The Cultural Identity of Asian communities: Korean Hallyu television dramas and their receptions among Asian media

audiences

Presented to IAMCR Stockholm, Sweden July 20-25, 2008

by Sunny Yoon Associate Professor Dept. of Communication Hanyang University Seoul, Korea syoon@hanyang.ac.kr

1.

Introduction The Korean wave in popular culture (Hallyu) has spread across the Asian continent. Conventionally, the skewed structure of media flow centered on the 1st World has been criticized for a long time as the new world information order (NWICO). Although Asia has emerged from the colonial period, cultural imperialism has remained as an additional critical point against media consumption in Asia. However, Hallyu has created a new phenomenon by attracting Asian media audiences. In the entire Asian continent, Korean television shows have achieved a certain degree of success including the nations of South-East Asia and India as well as East Asia. In particularly, East Asian countries including China, Japan and Taiwan exclaim Korean TV shows and stars. There is enormous amount of news coverage on Hallyu fandom and tourist gatherings in these countries as well as in Korea. Although Hallyu has consolidated solidarity around Asian culture, it is rather new and unsteady phenomenon starting by accident. Korea started to export its TV shows less than a decade ago when an economic crisis hit the media industry. Facing financial difficulty, Korean broadcasting companies turned their attention to foreign countries for extra revenues however small they were. Initially, there was no consideration of taste of Asian audience or planning on cultural strategy. Within a few years, however, Korean TV dramas hits in Japan and China as well as many countries in Southeast-Asia. Since then, it brought up diverse discourse in Asia and in Korea. There are three arguments on reasons for success of Hallyu; cultural discount; Confucianism; and trans-nationalist sympathy. First, argument of cultural discount refers to advantage of sales in a similar culture due to relative cultural affinity among Asians compared to Western cultural products. This is a concept of more producer centered and economic value. Argument of Confucianism is a deeper argument than the first and seeks to explain the substance of cultural similarity. Asians supposedly share common cultural value based on tradition of Confucianism, However, This view does not explain why Korean TV programs are specifically more popular than other Asian TV shows. Moreover, Confucianism has been frequently overextended to explain any kind of Asian phenomenon, both positively and negatively, frequently by Westerners. When Asia was underdeveloped, it was explained by Confucianism. Then again when Asia achieved economic success, transnational corporations are willing to learn and adopt Confucian value which no longer a part of Asian education curriculum. It has been used as an ad hoc explanation academically, or serves as Orientalism in practice.

Third, argument for trans-nationalism attempts to broaden Hallyu into Asian community by criticizing producer oriented media or a narrow notion of nationalist expansionism. As Hallyu begins to create anti-Korea sentiment and its cultural products are involved in the competition with others, namely Chinese wave and Japanese wave, a new direction should be adopted. Academia initiated discourse of trans-nationalism, i.e. to consolidate Asian community. It has a theoretical implication against theories of cultural imperialism or world information order: Korea, a newly developed, post colonial country leads to playing an important role in consolidating Asian community. Additionally, the media industry concurs with the argument in order to maintain the fame of Hallyu in the future. It contributes to producing musicians in China and coproducing TV dramas with Japan. This research attempts to explain reality relating to Hallyu on the concrete level by citing Foucauldian sense of empiricism. All three arguments in relation to Hallyu that have been presented so far are based upon vague and normative concepts. Cultural discount, Confucianism or trans-nationalism has limitation in explaining concrete reality of Asian culture or media reception. Additionally, this study will look into dynamics of cultural exchange in the Asian context. It is not limited to Asian geography, but extends to historical experience and cultural power practiced on the global level. This study will look specifically into historical Korean TV drama. The structure of Korean historical dramas has changed throughout the time period. I will particularly scrutinize reception of Korean historical drama by Asian TV audiences. Historical drama is the particular genre that emphasizes nationalism and social issues. It would be interesting to see how Asians receive them. This will lead to the question of Asian value and communal identity at a concrete level. 2. Korean Historical TV dramas Presently, most Korean television stations broadcast historical dramas on prime time. Best rated programs are TV dramas as usual, but historical stories are number one among them. In Korea, its been only a decade since historical dramas have become popular. Before, they were notorious for having the lowest rating until 1998 when Tears of Dragon wrote a new record that historical story could be successful in attracting a TV audience. Hujun produced in 2000 achieved the highest audience rating in media history by hitting 65%. This was a hero story of famous oriental doctor who surmounted every difficulty in life by using his talent, medicine and acupuncture. Taejo Wangun was another best hit historical TV drama that drew the most audiences in 2001.

