International Conference on Underground Space Technology

Technical Papers

IMPACT OF UNDERGROUND SPACE CONSTRUCTION ON WATER ENVIRONMENT by Piyush Gupta and Surendra Roy Scientists, National Institute of Rock Mechanics, Kolar Gold Fields, India Abstract Groundwater is a good source of potable water. Construction of underground space deteriorates the ground water quality and depletes its quantity due to dewatering. Dewatering affects nearby existing wells, springs and other water bodies. Lowering of water table causes intrusion of sea water as well as effluents of industrial activities existing around the construction site. Construction activities generate fines, which add total suspended solids to the water being discharged on the surface. When sulphide minerals are present in underground space, it can cause acid mine drainage problems. Even after construction of underground space, loss of groundwater from the surface takes place through capillary action. During underground space construction, excavated materials are kept in the form of dumps, which deteriorate the groundwater quality due to leaching of toxic materials present in the wastes and also pollute nearby surface water sources in the form of runoff during precipitation. An underground space can also interrupt the flow in the aquifer which can cause death of vegetation existing on the ground surface. This paper describes the various activities which impact the ground water and surface water during underground space construction. Pumped out water can be used to recharge the aquifer for protection of water table. Contaminated water can be treated using slow sand filtration, gravity clarifiers, etc. to make it suitable for domestic purpose. Some pollutants like acidity, dissolved and suspended substances can be removed by neutralization; mechanical dewatering, sedimentation, etc. The details of water treatment methods are explained in this paper. 1.0 Introduction

Water is one of the most stable compounds as well as a universal solvent. The total water available on globe about 98% is not suitable for human consumption out of remaining part, 2.0959% remains locked in ice caps & glaciers, soil moisture and atmospheric vapor though ultimately comes to human use, cannot be directly used for consumption. Only the water in fresh water lakes and stream channels can be readily collected and used for human consumption. Hence, water suitable for human consumption is a rare commodity (Ghosh and Chatterjee, 2004). Groundwater is an important hidden resource for water use. In many parts of the world, the populations of the regions rely on groundwater supplies since surface water resources such as lakes and river are scarce. Subsurface water resources have been particularly utilized in the areas of low rainfall and alluvial low land coastal plains. In the drier and more inland parts of the world, groundwater is also a major source of fresh water available for agriculture, mining including other domestic activities apart from human consumption. Pumping of groundwater solves many immediate problems but there have been many negative effects of pumping such as pollution of aquifers, seawater intrusion and so on (Tularam and Krishna, 2009). The term underground or subsurface space refers to any space that is below ground level, whilst surface space is above ground level. For millennia, man has made use of the subsurface, initially with natural caves for shelter. Many examples now exist of subsurface structures constructed for

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varying purposes including transport, car parking, offices, accommodation, manufacturing, retail outlets, museums, libraries, housing, jails, defense facilities, entertainment facilities, disposal by burial, through mining to create space and more recently, by increasing use of the pore space in sedimentary rocks to store gas and fluids (Evans et al., 2009). Deep underground, collocated deployment of nuclear power reactors and the nuclear waste management facilities supporting those reactors. This concept is termed the underground nuclear park (UNP). In addition, a UNP provides a high level of protection against natural phenomena such as extreme weather events (e.g. Tornados) and earthquakes (Myers and Elkins, 2009). Construction of underground space can solve these problems, but it may impact the underground water environment by leaching of overburdens, toxic mine effluents, leakage of nuclear waste materials, etc. This paper deals with types of underground space causing impact on water, pollutants generated, mitigative measures during construction and treatment of waste water. 2.0 Environmental Regulations

There are many environmental laws and regulations governing tunneling activities and to a larger extent the construction industry in general, necessitating the implementation of the best available technologies to minimize the impact on the environment (Fong et al., 1995). Usually groundwater is considered as potable source of water. Underground space construction not only contaminates the groundwater quality but also generate waste water which is pumped out on the surface. To maintain the water quality for groundwater and effluent the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has made guidelines for drinking water and effluent as IS:10500 (1991) and IS:2490 (1993) respectively. Effluent parameters should be within prescribed norms before discharging the waste water into sewer. 3.0 3.1 Underground space and their impacts on water Mining

