Generalized Inverses of Boolean Relation Matrices Author(s): R. J. Plemmons Source: SIAM Journal on Applied Mathematics, Vol. 20, No.

3 (May, 1971), pp. 426-433 Published by: Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2099964 . Accessed: 14/05/2011 15:38
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Vol. 20, No. 3, May 1971

SIAM J.APPL.

MATH.

GENERALIZED INVERSES OF BOOLEAN RELATION MATRICES*

R. J. PLEMMONSt overtheBoolean algebraof ordertwo are investigated of Abstract. Generalizedinverses matrices graphs,givenin are These results thenapplied to thestudyof directed techniques. by usingreduction of adjacencymatrix. terms their

By Introduction. a Boolean relationmatrixof order n is meant an n x n We of matrix zeros and ones. Let -4,,denotetheset of all such matrices. consider of to and sumovertheBoolean and theproduct sumofmembers -4,n be theproduct is algebra,X4= {0, 1}, oforder2. Then p4,3 a monoidundermultiplication. For These systems arise in severalareas of mathematics. example,a binary
relation oaon a finiteset X = {x1,
...

In A matrix = (aij), whereaij = 1 if(xi,xj) E axand aij = 0 otherwise. particular, on of of relations X is represented theproduct their by thecomposition twobinary associated matrices.For examples and applicationssee [8]. Dually, a directed is MG = (mij)of -4, wheremij= 1 ifthere an arc from to vj and by a member vi matrix G and theusual for The MG otherwise. matrix is calledtheadjacency i= MGMG,. set productGG' of graphswithvertex V has as its adjacencymatrix inverses members ?i,n of of with respect generalized In thispaperwe investigate and switching have applicationsin network to productsover X.1 Such inverses we of theory [9], [11], and in the generaltheory graphs.In particular, introduce and use theseideas to of theconcepts rowand columnbases forBoolean matrices In the and uniquenessof certaintypesof semi-inverses. the investigate existence inverses used to solve some problems are last sectionthe resultson generalized associatedwithpartialorderdigraphs. equations Let 1. Main results. A E p4nand considerthematrix (1.1) and (1.2) X = XAX. a We followR. Cline [2] and C. Rhode [10] in callingany solutionto (1.1) in p4,n and (1.2)a semi-inverse of inverse A and anysolutionto thesystem (1.1) generalized and of A. Notice thatifA = AXA, thenA and XAX are semi-inverses thatAX and XA are indempotent. matrices ordern. For each of of containsthegroup ,On permutation Now ti4n so P E 9,n theequation PQ = I has the unique solutionQ = pT in 1n, thateach inverse. has a unique generalized matrix permutation
of t MathematicsDepartment,The University Tennessee,Knoxville, Tennessee 37916. This by research was supported theNational ScienceFoundationunderGrant 15943. ' Y. Ijiri [5] has investigated Moore-Penrose[6] inverseof theincidencematrix a graph, for the wherethematrix takenoverthereal numbers. is 426 * Receivedby theeditorsJanuary 1970,and in revised formJuly13, 1970. 13,

, x4

can be interpretedas a Boolean relation

graph (digraph) G, with vertexset V = {v1,

...

vJ, determinesand is determined

A = AXA

GENERALIZED INVERSES OF BOOLEAN RELATION MATRICES

427

Also, whenever = 2, each A E Mn has a generalizedinverse. n However,for n > 2 thereexistmatrices E ?gn forwhich(1.1) is unsolvable.In particular, A A if has exactlyone zero in each row and each column,thenit will followfrom later remarks thatA has no generalized inverse. We nextintroduce conceptsofrowand columnbases ofBoolean relation the matrices orderto investigate solvability (1.1). Let AKndenote the set of in the of all n-tuples * * * , an) overX = {O,1}. The system together (a1, with operation the EKn of component-wise additionis called the Boolean space of dimension Now a n. nonempty subsetS ofEKnis said to be independentthezero n-tuple = (0, if 0 , 0) is not in S and no member S is a sum of othermembers S. A subspaceof EKn of of is a nonempty subset closed under addition.An independent subset of AKnthat a generates subspace W ofEKnundersumsis called a basisof W.It follows thateach subspace W of EKnhas a unique basis S. The numberISI is called the dimension of W In the remainder this section we shall consideronly nonzero matrices. of For A E Mn the basis of the subspace of EKngenerated the nonzerorows of A by is called the rowbasis of A and its cardinality called the rowrankof A. Notice is thateach member the row basis forA is also a row of A. Now A is said to be of rowindependent the nonzerorows of A form independent That is, A is if an set. rowindependent no nonzerorowofA is a sum ofothernonzerorows.The conif ceptsofcolumnbasis,columnrank, and columnindependent matrices defined are ina similar If manner. A is bothrowand columnindependent, is said to be reduced. it Also, r(A) (c(A)) will denote the row (column) rank of A. In general,r(A) and c(A) need not be the same forn > 4, as the following exampleshows.Let
.

