ch21 Page 1 of 13

Chapter 21 Lecture Notes

Formulas:

Φ = BAcosφ
  Faraday's Law: E = -N ∆Φ/∆t
  E = Bvl
  E = NABωsinωt
M = (N2Φ2)/I1 E 2 = -M∆I1/∆t
L = NΦ/I E = -L∆I/∆t
Solenoid: L = µon A l         Energy = (1/2µo)B2Al
2

Energy = (1/2)LI2
Energy Density = Energy/volume = (1/2µo)B2
Ip/Is =Vs/Vp = Ns/Np
Xc = 1/2πfC

Constants:

1 T = Newton-second/(coulomb-meter) = N/A⋅m
1 W = 1 T-m2 µo = 4π×10-7 T⋅m/A

Demonstrations:

z Induce current by changing magnetic field through wire loop

z Induce current through precision galvanometer and use slide
projector
z Generator and counter-torque
z Magnet and pendulum and eddy currents
z Magnet on copper and eddy currents.
z Show induced eddy currents by dropping a magnet through a tube

Introduction

http://faculty.salisbury.edu/~jwhoward/Physics123/html/ch21.htm 4/19/2007
ch21 Page 2 of 13

The main emphasis of this chapter can be summed up in one sentence. A Changing
Magnetic Flux induces an emf (electromotive force, or voltage difference). This
statement immediately brings up three questions that we need to answer?

1. What is a magnetic flux?

2. How do you change it?
3. What are the consequences of the induced emf and what is it's polarity?

Magnetic Flux

Definition: What is Magnetic Flux

Suppose we have a magnetic field going through a surface. Then the perpendicular
component of the magnetic field going through the surface times the area of the surface
is called the magnetic flux.

Φ = BAcosφ SI Units: T-m2 which is a Weber (Wb) - Wilhelm Weber

φ is the angle between the normal to the surface and the magnetic field

Suppose the object in question is a loop of wire. Then the area (A) has a magnitude
equal to the area inside of the wire loop which contains the magnetic flux and a direction
perpendicular to face of the wire loop.

PROBLEM: A loop of wire with a radius of .50 m is placed in a magnetic field of .60
Tesla. What is the flux through the wire loop when the face of the loop is (a)
perpendicular to the magnetic field, (b) parallel to the magnetic field, and (c) at an angle
of 30° to the magnetic field as shown in the figure? (The figure is the view looking
down on the wire loop)

Area of the loop is πr2 = 0.79 m2

φ = 0° φ = 90° φ = 60°

http://faculty.salisbury.edu/~jwhoward/Physics123/html/ch21.htm 4/19/2007
ch21 Page 3 of 13

Φ = BA cosφ cos(90°) = 0 Φ = BA cos(60°)

Φ = (0.60T)(0.79m2)(1) so Φ = 0 Φ = (0.60T)(0.79m2)(0.5)

Φ = .47 Wb Φ = .24 Wb

How can we change Φ?

1. We could change the Area. When we do that we get something called "Motional emf" that
is discussed in the book.
2. We could change φ. We usually do that by rotating a wire loop(s) in a magnetic field.
When we do that we get a generator - which is discussed in the book.
3. We could change B. When we do that we get the phenomena of inductance (leading to
transformers) talked about in the book.

So all of the topics in the first half of chapter 21 are simply results of the fact that a
changing magnetic flux induces an emf and an emf can produce a current.

What are the consequences of the induced emf?

When we change the magnetic flux we always get an induced emf. In addition, if there
is a closed path for charged particles to flow, we also get a current since emf's lead to current.
Eureka! We've got electric current simply from a changing magnetic flux. The electric current
flows in such a direction as to oppose the change in magnetic flux.

Faraday's Law and Lenz's Law

Now we want to make this more quantitative. What is the magnitude of the emf
created when the flux changes? Suppose we have a coil of wire. The emf induced by a
changing the magnetic flux is given by Faraday's Law.

E = -N∆Φ/∆t

It is easiest to use the magnitude of the emf from Faraday's law and determine the
direction of the induced emf from Lenz's Law.

What is the direction of the induced current? According to Lenz's law, the induced
current produces a magnetic field that opposes the change in flux causing the emf. That
is the purpose of the minus sign in Faraday's law. It indicates that the induced emf is
such that the magnetic force F acts to oppose the change in magnetic flux. We'll see
how that works. What matters is the flux inside the wire loop. That is the defined area.

http://faculty.salisbury.edu/~jwhoward/Physics123/html/ch21.htm 4/19/2007
ch21 Page 4 of 13

There are three steps to solving problems with Lenz's Law.