Mining is carried out for the extraction of minerals. During process of mining huge amounts of water are discharged on surface to facilitate the mining operation (Tiwary et al., 2001). It discharges millions litres of water every day to the adjacent water courses and causing water pollution problems in and around the mining areas (Ghosh and Chatterjee, 2004). The hydrologic regime of alluvial systems and wetlands can be affected by underground mine dewatering, which may impact productivity, wildlife habitat, and other functions. The quantity is also affected due to lowering the water table in the aquifer (Blodgett and Kuipers, 2002). Groundwater seeping into the mine can contact fresh rock surfaces that may contain reactive and soluble minerals. When groundwater passes through highly mineralized rock in a mined area it can pick up large metals concentrations. There is usually a direct relationship between the depth of mining and the resulting static water level because as the mine goes deeper the water level decline. Water levels will also decline relative to the location of the mine both aerially and vertically relative to recharge/discharge sources (Blodgett and Kuipers, 2002). Groundwater can be affected by mine subsidence in various ways, including lowering of ground water levels, changes in flow rates and impacts to water quality. Lowering of groundwater levels may decrease the groundwater supply and result in the decrease or loss of well water, and decreased surface transmission to springs, seeps and other surface water sources (streams, lakes and ponds). Alteration of water quality is caused by changes in the chemical reactions and reaction

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rates with the minerals or surrounding strata. The high rate of occurrence of acid drainage and associated metals contamination associated with mining operations is recognized as a major adverse consequence of many hard-rock metals mining operations (Blodgett and Kuipers, 2002). A major water pollution problem in mining areas also occurs due to the erosion of mine benches, over burden, mineral, rejects dumps and tailing dams. The blasted material in over-burden and mineral benches contain fine particles which are also carried away by rain water. Sediment carrying effluents causes siltation of agricultural fields, choking of streams and rivers on the downstream side of the mine. Damage to water table (WT) occurs due to alteration of topography by excavation and overburden (OB) dumping. Loss of groundwater through capillary rise because of higher evaporation of soil moisture through exposed land surface generated due to mining (Ghosh and Chatterjee, 2004). Salt scalding occurs because of lowering water table. People use water from deeper aquifers and this water had been in residence with the strata for longer times (under higher temperature and pressure condition) and it allows greater amounts of dissolved solids to be incorporated into it. This process is called salt scalding. Sea water intrusion takes place when huge pumping out of groundwater is carried out near the coastal regions and it results intrusion of sea water (Ghosh and Chatterjee, 2004). 3.2 Tunneling

Tunneling creates an enormous opening which attracts groundwater seepage from the surrounding rock mass. Natural environments and watershed are also changed due to tunnel construction. Tunnels are excavated in a complex of intrusives and metamorphics in which the occurrence and movement of groundwater occurs within fractures and the storage capacity is relatively small (Attanayake and Waterman, 2006). Tunnels are likely to be filled with dirt and concrete during the construction work (Chung et al., 2007). Sediment is the most visible contaminant and can be considered a major pollutant to receiving waters. The effects of excessive sediment loading on receiving waters can include the destruction of aquatic habitat, deterioration of aesthetic value, loss of storage capacity of reservoirs and accumulation of bottom deposits that inhibit normal biological life. Groundwater level is changed due to seepage into tunnel (Attanayake and Waterman, 2006). Tunnel excavation affects the behavior of groundwater level around tunnel (Chung et al., 2007). The short-term and the long-term drawdown can affect vegetation, groundwater supply and chemistry. Large scale tunnel excavation is being accomplished in every year because of industrial development and road expansions. Such tunnel excavation changes environment of underground water level in corresponding area and causes various civil affair in neighborhood due to decrease of groundwater (Chung et al., 2007). 4.0 Pollutants generated due to underground space construction