I A =. 0 I

0 I

1 0\ 1 0 0

1 0

1 1 1 0 Then A is not rowindependent sincethefourth is a sum ofthefirst third row and rows.However,A is columnindependent r(A) = 3 whilec(A) = 4. and Notice that a Boolean relation matrixcan be row (column) reduced to independent form replacing for any row (column)thatis a sum of othernonzero rows (columns) by the zero row (column). When the matrixin the preceding exampleis row reducedit becomes I 0 0 1 0\ 1

1 0

I 0 0

O O O O In orderto investigate inverses Mn, we shall need to consider in generalized equations of the formAX = B and YA = B. The following lemmaand its dual and sufficient givenecessary conditionsforthe solvability theseequations. of

428

R. J. PLEMMONS

LEMMA1.1. Let A, B E 4n. Then theequationAX = B is solvablefor X E A where ifand onlyifX = C is a solution,
cij =

c
Sk

iffor all ff-9

nbk

rak =

otherwise.

Proof. Suppose AX = B is solvable forsome X E A. Let D = AC. We show that D = B by showingthat dij = 1 if and only if bij = 1. Now if dij = 1, then aip = 1 and cp= 1 forsome1 ? p? n.But cp; = 1 impliesthatforall I _ q _ n, bqjl= I or aqp 0. But aip = I so that bij= 1. That is, dij= 1 impliesbij= 1. If bij= 1, then thereexists 1? r ? n such that air = 1 and xrj= 1. Suppose forsome 1 q ? n. But aqr= and xrj = 1 Crj= 0. Then bqj = 0 and aqr=I impliesthatCrj = 1 SO proof.This contradiction so thatbqj = 1 by thepreceding that dij= 1. Therefore = 1 impliesthat dij = 1 and we have AC = D = B. bij The converseis immediate. inverseG, then Notice thatifAX = B is solvable and ifA has a generalized = GB is always a solution.A dual resultholds forthe equation YA = B. X lemmaconsidersthe row and columnrank of the productof The following Its prooffollowssince A (B) can be taken to be row (column) two matrices. loss ofgenerality. without independent LEMMA1.2. Let A, B E 4n. Then r(AB) < r(A) and c(AB) < c(B). A, Notice thatthereexistmatrices B E ?gn,n > 4, forwhichr(AB) > r(B) or c(AB) > c(A). For example,if

/10 A-'0
O 0

0
1 0

0 and
1

1 0
1 0

1
0

1 0

0 0 0 0 thenAB = B so thatc(AB) Now forA E 4n let

LA = {B EC AlXA
=

O O 0 0

c(B) = 4 > 3 = c(A).

B and YB = A are solvableforX, Y E A} B and BY = A are solvableforX, Y E}

.

and
RA = {B E

AX

Then LA (RA) is the f-class (,9-class) of ?gn containingA in the sense of [1, p. 47]. The next lemma is derivedfroma series of more generalresultsin [1, Chap. II]. inverse and onlyif LA or if 1.3. LEMMA Let A E A. ThenA has a generalized idempotents. matrix. thiscase bothLA and RAcontain In an RAcontains idempotent B of Moreover, is a semi-inverse A if and onlyif RA n LB and LA n RB contain AB theidempotents and BA, respectively. in It also followsfrom[1] that LA n RA containsat most one idempotent, each ifA has a generalized a inverse, whichcase LA n RA forms group.Moreover, inverse. of of member LA and each member RA has a generalized We now considerLA and RA in termsof row and columnbases.