There were big discussions on why historical dramas became suddenly popular at that time in a large amount of research projects. Although many textual analyses on TV dramas were conducted, it was more convincing to consider the social factors. By getting through Asian economic breakdown at the end of 20th century, so called IMF crisis, Korean people desired for hero to open up a new hopeful future by overcoming difficulties in reality. Also, people desired to get brilliant ideas and information from the world in another time. Tears of Dragon and Wangun illustrated a model of powerful kingdoms whereas Hujun provided a new figure of hero who saved people around him. Korean historical TV drama has demonstrated drastic changes in narrative structure and visual styles since then. It has created a new genre called fusion historical drama which means merging historical with trendy styles together. Damo (a tea serving lady) initiated this trend that has been succeessful until the present. This story has contributed to maintaining the popularity of historical TV fiction in a great deal. Although Damo did not show a high rating in 2003, historical TV dramas have been affected by this new genre since Damo. Fusion historical TV fiction demonstrated changes in subjects, narratives and visual styles. First of all, Damo was unique in subjects of the story by taking a servant as a main heroine contrast to conventional dramas which mainly showed royal families. This was followed by Daejangeum, the best hit historical drama in Korea as well as in other Asian countries. Jangeum was also a low class cook in the royal palace. Korean historical drama began to show lives of ordinary people away from royal, aristocratic subjects. Joomong and Haesin (Ocean Divine) were a king and a big merchant, but the dramas emphasized human stories of them who had been sold as servants and worked as low class vendors. This matched well with political situations paralleling with populism of Kim Daejung and Noh Moohyun governments during the first decade of 21st century. Secondly, narrative structure of fusion historical dramas demonstrated daily lives of ordinary people by focusing on love stories and humanism. Before, historical dramas emphasized reality by illustrating actual historical record as part of fictional shows. It is similar to docu- fiction which newly invented in Western media. These realist TV fictions did not appeal to young generation because of complex story lines related to power struggles among royal families and old fashioned dialogue and narratives. By contrast, fusion historical dramas adopt a modern style of talking and acting while simplifying the narratives. They attract young and old generation together with combination of old lives with new fashion. Director Lee of Damo mentioned in an interview that the audience did not want reality in historical dramas. Fictional plausibility seemed to interest the audience more than what actually happened in the