The discharged water from underground space often contains high load of total suspended solids (TSS), total dissolved solids (TDS), hardness and heavy metals, which contaminates surface and groundwater. Sometimes it is acidic in nature and pollutes the water regime. Major contaminants affecting the quality of the tunnel discharge include particle fines, oil and grease and pH. Tiwary et al. (2001) stated that typical effluents from tunnel construction comprise TSS 25 to 50 ppm, Oil and grease from 1 to 10 ppm and pH from 6.5 to 9.0. Indian standards for water quality parameters are mentioned in Table 1 and activities generating water pollutants are given in Table 2.

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4.1

Sources of TSS

Tunneling is a complicated operation which includes many activities that create large quantities of fine particles. Excavation by Tunnel Boring Machine grouting and concreting operations all contribute to the quantity of fines in the tunnel discharge. Of these activities, rock excavation is perhaps the most predominant factor in the generation of fines (Fong et al., 1995). Even if the tunnel heading is relatively dry, cutting of the rock face creates fines that are controlled either by spraying water at the heading or by proper ventilation. The wash water, mixed with the groundwater, is conveyed to the shaft bottom. Rock dust also accumulates in the tunnel ventilation scrubber and may be washed into the environment during backwash or maintenance period (Fong et al., 1995). In case of coal mining, TSS normally contains high amount of fine coal particles and makes surface water blackish and reduces aesthetic values of receiving water bodies (Tiwary et al., 2001). Solids contained in the tunnel discharge usually consist of sand, finely divided silt and clay particles. Sand particles are deposited almost immediately in quiet waters. Silt and clay size particles travel longer distances and represent the greatest potential impact to the environment (Fong et al., 1995). 4.2 Sources of Oil and Grease

The Tunnel Boring Machine is a major piece of mechanical equipment with the tanks which hold many gallons of hydraulic oil and lube oil. Daily maintenance work is generally performed on the TBM as well as on the other major pieces of equipment. Some loss of oil and grease during maintenance or during the mining cycle is unavoidable. Diesel locomotives traveling in the tunnel can also be another source of oil and grease contamination. The normal untreated oil and grease content in the discharge varies from 10 to 100 ppm (Fong et al., 1995). 4.3 Sources of pH

Generally pH of water is influenced by geology of catchments area and buffering capacity of water (Shyamala et al., 2008). Low pH is associated with higher acidity and a heightened activity of the hydrogen ion. The most common cause of acidity in water is carbon dioxide, which forms carbonic acid when mixed with water. Alkaline salts are very common in nature; most groundwater is more or less alkaline with a pH greater than 7. Therefore, it is reasonable to expect that tunnel discharges are slightly more alkaline. However, siliceous hard rock such as granite, gneiss and quartizites is resistant to weathering and is generally surrounded by waters that contain very low concentrations of alkaline compounds. Grouting operations affects the pH of the discharge. Cement grout is usually a sodium silicate polyurethane base. Application of these products generally increases the alkalinity of the water (Fong et al., 1995). Table 1: Bureau of Indian Standards Drinking water standards Parameters S. No. IS: 10500 (1991) 1 pH 6.5 to 8.5 2 TSS (mg/L) 3 Oil & Grease (mg/L) -

Effluent standards IS: 2490 (1993) 5.5 to 9.0 100 10

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Table 2: Details of water pollutants generated from various activities of underground mines Nature of mining Activity/ Source Strata water Water from stowing Water from surface Others UG sources Pollutants Suspended solids, dissolved solids, heavy metals and change in pH Suspended solids and dissolved solids Suspended solids, dissolved solids, chemicals & fertilizers, bacteria, change in pH Suspended solids, dissolved solids, oil & grease, organic matter, bacteria

Underground (UG) mining

5.0 5.1

Preventive / Mitigative measures during underground space construction Groundwater flow preservation measures