1. Determine the direction of B.

2. Determine if Φ is increasing or decreasing.
3. Choose the current direction to oppose the change in Φ. If flux is decreasing choose current
to increase B. If flux is increasing, choose current to decrease B.

PROBLEM: A coil of 200 turns is wrapped on an 18.0 cm by 18.0 cm frame. The total
resistance of the coil is 2.00Ω. A magnetic field that is perpendicular to the plane of the coil is
change from 0.500 T to 0 Tesla in 0.800 s. Find the magnitude of the induced emf.

E = -N∆Φ/∆t = -N∆(BAcosφ)/∆t = -NA∆Bcosφ/∆t

E = -200(18 cm)2(1 m/100 cm)2(0 - 0.500 T)(cos(0°))/0.800 s
E = 4.05 V

What is the current in the wire?

E = IR

I = E/R = 4.05 V/2.00Ω = 2.03 A

Here I am changing the magnetic field, but I could change the area or the angle and
change the flux.

http://faculty.salisbury.edu/~jwhoward/Physics123/html/ch21.htm 4/19/2007
ch21 Page 5 of 13

Applications and Examples

Motional EMF

This is the simplest case of Faraday's Law. A conductor moving in a magnetic

field creates an EMF (a potential difference). Explain direction using Lenz's Law. 

E = ∆Φ/∆t = B∆A/∆t = BLd/∆t = Blv

Another way to look at it is that the magnetic field moves the charges

I want you to see two important things about this

situation.

First, we know that if we have a current in a

magnetic field then a force is created. So the force
the charged particles in the rod feel is F=qvB, or in
terms of current, F=ILB. The direction of the force is
from left to right in this picture. So to create a
velocity from right to left, we need an external force,
like gravity or a spring or my hand pulling it.

Second, we see from the above force equations that F/q = vB.

Recall from our chapter on electricity, we defined the electric field as E = F/q, so we can
write this equation can be written as

E = Bv

This illustrates an extremely important principle. A changing magnetic flux produces

an electric field.

(Special Note: Motional emf can actually be explained without introducing magnetic
flux and Faraday's Law, so some books use this idea to develop Faraday's law. The
idea of a motional emf, then, can be thought of using Faraday's law, or simply using
ideas the ideas about the changing magnetic flux.)

PROBLEM: Suppose you are driving along within the

earth's magnetic field with a vertical component
downward of 5.0×10-5 T at 75 MPH. The car is about 2
meters wide. What is the induced emf and is it positive
on driver's or passenger's side?

A) Driver's side by RHR.

B) Calculate the induced emf:

E = Blv = (5.0×10-5 T)(2 m)(75 MPH)(1/3600 hour/s)(1609 m/mile)

http://faculty.salisbury.edu/~jwhoward/Physics123/html/ch21.htm 4/19/2007
ch21 Page 6 of 13

E = 3.0×10-3 V.

Recall that a little dry cell battery is 1.5 volts, so this is not very much.

This is similar to any problem with motional emf. If you knew the emf in the above figure,
how would you figure out the current in the circuit? What if you were told that there was
no resistor but just a copper wire for a loop? What would you do then?

Work and Motional EMF

If we have an emf then we have E = IR and we have power dissipated in the resistor. (We
may be lighting a light bulb). Where is this power coming from? Energy is supposed to be
conserved. Well, the rod doesn't move on its own. It takes energy (or work) to move it. In fact, the
RHR shows that the current in the rod creates a force that wants to stop the rod. F = ILB sinθ. It
takes an external agent to supply the energy/work to light the bulb.

The Electric Generator

Motional emf is one way to create electricity. But the wire would have to be long, so there is a
better way. It still uses Faraday's Law. Instead of changing the area, we will change the angle φ.
How do we do this? We make a generator. A generator changes mechanical energy (of falling
water, steam, etc.) into electrical energy. It is exactly the opposite of a motor that changes
electrical energy into mechanical energy. Consider the following figure, and look at the two
vertical arms of the wire.

The current direction is given by the right hand rule using v and B. The charges in the
wire feel this force (in the direction of I) which gives rise to the current. The magnitude of
the emf is given by the equation for motional emf that we derived.

E = BLv⊥ =BLvsinθ θ is the angle between the velocity and B.

For both wires, and many turns

http://faculty.salisbury.edu/~jwhoward/Physics123/html/ch21.htm 4/19/2007
ch21 Page 7 of 13

E = 2NBLvsinθ

If the coil is rotating with constant angular velocity, then θ= ωt.

Also angular equations, v = ωr = ωw/2

E = 2NBLω(w/2)sinωt

E = NABωsinωt

Recall that the peak current is given by the numbers in front of the sin function, or

Eo=NABω

The current is going back and forth in the wire. If we use slip rings to make the
connection we have an ac generator. With split ring commutators, we have a dc
generator.