past. Damos narrative structure was mainly focused on love triangle same as Joomong and Haesin while Daejamgeum elaborated ultimate success of justice and humanism in addition to love stories. Third, visual style of Korean historical dramas has also been transformed. The new fusion genre adopted fantasy in the TV show with frequent use of martial arts and computer graphics. Like Damo, martial art has occupied one third of almost every episode of the shows in Haeshin, Joomong, Hong Kidong, Il Jimai and Taewang Sasinki.(four gods and the emperor) As time goes, historical fictions use more CG technique by emphasizing strong fantasy in Taewang sasinki (2007), Il Jimae (2008), for example. Daejangeum also used modern visual style of mise-en-scene without using many martial arts because its story was based on cuisine and medicine. Fusion historical dramas have been established as a new genre although traditional style of shows is still made, especially on public broadcasting, KBS (Korea Broadcasting System). Recently over the half of dramas are historical ones, and over 80% of them adopt fusion genre. Fusion dramas are produced with less basis in the historical record. Therefore, there is more room to use fantasy and imagination in creating stories and visual styles. Despite the fact that the new style historical fictions parallel the narrative and visual structure similar to trendy dramas, ideological aspects differ from one another. While Korean trendy dramas illustrate capitalist and mercantilist values, historical fictions pursue authority and victory. Particularly, Korean historical dramas illustrate stereotype of foreign people. New fusion dramas are not the exception in showing stingy, cruel Chinese and malicious burglar Japanese. Since historical dramas became popular due to domestic social changes, they impress the audience with nationalist fervor. Heroines and Heros achieve ultimate victory by getting through difficulties caused by the internal jealousy and foreign villains. In Damo, villains were Japanese whereas in Taewang Sasinki and Joomong, they were Chinese. Also, Chinese and Japanese people frequently caused troubles for Deajangeum despite being minor characters in the show. Nevertheless, Korean historical dramas attract Asian audiences just the same as modern fictions. It is interesting to see how Asian TV audiences react to nationalist views of Korean TV shows. Since Korean fictions reflect domestic social issues, Asian audiences in other countries may read the text alternatively. Joomong and Taewang Sasinki were embargo institutionally by the Chinese government due to dispute on geopolitics in ancient history. Beside political strategy, the audience may watch TV in a different way and interpret the ideological aspect away from the producers or political authority. This research attempts to conduct audience research on Korean historical

dramas in Japan and China. It would lead to an intriguing question how ideological aspects of Korean historical dramas affect promoting Asian community. 3. Reception of Korean historical dramas in East Asia Korean TV dramas have led Hallyu in Asia which take over 80% of TV program exports from Korea. Winter Sonata is the most successful case to attract Asian audiences. This typical trendy drama consists of a love triangle and tragic destiny of hero and heroine acting in beautiful and modern environments that have attracted especially a female audience longing for love and a Cinderella kind of dream. Winter Sonata was particularly popular in Japan where it created a large number of fandoms that have lasted for years. Similar types of trendy dramas have been popular among Asian audiences which pursue ideal love and promoting status. In addition to revenues for TV program exports Hallyu has contributed to increase Asian tourists in Korea and star business. When Bae Yongjun (hero in Winter Sonata) visited Japan, over 5000 fans gathered in the airport to welcome him, for instance. Fans of Korean stars make trips to Korea to participate in concerts or events, or just to stay at the same hotel where stars have stayed and to visit theme parks based on the TV dramas. There have been many policy analyses and academic researches on Hallyu and most of them concluded merits of Korean dramas which appeal to Asian audiences moral value and cultural similarity, i.e. Confucianism and superiority of visual and narrative forms. However, Korean cultural products are not traditional but modern which look equally to Western shows. Korean pop culture including TV shows, music and films are more Westernized than those of Chinese and South East Asians but at a similar level to Japanese products. Many audience studies of Asian fans of Korean popular culture indicate that audiences prefer Koreans than theirs because of sophisticated and modern styles (Lee 2007; Cho 2003; Shin 2006). Asian audiences prefer Koreans to Japanese or American products due to imperial and post-colonial history in Asia. Thus, ideological aspects are involved in constructing taste of Asians for selecting cultural products. In Korea, the popularity of trendy dramas has been diminished and historical dramas have taken the major part domestically. Changes in social context such as shift of political authority and economic situations influence audiences choice in TV programs. Also, transformation of the media industry supports the production of large scale historical dramas. As big capitalists entered the TV business, the budget of drama

production has been doubling each year. By conducting the audience research of Korean historical dramas in Japan and China, the process of multiple readings of the media text could be presented. It will be particularly useful since Korean historical dramas contain ideological aspect strongly. Table 1. Interview subjects
Name Age/sex Nationality Marital status W S 39/F 46/M Japan, Saitama Japan, Nigata NM M Economic status Middle M University University secretary Middle manager T J K 48/F 47/F 45/F Japan, Miyagi Japan, Tokyo Japan, Kanagawa Y I M 43/M 42/F 46/F Japan Japan, Tokyo Japan, Kyusu M M M H/M M M M.A. U. B.A. U. M D M M high ? College M.A. U. BA Secretary Business Magazine editor Journalist Secretary Employee, advertising F G 41/F 38/F Japan, Kikaken Japna, Yokohama O 43/F Japan, Tokyo NM M U. B.A. Real Estate English M M M M College College Housewife Accountant Korean English English Education Occupation

remarks

business B 32/F China, Beijing M H U. B.A. Fashion designer H L 21/F 47/M China, Beijing China, Sanshi NM M Low H U. College Student Middle manager E 41/F China, Hkyongkang A C 26/F 52/M China, Beijing China, Habuksung NM M M H U. B.A. U. Art editor M M High school Employee