Akagi (2003) reported that in order to prevent problems associated with groundwater flow interruption, groundwater flow preservation measures must be employed. With these measures, the interrupted water collected upstream is drained through pipes laid in or beneath the structure and is recharged downstream. The following procedure is used: a) After the completion of the underground structure, parts of the cut-off walls are removed, so that transmissivity through the aquifer can occur. b) After the completion of the underground structure, horizontal holes are drilled in the cut-off wall and intake and recharge pipes are installed into the aquifer from the holes. c) During the construction of braced wall, the functions of intake and the recharge of water are provided in the wall. d) Intake and recharge wells are installed outside the walls; some space is therefore required for this installation to take place. 5.2 Control of groundwater discharge

Chatopadhyay (1994) suggested that if the hydro-geological investigations indicate the possibility of high groundwater inflow during the process of drivage, than the following measures are taken to overcome the same:5.2.1 Pre drainage of the proposed site of excavation A series of borewells are drilled from surface around the periphery of the proposed excavation the diameter and spacing of such borewells are determined by the possible rate of inflow into the proposed excavation and the rate of pumping. This is resorted to when the proposed excavation is not very deep seated (normally within 200m from surface). It may appear to be expensive to begin with but it saves a lot in terms of rapid excavation, stability and safety of any large sized excavation as in case of caverns.

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5.2.2

Advance drainage to control water in development headings driven in highly permeable rocks A system of fan-shaped overlapping holes is drilled at suitable intervals (2-5m) ahead of the face with an advance cover of 1 m to control water. When structures containing water are expected during tunneling, it is advisable to stop the face 40-60 m before the anticipated position of the structures and drill boreholes in advance to tap the structure and drain it. The headings, that are likely to intersect such structures, should be driven at right angles to the strike of such structures and any intersection of the headings at low angle to the long axis of the structure should be avoided.

5.2.3

Cementation and grouting The flow of water into excavations can be reduced by cementing or grouting the rock surrounding it (Attanayake and waterman, 2006; Chatopadhyay, 1994). This process relies on plugging the fractures and reducing the overall porosity of the system by filling the passages with an impervious material, usually cement but also certain chemicals and organic resins. It also helps in increasing the strength of the rock and thereby reduces erosion/failures. The method involves drilling a set of holes at suitable intervals and pumping the grout material into the holes sequentially. According to a predetermined pattern, making sure that the grout enters the fracture spaces but does not cause additional fractures as result of the hydraulic pressure of grouting. The most commonly used grout materials are clay, Portland cement, chemical grouts, etc. Clay and cement are the cheapest, while chemical resin grouts are almost 10 to 100 times costlier. Chemical grouts are used to seal only small areas or after treatment with cement grouts.

5.3

Planned drainage in tunneling

Chatopadhyay (1994) suggested the following advance planning for effective drainage of the tunnel faces in a project: 5.3.1 Gradient in favour for gravitational flow This can be designed at the beginning for all the drivages and their meeting points. A natural upgrade driving at 1 in 500 to 1 in 200 (max) can take care of normal flow of water, efficient transport of material to surface (either by hand tramming of tubs or loco tramming) and prevention of water logging at the junction of two or more headings in case of connected drivages. 5.3.2 Drains of appropriate size The cross-section of the drain, cut on the one sides of the tunnel, should be sufficient to carry the projected quantity of water (seepage/predrained/advance drainage and the water used for drilling/dust suppression). It is a good practice to line the drains and keep them covered with pre-cast slabs so that these do not get filled up by the broken material and it could be cleaned of at intervals. Covered drains with feeder channels (provided with wire mesh) at intervals help to keep the water out of the normal ventilation circuit and make it possible to control the humidity of the ventilation air.

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5.3.3

Desludging of water Water emanating from the strata or the water used in operations normally contains lot of mud/sludge, which tends to settle at all points, where ever there is some reduction in velocity or blockage due to movement of men and machinery on its way. This chokes the normal passage of the fresh water being released by the strata/operations, makes the whole passage slushy and shabby for all purposes.