GENERALIZED INVERSES OF BOOLEAN RELATION MATRICES

429

LEMMA 1.4. If A is column (row) independent, each member LA (RA) then of is column (row)independent. Proof Let BeLA. Then XA = B and YB=A forsome X, Ye . Now if an thenonzerocolumnsofA form independent thenthenonzerocolumnsofB set, since c(A) = c(B) by Lemma 1.2. mustalso be independent A dual proofholds forrows. LEMMA 1.5. Let A e-n. Then LA (RA) consistsof all members 'q, having of the same row (column)basis as A. Moreover,if LA(RA) containsan idempotent, thenit contains row(column) a independent idempotent. Proof.Let W denotetherowspace ofA. Then B E LA ifand onlyiftherowsof B are sumsof the rows of A and vice versa.Thus B E LA ifand onlyifB has the same row basis as A. Now suppose LA containsan idempotent Then each memberof LA matrix. has a generalizedinverse.Let B be a row independent memberof LA. Since B PB for has a generalized inverse, is idempotent some P E 9A. Thus PB is a row independent idempotent LA. in A similarproofholds forcolumns. A We now proceedto show thata matrix havinga generalized inverse must have the same row and column rank. We firstconsiderthe case where A is idempotent. then LEMMA 1.6.If A is any idempotent A4n, in r(A) = c(A). thenLA containsa row independent Proof.If A is idempotent, idempotent E. F by Lemma 1.5. Moreover,RF containsa columnindependent indempotent Notice thatE is also row independent Lemma 1.4. Now r(A) = r(F) = r(E). by so Moreover, n LE is nonempty thatc(A) = c(E). Thus it suffices showthat RA to r(E) = c(E), whereE is a reducedidempotent. proceedby showingthereis a We one-to-onecorrespondence betweenthe nonzero rows and nonzero columns. Suppose E has rowrank1and a? = {Ei1, , Ei1}is theset ofnonzerorowsofE. Since EE = E, ifE1 is a nonzerorow of E, then
...

Ei = E eijEj

over valuesj, whereeij = 1 and Ej E a?. Thus since E is row independent, is Ei one oftheEi. Thus eii = 1. This meansthatthereis a one-to-one correspondence A betweenthe nonzero rows of E and the nonzero diagonal terms. dual result holds forthenonzero columnsof E, so r(E) = c(E). A inverse THEOREM 1.7. The matrix E -4nhas a generalized onlyif therowrank rankc(A). r(A) is thesame as thecolumn thenit has a semi-inverse Now BA B. Proof.If A has a generalized inverse, in and AB are idempotents LA n RB and RA n LB, respectively, Lemma 1.3. by from Lemma But BA c LAimpliesthatr(A) = r(BA),usingLemma 1.5.Moreover, 1.2we see thatc(A) = c(BA). Now byLemma 1.6,r(BA) = c(BA). Thusr(A) = r(BA) c(BA) = c(A). thereis a well-defined By theprevioustheorem rank, r(A) = c(A), associated a inverse. Noticethattheconverse Theorem of with each A E 4n having generalized 1.7 is not,in general, true. of The following theorem obtainsa simpletestfortheexistence a generalized inverse a row (column)independent of matrix.

430

R. J.PLEMMONS

member Rn ThenA has independent THEOREM1.8.Let A be a row(column) of P matrix E 9n. inverse and onlyif A = APA for somepermutation if a generalized

A independent. when iscolumn holds Theconverse obvious a dualproof is and in of the of inverse terms conditions Wenext consider existence a generalized For on therowsand columns. A E n, let Ai (Ai) denotetheithrow(column) ofA. has theproperty for 1 _ i,j < n,Ai + Ai = A that COROLLARY 1.9.If A E Mn
matrix else A has or a (A' + Ai = Ai) impliesi = j, thenA is either permutation inverse. no generalized

E = PA forsome P EcOn.But AE = A, so A = APA.