Employee

D N K

23/F 24/M 30/F

China, Habuk China, Beijing China, Hanam

NM NM M

M L H

College College U. B.A.

? Student Accountant

Sex: Female, Male. Marital Status: Married, Divorced, Separated, Never been Married, Economic Status: High, Medium, Low. Education: U. B.A.- University B.A. Degree MA- Masters Degree Remarks: languages used in individual interviews.

I collected interview subjects by making announcements on bulletin boards of internet fan clubs of Daejangeum (China), Damo (Japan) and Bae Jongjun (Japan). Interview subjects were voluntarily gathered and willing to participate in the interviews. I conducted group interviews for each fan clubs. After the group interviews, I met each one face to face individually and spent time for about an hour for each for conducting individual interviews. I had interpreters for all interviews except four Japanese people who spoke English for their individual interviews. For group interviews, Chinese and Japanese interpreters conducted simultaneous translation in order not to interrupt the flows of discussion. For individual interviews, we had word by word translation. Group interviews took 2 hours or more, and individual interviews took 1 hour on average. Before the group interviews, I distributed questionnaires to the participants for general information including personal backgrounds. Japanese TV audiences enjoy watching Korean historical dramas. Because Japan is the number one importer of Korean media products, Japanese people participating in the interview watched most of Korean TV fictions including historical dramas. Daejangeum was the most popular among historical dramas. Most Japanese audience mentioned moral superiority shown in Korean historical dramas.
S: Korean dramas show our experience before the war.. maybe Confucian thoughts K: Yes. The things we are losing now. For example strong ties among family members are loosened in Japan. Korean drama shows this and when I meet Korean people they are respectful for the elderly. M: Koreans turn their head back covering wine glass with their hands when they drink in front of the elderly. I admire well mannered Korean custom. S: Korean women do not smoke in front of the elderly. Its different from Japanese. I: We Japanese also showed family lives and good behavior on television shows 20 years ago. Now it exits no longer.

Members of Damo fan club demonstrated the same ideas.

O: Korean dramas show very considerate people and I find my own identity which is going away in Japan. G: Yes. Even with little things, the man in Winter Sonata prepared breakfast for the woman and covered it with paper towel to block dusk from dripping in it. F: Korean dramas showed respect for parents and the elderly. I could rediscover that we had forgotten about in contemporary Japan. F: I have changed my attitude for my own parents since I watched Korean TV. G: I noticed that young Koreans give hands to the elderly on the street or stairs when I watch Korean TV. You could not observe those behaviors in Japan.

Japanese people remind their identities that have lost in their own culture while watching Korean TV fictions. They remember their golden age 20 years ago when Japan achieved economic success and social solidarity after the WW 2 while watching strong ties in Korean family and society described in Korean dramas. Particularly, the audience admires free style and large scale of Korean historical dramas.
I: I dont watch Japanese historical drama. Not interesting J: Japanese historical dramas are solely about samurai K: Always same stories and same personage, Toyotomi Hideyoshi etc. We have already learned from school. Koreans show family, cuisine, love and various matters. They dont look like historical shows. Thats what I like. Y: We, Japanese could not make such scale of historical dramas. T: Koreans put a lot of money. For producing Joomong and Taewang Sasinki, they set up studios respectively and use oversea locations a lot. S: Japanese could invest a lot in producing films, but not for TV programs. Korean drama studios have large scale. Very impressive. G: Korean dramas illustrate totality of life. We enjoy watching growth of a person on the show. Japanese dramas show only a part of stories. Korean dramas show beautiful scenery. I could hear birds singing and sound of deep gorge while watching Damo. We could not feel them from Japanese TV shows which explain too much verbally.