5.3.4

Piping of heavy inflow Where the discharge of water if found to be quite high, especially in advance or pre drainage situations, it is far more convenient and cheaper to pipe out such heavy discharge directly to surface. This helps to keep long stretches of the tunnel free from slush or flash water accumulation and reduces the humidity of the underground environment.

6.0

Treatment of waste water

Since the toxic metals and other substances are usually either absent or at insignificant concentration levels in underground coal mine waters, the major treatment needs to remove and control suspended matter and bacteria. In special cases of hard water, softening by lime soda process can also be supplemented. 6.1 Singh (2000) suggested general treatment scheme for treatment of waste water which is shown in Figure 1.
Distribution Reservoir Back Coagulation Flocculating Tank Aeration Mixing Tank Pump Sludge Sludge Drying Bed Wash Chlorine Tank

Pressure Filter

Chlorination Tank Pump Distribution Network

Mine Sump

Figure 1: General treatment scheme for the waste water Coagulants such as lime and alum are introduced into the inlet of a small mixing tank prior to entering the pyramidal flocculating settling tanks. Sludge produced in the settlement tank is drawn off frequently. After settlement the effluent is passed through enclosed pressure filters. Following pressure filtration, chlorine is added to the water in a small tank and finally potable water results for distribution to customers. 6.2 Treatment for Acid Mine Drainage

Acid mine drainage (AMD) refers to the distinctive type of waste water originates from the weathering and leaching of sulphide minerals present in coal and metalliferous ore bodies and

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overburdens (Singh, 2000). In underground mines, groundwater infiltrates into the mine and comes into the contact of pyritic coal and thus forms AMD (Tiwary et al., 2001). Effects of AMD related water pollution include the killing of fish and loss of other aquatic life and corrosion of mining equipment and structures such as barges, bridges and concrete materials (Singh, 2000). But, in metal mining areas effluent is highly acidic, reddish brown in colour and has very high concentration of sulphate and iron and often contains significant concentrations of manganese, nickel, lead, zinc, cobalt and cadmium. General water quality characteristics of mine water is high in acidity and high hardness along with high iron and sulphate contents. Acidic waters to be used for industrial and other purposes or before discharging are usually treated by neutralization. A treatment scheme is shown in Figure 2 (Singh, 2000).
Air Limestone

AMD

Flow Balancing

Biochemical

Sedimentation

Limestone Neutralization

Treated Effluent
Sedimentation

Active Sludge Sludge Filtration

Waste

Figure 2: Treatment scheme for acid mine water Understanding the quantity and quality of the tunnel discharge is only the first step in designing and constructing a water treatment facility. Once the characteristics of the discharges are understood, water treatment techniques can be selected for the range of flows to achieve removal of suspended solids, oil and grease and for balancing the pH of the discharge (Fong et al., 1995). 6.3 Treatment for TSS

High amount of TSS in mine water and workshop effluent can be removed by allowing the discharged water into a series of settling tanks (Tiwary et al., 2001). Different methods for TSS removal are as under: 6.3.1 Sedimentation Ponds Single or multi stage sedimentation ponds have been used extensively in the past to facilitate the setting of suspended solids in tunnel discharges. Separation is accomplished by detaining the flow stream for a sufficient time to permit particles to settle out. Theoretically, the efficiency of the settlement pond depends on the discharge rate of the inflow and the area of the settling basin. It is influenced by density of solids and thermal currents, surface wind conditions, design of inlet and outlet controls, solid characteristics and chemical additions. Bureau of reclamation suggests sedimentation ponds do not effectively treat finely suspended material unless large quantities of chemical precipitating agents are used. For the tunneling projects in sedimentary rocks, sedimentation pond effectiveness in eliminating fines from tunnel discharges varies from 10 to 80 percent (Fong et al., 1995).