Then inverse. and SupposeA is rowindependent has a generalized Proof. a independent LA by an LAcontains idempotent Lemma1.3andthus contains row in E idempotent by Lemma1.5.Now sinceA and E are rowindependent LA,

A Suppose has a A with Notice that is rowindependent no zerorows. Proof. By inverse. Theorem1.8,A = APA forsome P e Yn. Then each generalized then, In rowofAP is a rowofA and is thusnonzero. particular, AP 'I since
=

A similar columns. result holdsfor we of As an illustration thiscorollary see thatthematrix

1 0 1 0
0 0 1 1

(AP)A. Thus A = P'c bn

A=

0 I

1 0

1 1 0

will be used This inverse a We now investigate special typeof semi-inverse. in and to solve certainproblems a Boolean relationmatrix to define nonsingular graphtheory.
semi-inverse.
THEOREM 1.10O. If

even has no generalized inverse, though r(A) -4 = c(A).

then Ac- n has a generalized inverse, A has a reduced

B A has a semi-inversesuchthatAB = F and BA = E. Now B E- nRF, SO LE and of since thatB is rowindependent each member LE is rowindependent B of since iscolumn by independent Lemma independent eachmember RF is column of 1.4. That is, B is a reducedsemi-inverse A.

idemthenbothLA and RA contain If inverse, Proof. A has a generalized E Thus by Lemma 1.5,LAcontainsa row independent idempotent and potents. F. idempotent Now accordingto Lemma 1.3, RAcontainsa columnindependent

and inverse A We shallcall a matrix E M,n nonsingularifA has a generalized will results show A A has rankn. Otherwise is saidto be singular. The following
We Boolean matrixhas a unique semi-inverse. will need the thata nonsingular ideas. following

Notice thatby Lemmas 1.3 and 1.5 and the proofof thepreceding theorem, ifA has a semi-inverse thenB is reducedifand onlyifAB is row independent B, and BA is column independent.

GENERALIZED INVERSES BOOLEAN OF RELATION MATRICES

431

By a partialorderrelationon a set X is meanta reflexive, and symmetric transitive relation on X. The followinglemma identifies the Boolean matrix associatedwitha partialorderrelation. LEMMA 1.11. Let E e .O, wherer(E) = n = c(E). ThenE is a reducedidempotent matrix and onlyif: if (i) eii= 1 for i = 1, - , n; (ii) if eij = 1 for i 1 theneji = 0; and j, (iii) eij = 1 and ejk = 1 imply thateik = 1. THEOREM 1.12. A matrixA E A,, is nonsingular and onlyif it has a unique if Proof.Suppose A is nonsingular. ThenA has a semi-inverse. shallproceed We to showthatLA and RA each containexactly one idempotent. Now each member ofLA and ofRA has rankn. Moreover, containsa rowindependent LA idempotent and RA contains a column independentidempotent Lemma 1.5. Thus LA by and RA each containa reducedidempotent. Suppose LA containstwoidempotents, E and E'. Then E and E' are reducedand thereexistsP e gn such thatE' = PE. This means that E = EPE. We shall show that this implies P = I. Suppose Pij = 1. Then eij = 1 sinceekk = 1 foreach 1 ? k < n. Also for1 _ i < n,eii = 1 implies = Pkl = eli = 1 forsome 1 < k,1 < n.Thenekl = 1 so thateki = 1 = eik eik by Lemma 1.11(iii).Now by (ii),i = k. Similarly, = 1,so thatPkl = pii = 1. Thus i P = I and so E' = E. Similarly containsexactlyone idempotent. RA Then the B in semi-inverse ofA suchthatAB is theidempotent RA and BA is theidempotent in LA is theunique semi-inverse A. of Conversely, supposeA has exactly semi-inverse supposeA has rankr. one and Then LA and RA each containat least n - r + 1 idempotents. Thus r = n and so A is nonsingular. For nonsingular Boolean matrices we shall denote the semi-inverse A A of byAR. NoticethatAR is reducedand bothAARand ARAare reducedidempotents. We concludethissectionbygiving algorithm determining a Boolean for if an has matrix a generalized inverse;and ifit has, we givea methodforconstructing a reducedsemi-inverse. Let A E 4,. First, row reduceA to rowindependent we form by replacing Al each dependent row by the zero row. Then Al E LA and so A has a generalized inverse and onlyifPA1 is idempotent some P E ?n. Now ifPA1 = E = E2 if for forsome P, thenAE = A since E E LA. To finda reducedsemi-inverse A we of solve the matrixequation XA = E, using the dual of Lemma 1.1, whereX is reducedand the columnsof X forma basis forthe columnsof E. If B is such a solution,then B e RE so BAB = EB = B. Moreover,ABA = AE = A so that B is a reducedsemi-inverse A. of As an exampleconsiderthe matrix 1 I 0 A |1
1

semi-inverse.