Countertorque and Eddy Currents

So far we have developed one concept in this chapter and

discussed two consequences of that concept. A changing magnetic
flux creates an emf. The consequences of that are that an emf can
produce a current which creates a magnetic field opposing the change
in flux. There is more to the story than this, however. The
consequences of this can be quite dramatic. For instance, we know
that the magnetic field from the induced current opposes the changing
flux. This often produces a force opposing the motion involved. You
actually don't even need a loop of wire to feel this opposing force. Any
conductor can have localized areas of current loops called Eddy
currents. These will create magnetic fields and opposing forces. Let's
see the consequence of this opposing force.

Demonstration: Drop magnet and non-magnet through tube.

This current comes from Lenz's law and acts like a little dipole magnet slowing the
progress of the dropped magnet.

Demonstration: Slowing Pendulum and magnet over copper.

All of these things demonstrate that the currents produced from changing magnetic
fluxes can actually oppose the force creating the changing flux.

Another example of this is counter-torque in a generator. As I crank a generator, I am

rotating a coil and creating a current. We know that a rotating coil with a current passing
through it feels a torque. The torque is in the opposite direction of the rotation of the coil.
The torque it feels is called counter-torque.

http://faculty.salisbury.edu/~jwhoward/Physics123/html/ch21.htm 4/19/2007
ch21 Page 8 of 13

Demonstration: Electric Generator with and without light bulb.

When I unscrew the light bulb, there is no more counter-

torque opposing my motion and it becomes easier to rotate the
crank. Another way of thinking of this is that when there is current
flowing, I am now doing work to turn the crank against friction,
and doing work to create electrical energy. Just like it takes work
to keep the bar moving in motional emf, it takes work to keep the
coil rotating for a generator. This is conservation of energy -
mechanical energy (or heat energy) into electrical energy.

Where does the energy come from to drive the motor?

From falling water or steam, etc

Counter-emf of a Motor

We talk briefly about motors again. A motor

changes electrical energy into mechanical energy.
The changing magnetic flux of a motor as it turns,
produces an emf that is trying to stop the motor.
We call this back-emf or counter-emf. So there are
two source of emf on a motor. The emf driving the
motor (V) and the back emf (E). The greater the speed of the motor,the greater the back emf.

I= (V-E)/R.

So as the motor speeds up and E increases, current actually decreases.

PROBLEM: Suppose that a motor running at 1200 rpm has a counter emf of 50 V.
What is the counter emf when the motor is running at 2000 rpm?

We know Eo = NABω. Since the magnetic field, the area and the number of wires
doesn't change, then the back emf is only proportional to ω.

E1200/E2000 = ω1200/ω2000

50 V/ E2000 = 2π(1200 rpm)/{2π(2000 rpm)}

E2000 = (50 V)(2000)/(1200) = 83 V

Inductance

We have talked about motional emf and generators as examples of changing magnetic
fluxes, changing A and φ, respectively. Now we talk about changing B. What happens when
we do that. Look at the figure below.

http://faculty.salisbury.edu/~jwhoward/Physics123/html/ch21.htm 4/19/2007
ch21 Page 9 of 13

When we change a current in one coil, this changes the magnetic field in that coil.
The changing magnetic field in the first coil produces a changing magnetic field in the
second coil. That produces an emf in the second coil which causes a current in the
second coil. This is called mutual inductance since the changing current in the first coil
induces a current in the second coil. The flux in the second coil is proportional to the
current in the first coil. The proportionality constant is called the mutual inductance.

N2∆Φ2 = M∆I1 SI Units of M are T-m2/A = W/A = V-s/A = Henry (H)

M = (N2∆Φ2)/∆I1 (since V = W/s)

From Faraday's Law we know

E 2 = -N2∆Φ2/∆t (substitute above in)

E 2 = -M∆I1/∆t

Also, as current increases in a coil itself, the flux changes and an emf is produced. This
is called self-inductance. (Same derivation with L used).

E = -L∆I/∆t where L =N∆Φ/∆I

What is the self-inductance of a solenoid?

L = N∆Φ/∆I = N∆(BA)/∆I

L = N∆(µonIA)/I n = number turns/length =N/l

L = N∆(µoNIA)/∆I l

L = NµoNA∆I/∆I l = µoN2A /l

Where does it all end? A single solenoid has only self-inductance. Two of them have
self-inductance and mutual-inductance. Always remember that something has to drive
the system. Usually one of the inductors is connected to an ac or dc source and is driving the
system. But both are always opposing any change in flux.

Finally, there is energy stored in an inductor. It takes work to establish current in the

http://faculty.salisbury.edu/~jwhoward/Physics123/html/ch21.htm 4/19/2007
ch21 Page 10 of 13

conductor since Lenz's Law says that the inductor doesn't want to add current. Again,
like with capacitors, deriving the equation requires calculus.

