Energy

Photosynthesis All forms of life need energy to function and grow. Plants get their energy from the sun through photosynthesis. Animals, then either eat the plant and obtain its energy, or eat other animals and obtain their energy. Also, we require energy for technology and mechanics. Energy can be obtained from solar panels, hydropower, natural gas, coal, oil. Fossil fuels are substances which were formed by high temp. and pressure falling upon decaying plant/animal matter. Photosynthesis is the process in which plants use the sun to convert carbon dioxide from air and water into carbohydrates (e.g. glucose) chemical energy larger and more complex molecules (starch, cellulose and protein). o CO2 + H2O + energy C6H12O6 (glucose) + O2 o It requires chlorophyll, light energy which the chlorophyll collects. Solar energy is converted into chemical energy by photosynthesis o It is an endothermic reaction heat is absorbed. o Carbohydrates are compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Cellular Respiration: our body breaks these molecules down into simpler molecules o C6H12O6 (glucose) + O2 CO2 + H2O + energy

Carbon - Group 4, atomic number 6, electron configuration 2,4. o Carbon can form so many molecules because it has a valency of 4, o Carbon-carbon bonds are very stable o Carbon in capable of bonding with itself indefinitely - Allotropes are forms of one element which have distinct different physical property. E.g. diamond and graphite which are allotropes of carbon. - Diamond is colourless, extremely hard, non conductor of electricity. Graphite is black, soft and slippery and conducts electricity. - Reason for allotropes is because the atoms are joined in a different way. - Diamond o carbon atoms covalently bonded to 4 other carbon atoms. o Shape around each carbon tetrahedral (3D structure). o Hexagon buckled allowing diamond its hardness. o All electrons are tied up in covalent bonds resulting in no mobile electrons (do not conduct electricity) o Uses jewellery, cannot be scratched. Make drills and cutting implement due to its hardness. - Graphite o Covalent lattice, c is bonded to 3 other C atoms o Planar structure. 2D lattices o Flat hexagonal arrangement. o The fourth free valence electron becomes delocalised allowing electrical conduction. o Weak intermolecular forces between sheets and can slide across each other allowing it to slide over. o Strong covalent bonds within the layers account for the high melting point o Uses electrodes (electrical conductor) e.g. in extracting aluminium. It is a dry lubricant and used in pencils the layers are able to slide over one another.

Buckminsterfullerene (buckyball) not found in nature. o Electric discharge between graphite electrodes o Soccer ball structure o Carbon atoms arranged in pentagon/hexagonal rings. o C is bonded to 3 other C atoms o Bonds are not planar, it looks like a cage o Some delocalised electrons.

Bonds -

Single bonds one pair of electrons has been shared. Two pairs of shared electrons double bonds 3 electron pairs shared e.g. Nitrogen triple bond Carbon can form double, triple and single bonds.

Fractional distillation of crude oil Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons formed by geological action. Oil refining requires fractional distillation. This separation requires the use of boiling points. The temperature falls as the vapour rises up through the column. (the least volatile highest boiling points and weights condense near the bottom). Final residue tar used for road making. Gasoline is in the greatest demand. o Volatility of a substance ease with which it can be converted to a vapour. Crude oil contains gaseous hydrocarbons. Natural gas 75-90% methane, 5-10% ethane and propane and butane 2-6%. It contains traces of hydrogen sulphide must be removed corrodes pipes. Propane and butane are condensed and used as Liquefied petroleum gas Coal is heated, before it decomposes to gases and vapours leaving behind coke (nearly pure carbon).It condense to coal tar dues. The non-condensable portion was used as a gas. o Natural gas 0 cooking o LPG caravans, barbeques o Petrol/diesel for car o Kerosene for aircraft. o Higher weight HC = lubricating oils o Low weight HC = propellants in aerosol sprays. By products ethene, propene make plastics.. Ethene ethanol, acetic acid. Propene in glycerine (cosmetics).

Hydrocarbons - Hydrocarbons come under straight chain, branched chain and cyclic hydrocarbon. o Methane one carbon o Ethane 2 carbons o Propane 3 carbons o Butane 4 carbons

Alkane: CnH2n+2 o All hydrocarbons are single bonds o Homologous series 0 compounds which can be represented by one general molecular formula. o Alkanes with 5 to 18 carbon atoms are colourless liquids, while 20 or more carbon atoms are waxy solids.

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Densities are less than water, conductors of electricity, insoluble in water. Non polar molecules, C-H polarity is minimal. Only force = dispersion force, which is weak. Thus low boiling and melting points. The melting and boiling points increase as molecular weight increases Dispersion forces increase as molecular weight increases.

Alkenes (CnH2n)hydrocarbons which contain a double bond between a pair of carbon atoms. o 2 carbons 4 = gasses, while 5 carbons + = liquids with increasing boiling point as weight increases. o Insoluble, non-polar and low boiling point. Alkynes (CnH2n+1) hydrocarbons containing triple bonds. Alkanols (CnH2n+1OH) have OH group o High melting and boiling point o Alcohols dissolve readily in water o Solubility decrease with increasing hydrocarbon chain A hydrophilic (OH) water loving hydrogen bond due to polarity Hydrophobic non-polar carbon chain. Isomers are sets of different compounds with the same molecular formula (diff. structural formula) Alkenes and alkynes are unsaturated hydrocarbons because it is possible to attach more hydrogen to the molecule by breaking double or triple bond. Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons. Alkanes are relatively unreactive, but when a double/triple bond is introduced, molecule becomes much more reactive. Similarly, when a OH group replaces a hydrogen atom, the molecule becomes much more reactive. Functional group = centre of reactivity, thus it is where the double, triple or OH bond is.

Safety precautions: - Hydrocarbons are extremely flammable, toxic and carcinogenic (cancer causing). o Cylinders methane and ethane - gases stored and transported in high pressure cylinders, must be stored in well-ventilated places. Propane and butane condensable with moderate pressures, stored outdoors (due to its flammability) o Added odours for early detection of leaks: can be smelled before explosive mixtures develop o Sturdy containers for liquids: volatile and highly flammable metal containers with narrow mouths o Minimise the quantities in everyday use o Do not handle liquids in confined spaces: air mixture can build up in small spaces o Keep away from naked flames o Use fume hoods hoods to minimise inhalation of these substances by humans and gloves prevent absorption through skin o Keep areas well ventilated and avoid inhalation and avoid contact. - Motor cars o Fuel tank located away from the hot engine o Narrow inlet and outlet pipes (minimise leakage) o Petrol transportation heavy steel tanks withstand collisions o Tanks should be able to Dissipate any electricity o Use fuel with added dyes for identification.