Japanese drama fans appreciate visuals and narratives of Korean historical dramas. The motivations of Chinese audience for watching Korean TV programs are

interests in visual aspects and narratives.

D: I like pretty men and women and modern environments appeared in Korean dramas A: Fashion and make-ups all are sophisticated. I like fashions in Korean historical dramas, nice style and magnificent color compared to conservative costumes in Chinese shows. H: Korean cuisine culture is also superior. Chinese always show special cuisine unlike Koreans who show diverse including ordinary food. A: Korean dramas show very vivid pattern of peoples everyday lives. But of course they are very expensive for Chinese

Chinese people appreciate modern and sophisticated life style of Koreans even those described in historical dramas. However, Chinese participants bring up strong resistance against stereotype of own people in Korean historical dramas.
E: I think they have strong prejudice against Chinese. I could not understand why they are unfavorable for other cultures. X: I observe in Korean drama that Chinese are described as merchants or small property owners. There are no important Chinese people in Korean dramas.

Japanese people also feel resentment of stereotype of foreigners in Korean historical dramas, but reaction was quite different.

K: In Korean dramas, Japanese people are always villains or Yakusa (gangsters). Japanese are not all bad in reality. But I dont feel offended but understand Koreans image of Japanese people. T: I understand them. I just feel sorry and I accept their views. S: Japanese have done badly during the occupation. But theres other aspect. Overall, Korean dramas are stereotyping Japanese too much. J: We educated people know what Japanese have done. I: Yes. But its important to teach history right for children. F: NHK erase Japanese depiction in Damo. I noticed it later when I watched them through DVD O: We are favorable but Koreans seem take us enemies. Japanese are always described as Ninja I: We dont learn about Korean history too much. We did not know relationship with Koreans until we watch TV

F: For us Toyotomi Hideyosi was hero, but for Koreans he is bad. Kato Kiyomasa was the samurai who went to Korea. In Damo, Kiyomasa represented bad guy. However, when I watch TV, I identify myself with heroes in the drama and start to hate bad Japanese. (ha ha)

Japanese audiences got interested in learning history by influence of Korean historical drama. During the interview, I found that many Japanese people were studying Korean history and culture as well as language. Although they are zealous fans of Korean dramas and stars, they belong to highly educated middle class. Unlike TV audiences in other cultures, Japanese audience has no shame to watch TV, but take it opportunity to learn Korean culture. During the individual interviews, they brought books and materials about Korean dramas. They are aware of stereotype of their own people but try to accept to follow the narratives of the show. For Chinese, Korean history is interesting to learn their past experiences.
E: I enjoyed Kung (Palace). I could see Chinese influence and our elements in itKoreans brought beauty of Chinese and invest their own things in them. H: It seems that Koreans inherit Chinese tradition in their culture better than we do. Confucianism, for example, is appreciated in Korean culture. We frequently abandon uniqueness of our culture. E: I dont agree with you. We cannot but give up certain things to advance for the future. Fortunately, they (Koreans) keep the beautiful tradition. X: Two nations had cultural exchange, but there are a lot of problems in history. Lets stop talking on this issue. D: Koreans are careful of good manner. X: Chinese take it serious to be well behaved, but Koreans are better keep traditional etiquette. A: Yes. I have learned Korean language. And honorific language is so important for them. So complicated.

Chinese audiences find their cultural influence in Korean tradition. Chinese tend to enjoy Korean historical dramas due to similarity between two countries. Daejangeum and Hujun were particularly popular in China because Chinese found similar style of food and medicine in the TV program. Additionally, Chinese participants in the interview appreciate Koreans legacy of Chinese tradition as in Confucianism and other daily customs. Asian audiences have a new image of Korean people according to media representation. Chinese drama fans perceive Korea as advanced and brilliant.