Energy = (1/2)LI2. (always true)

For a solenoid:

Energy = (1/2)µon2AlI 2 with B = µonI,

Energy = (1/2µo)B2A l

We can generalize this to the energy stored in any magnetic field. We usually write this
as the energy density (u) which is the energy per volume.

u = (1/2µo)B2

Transformers

An emf in 2 is induced from 1 using

E 2 = -N2∆Φ/∆t

In coil 1, we have self-induction:

E 1 = -N1∆Φ/∆t.

Transformers are designed so that the same flux goes through both coils so ∆Φ/∆t is the
same.

E 2/E 1 = N2/N1 Vs/Vp = Ns/Np

If the secondary has more turns it is a step up transformer, and if it has less turns it is a
step down transformer. Transformers change voltage easily. This is one of the principle
reasons it is preferred over dc. They only work for ac current.

Energy must be conserved so P1 = P2

http://faculty.salisbury.edu/~jwhoward/Physics123/html/ch21.htm 4/19/2007
ch21 Page 11 of 13

I1V1 = I2V2 or Ip/Is =Vs/Vp = Ns/Np

So if the voltage is stepped up, the current is stepped down. Note the inverse relationship
here.

PROBLEM: The input to the primary coil of a transformer is 120 V while the current in the
secondary coil is 0.10 A. When 60.0 W of power are delivered to the circuit attached to the
secondary coil, what is the voltage across this coil?

P = IV ⇒V =P/I = (60.0 W)/(0.10 A) = 600 V

If the primary coil has 20 turns, how many does the secondary coil have?

Ns= NpVs/Vp = (20)(600 V)/(120 V) = 100

Transformers are used to transfer power from the power company to homes.
The resistance between the points is constant. Since power lost in a resistor is
I2R, we try to minimize I when transferring electricity over a long way. So the
power company steps up voltage (lowering the current) at the place where
electricity is produced and steps it down (raising the current) when they want to use it. There is a
transformer sitting outside of your house.

PROBLEM: Suppose 10 MW of power is being transported over a power line that has
a resistance of 0.200 Ω. How much power is lost along the line if the voltage of the
line is (a) 120 V, (b) 24,000 V?

(Note that there are two different ideas about power

involved here. The first idea is the total power being
transported which can be written as P = IV. The second
idea is the power lost in a transmission line. The power
lost in the transmission line is not P=IV where V is the
voltage of the line, because the voltage of the line is not
the same thing as the voltage drop from one end of the
line to the other. Remember that power is voltage drop
across a device times the current through the device, but
the voltage drop across the line is not the same thing as
the voltage of the line!)

(a) P = IV

I = P/V = (10×105 W)/(120 V)

I = 8.3×104 A

P = I2R = (8.3×104 A)2(.200 Ω)

http://faculty.salisbury.edu/~jwhoward/Physics123/html/ch21.htm 4/19/2007
ch21 Page 12 of 13

P = 1.4×109W (more than being sent)

(b) I = P/V = (10×105 W)/(24,000 V) = 4.17 A

P = I2R = (4.17 A)2(.200Ω)

P = 3.5 W

Capacitors in ac Circuits

There are two important concepts about capacitors in circuits.

1. In a dc circuit, capacitors do not allow current through, but in an ac circuit they do.
2. The capacitor affects the circuit in two ways
a. The phase of the current changes through a capacitor.
b. The resistance of the capacitor (capacitive reactance) changes with different
frequencies.

Think about what is happening with the charges.

PROBLEM: An 8.00 µF capacitor is connected to the terminals of an ac generator

with an rms voltage of 150 and a frequency of 60.0 Hz. (a) Find the capacitive
reactance and the rms current in the circuit. (b) What happens if the frequency is
doubled?

(a) Xc = 1/2πfC = 1/(2)(3.1416)(60.0)(8×10-6 F) = 332 Ω

VR = IR = IXc

I = V/Xc = 150 V/332 Ω = 0.452 A

(b) Then the capacitive reactance is halved, and the current doubles.

Similarly in an AC circuit, the impedence of an inductor changes with frequency. We

find XL = 2πfL.

http://faculty.salisbury.edu/~jwhoward/Physics123/html/ch21.htm 4/19/2007
ch21 Page 13 of 13

Developer: Dr. Joseph W. Howard

Salisbury University
Last modified August 28, 2002 @13:24EST
Copyright © Joseph W. Howard. All rights reserved.
Salisbury, Maryland 21801-6862

http://faculty.salisbury.edu/~jwhoward/Physics123/html/ch21.htm 4/19/2007