1 1i 1 ? '
1 0

0
1

432

R. J. PLEMMONS

First,A is row reducedto

I 0 1 1\
Al =.

O O 0 0/ the By permuting rows of A we obtain the row independent idempotent I 0 1 0\ E=

1 1 1 0

1 0

1 1
=

so thatA has a generalized inverse. Finally, solvingXA restrictions have we /0 0 1 B= ( 0 1 1 1

E subjectto theproper

1 0 0 of as a reducedsemi-inverse A.

2. Some applications graphtheory. now show how some of theresults to We of inverses Boolean matrices can be used to solve certain concerning generalized In of problemsin graphtheory. particular, existence a generalized the inverseof the adjacency matrixof a digraphis relatedto the existenceof certainpartial ordergraphs. Let G be a finite withvertex V = { 1, , n} and adjacencymatrix set digraph of vertices G is meanttheset VI = {a E VI thereis an arc from a MG. By the initial in G}. The set VTof terminal vertices similarly is defined. Now G is called a partial ordergraphon VI (VT) ifthe relation? defined VI (VT) by the rulethata ? b on Part of ifand onlyifthereis an arc from to b in G, is a partialorderrelation. a of the following lemmais a restatement Lemma 1.11. Its prooffollowsfromthe withadjacencymatrix LEMMA2.1. Let G be a finite digraph MG. If MG is a thenG is a partialordergraphon its row(column) independent idempotent matrix, initial G (terminal) vertex VI (VT).Moreover, is a partialorder set graphon VI = VT ifand onlyifMG is a reduced idempotent. The following results give some conditionsunderwhichthe productof two graphswill forma partialordergraph.The proofsfollowfromthe ideas in ? 1. with THEOREM2.2. Let G be a finite digraph adjacencymatrix MG and vertex G' set is set V Then there a digraph withvertex V such thatG'G(GG') is a partial vertices G whenever has a generalized ordergraphon theinitial(terminal) of MG withadjacencymatrix In inverse. thiscase, G' can be chosento be thedigraph A, semi-inverse MG . A where is anyreduced of

in results [7].

GENERALIZED INVERSES OF BOOLEAN RELATION MATRICES

433

Notice thatby Theorem1.8,ifMG is row (column)independent, thentheG' in this theoremcan be chosen to be a permutation graph. In this case G' has exactlyone arc fromand to each vertex V. in COROLLARY2.3. Let G havevertex V and supposeV, = V = VT. If MG is set nonsingular, there then existsa uniquediagraph with G' vertex V suchthatG'G set and GG' are partialordergraphson V.
REFERENCES [1] A. H. CLIFFORD AND G. B. PRESTON, TheAlgebraicTheory Semigroups, 1, Math. Surveys, of vol. no. 7, AmericanMathematicalSociety, Providence, R.I., 1961. [2] R. E. CLINE, Representations thegeneralizedinverse matriceswithapplications linear for of in programming, Doctoral thesis, PurdueUniversity, Lafayette, Ind., 1963. [3] F. HARARY, Graphsand matrices, SIAM Rev. 9 (1967), pp. 83-90. [4] A. J.HOFFMAN, Thechange theleasteigenvalue the in of adjacency matrix a graph of under imbedding, thisJournal, (1969), pp. 664-671. 17 [5] Y. IJIRI, On thegeneralized inverse an incidence of matrix, Journal, (1965), pp. 827-836. this 13 [6] R. PENROSE, A generalized inversefor matrices, Proc. Cambridge Philos. Soc., 41 (1955), pp. 406413. [7] R. J.PLEMMONS, Graphs associatedwith group, a Proc. Amer.Math. Soc., 25 (1970), pp. 273-276. [8] R. J.PLEMMONS AND J. S. MONTAGUE, Maximal subgroups thesemigroup relations, Algebra, of of J. 13 (1969), pp. 575-588. [9] J. PONSTEIN, MatricesinGraph and Network Van Gorcum,Assen,The Netherlands, Theory, 1966. this 13 [10] C. A. RHODE, Generalized inverses partitioned of matrices, Journal, (1965), pp. 1033-1035. [ 1] D. ROSENBLATT, On thegraphs asymptoticformsfinite and of Booleanrelation Naval Res. matrices, Logist. Quart.,4 (1957), pp. 151-167.