H: Korean transportation is very well developed. Electronic business is good too. X: Tourism is very advanced in Korea E: Beauty business also. X: I heard most Korean women got plastic surgery. E: I heard men also D: Yeah? Why men. C: Koreans are also good in computer game. We have good relations, but Koreans have strong nationalism. They use their own products. E: I think we should learn from Korea. We are big country with 1.4 billion people with complicated connections. I believe its amazing for us to develop at this level. H: Koreans are vivid and active in my mind. E: Yes, Korea is brilliant country. I do not have any resistance against it unlike Japan. H: We should maintain good relationship between Korea and China. E: Yes we treat our friends with smile and our enemy with guns.

Chinese people consider Korea as the model of development. Based on historical experience, they compare Korea with Japan and prefer Korean way of advancement. Chinese try to maintain friendship with Koreans and to learn advanced technology. Japanese participants also demonstrate changes in attitude toward Koreans owing to TV dramas.
M: I grew up in Kyusu where there were many Korean- Japanese people. My parents hated Koreans, so did I. We heard that Koreans did wrong. Most Koreans own gambling store or barbecue shop. We didnt want to close to Koreans. We talked to each other that they are smelly and mean etc. Y: I also had prejudice against Koreans. We had Mr. Kim in our high school and all hated him and ridiculed him. Theres no substance, but just an image. But once I watched Korean drama, I totally changed my attitude. M: I like Koreans now. If you have any problem, I would like to help you. I am helping Korean students in writings. I like Koreans care, respect for parents, humanism and all good things. S: where there were many Koreans, people had strong prejudice against Koreans. In Tokyo, theres no prejudice. I: Now, Japanese have totally different attitude. More and more people favor for Koreans these days. G: I had no interest in Korea before. I just thought they had culture of spicy food. But now I know they have more than that since I watch TV.

F: I like Korean frankly speak out. Japanese dont express themselves.

Japanese people show strong transformation of their attitude toward Koreans since the exposure of TV shows. Japanese had stereotype of Korea in the post colonial society, but they have a new image of Korean people once they watch Korean TV programs. They appreciate Koreans ability to combine modernization and traditional value together. They want to recover Japanese values that have been lost in the course of development and individualization. 4. Flows of media and Asian Community Hallyu provides an opportunity to reorganize international flows of media in the Asian continent. Having colonial history in common in the 19th and early 20th century, Asia was largely involved in post colonial power division of media flows. Asia was the number one consumer of Hollywood films in the world, and journalist and entertainment media contents were also covered by the world information order during the 20th century. Hallyu is a new phenomenon that shifts media flows from the 1st world centered to more diverse sources. This brings up a hopeful vision for forming Asian community by sharing common cultural values shown in Korean TV programs. However, Asian community has not played an important role due to loose organization and vague identity. European Community was the model for establishing Asian Community, but Asia had number of problems to bring it to reality. First, Asian community has never been successfully institutionalized unlike EU. APEC and ASEAN have been the most distinguished organizations in this region, but it has no role of organizing communal activities besides economic cooperation. Super power and colonial power participated in Asian organization so that there was little room to take independent initiation. Moreover, Asia has little solidarity due to diversity in constituents compared to European countries. Asia in fact is no more than geographical imminence because countries are so distanced from one another in terms of economic, cultural and political systems. Asia contains countries from the wealthiest to the poorest economically, from socialist to pluralist politically and socially. Asia has less solidarity than any other continents in the world. Third, the most importantly, it is hard to find a ground for Asian identity. For building up an Asian community, identity is important. Even the most consolidated exemplar of regional community, EU has the problem with identity in a deeper level.

