proconsularis were not spared the
economic and monetary crisis of the third century
and suffered like Gaul a chronic lack of small
change. A different method in studying coin hoards
is presented by Richard Reece. He discusses two
possible coin hoards from the island of Malta. These
finds raise a whole series of interlocking topics
and problems such as the movement of issues of
new coins, the movements of coins in circulation
and the assembling of hoards. Moving from the
Principate to Late Roman and Byzantine times,
Michele Asolati examines a hoard of Late Roman,
Vandal, Ostrogothic and Byzantine nummi found at
Arpaia (Province of Benevento, Italy) against the
backdrop of other hitherto unpublished finds of
Ostrogothic nummi from the Benevento area. The
hoard and the other coin finds provide new insights
into the circulation of Ostrogothic bronze coinage
in mid-sixth century CE southern Italy.
Ritual depositions
The archaeological evidence constitutes the
richest source of information concerning the
multiple uses of coinage in cult and ritual beyond
the economic spheres of exchange. Given that there
are so many possible roles of coinage within ritual
activities in the Greco-Roman world23, the papers
by Sophia Zoumbaki, Joachim Gorecki, Grazia
Facchinetti, Klaus Kortüm and Stefan Krmnicek
and Sean V. Leatherbury also provide a wide range
of different examples of ritual practices involving
the use of coinage. Sophia Zoumbaki discusses
the presence of money in ancient rituals by
focusing on thesauroi on the Greek mainland and
the Cyclades. These offertory boxes were placed
in sanctuaries and were accessible to worshippers
who had to offer monetary contributions as part
of the rites of a sacred area. Offerings of coins
that ended up in a thesaurus are in many cases
distinct from other deliberate ritual depositions:
the offering was reversible, and in most cases the
money was intended to go back into circulation.
The income paid for such items as statues, or
repairs to temples, or cult festivals, financed
ex stipe. Moving to the Roman north-western
provinces, Joachim Gorecki analyses the coin
finds from the sanctuary of Isis Panthea and Magna
Mater in Mainz, Germany. In his paper, he focuses
on the interpretation of coins from shafts that were
constructed for the deposition of offerings. From his
23
Cf. for the various directions Rowan 2010; Gorini
2011; Thüry 2016.
case study, it becomes evident that comparatively
small quantities of coin finds can be meaningful
for studying the complexity of coin deposits in
ritual contexts. Grazia Facchinetti presents the
archaeological, literary and epigraphic sources for
ritual coin use in the Roman period in northern
Italy. In her paper, she discusses coin deposits in
private and public contexts in order to examine the
ancient users’ motives behind the usage of coins
as objects serving ritual purposes and to highlight
the continuity of pagan ritual performances among
Christians who made use of coins in the fourth
and fifth centuries CE. Klaus Kortüm and Stefan
Krmnicek explore the significance of Roman coin
finds from a Romano-Celtic Temple of Apollo
Grannus at Neuenstadt am Kocher, Germany. The
site includes coin finds from a burnt offering area
(the site of an altar?), a wellhead and the base for
a cult statue inside the cella of the temple itself.
By privileging the archaeological context, Klaus
Kortüm and Stefan Krmnicek provide new insights
into the meaning and function of coins used in
the context of ritual and religious activities at the
fringe of the Roman Empire. Sean V. Leatherbury
illuminates the role of money in Late Antique
religion and ritual from another perspective. He
examines the giving of coins as offerings from the
fourth through sixth centuries, focusing on the role
of coins in votive rituals at sites in Greece, Asia
Minor and Syro-Palestine.
Conclusion
This volume is a product of seventeen
international papers featuring current German,
French, British, Italian, Belgian, Greek and
American scholarship. Even though the
heterogeneous papers are very different from each
other in terms of content, methodology, chronology
and their national traditions of research, one
common thread becomes clearly evident: all
contributions make heavy use of, or at least point
to, the importance of the archaeological context
against which to study coin finds. The nexus
between archaeology and numismatics, and the
understanding that ancient coin use can only be
properly understood by not divorcing the coins
from their archaeological contexts, drives modern
international scholarship. At the same time, this
framework serves as a point of departure for the
development of new theoretical models, further
engagement with the genesis of coin finds, the
study of function and meaning of coins in their
socio-cultural settings, as well as the application of
archaeometry and other scientific techniques.
 Why Money Matters. An Introduction
The radiate coin of Tacitus and its archaeological
context discussed in the contribution of Kortüm and
Krmnicek helps to illustrate the above mentioned
thoughts. The findspot and stratigraphic position
of the coin on the floor of a basin at the Temple
of Apollo Grannus at Neuenstadt am Kocher,
Germany, exclude the possibility that this was an
unintentional loss; rather, they indicate that the
coin was a deliberate deposition. The find is also
of great relevance for our understanding of the
mental and cultural background of the individual
tossing of the coin into the basin. The entire area
from the Upper-German-Raetian Limes to the
Rhine, Lake Constance, the River Iller and the
Danube was evacuated by the Romans, when the
Alamanni, a German tribe, overran the limes in 260
CE. The coin, however, was minted in 275/276 CE,
some 15 years after Neuenstadt and all the lands
east of the Rhine were not any longer part of the
Roman Empire. Who then deposited the coin in
the basin? Did Romans still linger in settlements
now under German rule? Did a German toss the
Roman coin into the basin? What was the intention
of the individual, whether a Roman or a German,
tossing the coin into the basin? What was the coin’s
function? Did the coin deposited in the basin still
serve a ritual purpose in the context of the yet
abandoned Apollo Grannus cult? Readers may
get the impression that the editors of this volume
leave their audience with a puzzle. However, we
need to keep in mind that these questions would
be totally lost to us, if we had not studied the coins
in their archaeological context in the first place.
Studying coin finds in their wider context opens
new dimensions to our understanding of the agency
of humans and monetary objects, and how the latter
have shaped human behaviour in various spheres
of daily life. That is both the challenge and the
potential of studying coin finds and ancient coin
use. This direction is the course most likely to yield
major advances in the study of numismatics. Also,
the nexus of numismatics and archaeology will
certainly ensure that the study of coins will have an
important scholarly impact across many disciplines
related to the study of the Ancient World.
7
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