Anthony Smith points out that EU has weakness in collective identity because it was established based upon common interests and institutional rules. He argues there are two different models for establishing cultural identity: one is artificial entity established by institutional interventions and policy plans; the other is natural body cumulated by common memory and experiences (Smith 1996, p.175). Smith considers EU as functionally organized being from top to down having a pale face with no circulation of blood. European culture and Christianity is largely an elitist possession that had been used to repress people instead of mobilizing cultural identity of general people. Additionally, European countries have involved in so many war and conflicting interests one another in history. According to Smith, EU requires to find a motive for collective amnesia to consolidate its cultural identity (p. 183). It might be an illusion to form any collective body as Anderson (1983) argued for imagined communities. Collective entities require ideology to fill up this illusion or imagination including nationalism, trans-nationalism or any kind of social consciousness. European nations and transnational organization as EU are formed based on these ideological imaginations in the course of modernization. Yet, identity issue has never been completed at the bottom besides being loosely tied upon collective interests and authorities. Deleuze and Guatari (1988) get into the deeper level with regards to the nature of collective identity. They attempted to surmount problem with Lacanian concept of self identity which narrowed down solely to individuals. Deleuze and Guattari (1983) get back to Oedipus and desire in explaining political economy of contemporary world. They argue against both Marxist and Lacanian theories in addition to mainstream thoughts by claiming that desire is always collective and capital is illusory absolute which has never come into reality without desire (Goodchild 1996, pp.196-200). Their two works on Capitalism and Schizophrenia, Anti-Oedipus and Mille Plateaux, illustrate collective desire exercised in history. Desire delineates self and others and gives motivations for constructing reality. Deleuze and Guattari conceptualize machine of desire without organs. There is no substantial entity, but desire creates reality as Foucaults power function to produce reality discursively. European countries have accumulated desire, and hence national or trans-nationalism in the course of modernization. Despite conflicting interests and cultural identities which still exist inside nations and Europe as a whole, EU proceeds with collective activities relying on thin line of elitist cultural and religious ties. Asian countries have a weaker basis of ties because modernization has been always organized around the Western center. Interruption of former colonial or post

colonial power is accompanied in the process of organizing any kind of collective activities. Desire of Asian community is frequently loosened up by diverse interests and conditions of various members of Asia.. In Asia, common memories and experiences have not been grounded like in Europe. Confucianism, Buddhism and long tradition of international relations among Asian countries could represent cultural similarity, but they retained elitist principles like European culture and religion. Confucianism is basically philosophy for intellectuals and used for organizing aristocratic authorities in pre-modern Asian history. It is frequently referred to basis of Asian identity, particularly in the context of promoting nationalism, but no one has provided substance of Confucianism exercised in any concrete case. Additionally, although Asians engaged in foreign relations since the ancient history, it had not been grounded to common experiences of ordinary people. Particularly, East Asian countries were under the umbrella of Chinese emperor and engaged in close relationship with each other. Cultural and political relations from China to Japan mediated by Korea reflected resembling form of art and architecture in pre-modern Asian societies. It anchored discourses of Asian ties initiated by Japan in three epochs; in the 19th century facing Western invasion, in the 1930s during imperial war and in 1990s promoting trans-nationalism in Asia (Han 2005; Dao 2000). Yet, common experiences in East Asia were imposed by imperial order of Ancient China without reaching to popular culture and life world of ordinary people. The latter are at most mobilized to frequent war and victimized by foreign invasions. Additionally, Japanese initiation of Asian ties threatened many Asian people due to Japanese imperial history in the early 20th century. Despite the fact that Asian community has no substantial basis of desiring communal identity, Hallyu stimulates a sense of Asian identity in a certain degree as shown in this audience research. However imaginative, Chinese and Japanese people rediscover Asian identity while watching Korean TV dramas. Audiences in both countries found traditional values in Korean historical dramas which have been largely lost in the process of modernization. Korean historical dramas stimulate remembrance of the golden age for Asian audiences. They identify it with Confucianism and humanism whichever may not be true in reality. This is inspired by collective desire to delineate self and others while consolidating internal self. Korean dramas illustrate an example of balanced development between tradition and modernity which may not be always the case in reality. Korean historical dramas emphasize care and respect mediated by tight social ties in family, nation and so forth more than social achievement and authority. Asian audiences are satisfied with moral superiority and ultimate victory

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