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6.3.2

Gravity clarifiers In many ways a gravity clarifier functions the same as to a multilevel sedimentation pond. Better utilization of an existing sedimentation basin can be obtained by subdividing it vertically through the addition of horizontal trays. The subdivision increases the basin area, and also dramatically reduces the settling distance which the suspended solids must travel. The trays are designed at an inclined angle (typically 45 to 55 degrees) to facilitate the accumulation of the sludge as it rolls down the inclines surface to the bottom. Such devices have been used extensively in industrial applications. Efficiency for solids removal varies from 80 to 99.8 percent, depending upon the type of application (Fong et al., 1995).

6.3.3

Granular filters This technique involves passing the contaminated water through a series of filters. Adsorption is dependent on the physical characteristics of the suspended solids and the filter media. It is a function of the filter media, grain size, chemical characteristics of the suspended solids and the water. Both silica sand and crushed anthracite are typically used as filter media. They are periodically cleaned by backwashing with water or air. Sand filters have been used for many years as a final polishing step in municipal and industrial water and waste water treatment plants, where TSS effluent limits in the range of 5 to 20 ppm are required. The granular filter is one of the most common techniques available that will consistently produce an effluent in compliance with these stringent National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) limits (Fong et al., 1995).

6.4

Control measures for Oil and Grease

Oil and grease can be controlled by proper bunding of oil storage and workshop areas, efficient oil/water separator equipment in the site drainage system, areas to be bunded to prevent oil from escaping, waste oils should be collected for recycling or proper disposal, Oil contaminated soils should be removed for proper disposal and treatment (such as bioremediation). Waste effluent should be stored in the series of settling tank provided with proper aeration system i.e. mechanical oil separator (Tiwary et al., 2001). 6.5 General Treatment Method

Ghosh and Chatterjee (2004) suggested that, depending upon the characteristics of the pumped out waste waters and the quality requirement, the water pollution control and management strategies are planned. The various methodologies that can be used in water and effluent treatment are as listed hereunder: 1. Control of suspended solids - Mechanical separation, Centrifuges, Cyclones, Screening, Filtering, Thickening, Inclined plate settlers, Flocculation, Floatation, Floto-flocculation and Settling ponds. 2. Control of dissolved solids Neutralization, Adsorption, Ion-exchange, Reverse osmosis and Freezing. 3. Control of bacteria Disinfection.

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7.0

Conclusions

Discharge of million litres of water during mining not only reduces the quantity of water in surrounding area but also pollute surface water bodies due to presence of soluble minerals, suspended particulate matter, acidic mine drainage, etc. Salt scalding and sea water intrusion also takes place during underground space construction, which contaminates groundwater. Sediment damages agricultural land and aquatic life, choke rivers and streams, deteriorate aesthetic views and causes siltation in water bodies. An adequate control measures during construction phase are more beneficial to protect the impacts on groundwater and surface water. Some researchers have observed pH, total suspended solids, oil and grease, hardness, etc. as major contaminants in waste water discharge during underground space construction. But nature of effluent generated may vary from one construction site to others due to different types of rock, aquifer, geological features, other industrial activities around the project site, etc. Therefore, all the water quality parameters of the effluent generated should be examined for the selection of suitable treatment methods. Acknowledgements The authors are thankful to Dr. G.R Adhikari, HoD, TCPMD and Environmental Engineering Department, National Institute of Rock Mechanics for his encouragement. We are also thankful to the Director, National Institute of Rock Mechanics for his permission to publish this paper. References Akagi, H. (2004) Geotechnical aspects of current underground construction in Japan, Journal of the Japanese Geotechnical Society of Soils and Foundations 44 (1), pp. 9-19. Attanayake, P.M. and Waterman, M.K. (2006) Identifying environmental impacts of underground construction, Hydrogeology Journal 14, pp. 1160-1170. Blodgett, S.M.S. and Kuipers, J.R.P.E. (2002) Technical Report on Underground Hard Rock Mining: Subsidence and Hydrologic Environmental Impacts, Center for Science in Public Participation, Bozeman, MT. Chattopadhyay, J. (1994) Groundwater and drainage during tunneling and underground excavations, Workshop on Rock Mechanics Applications in Hydroelectric projects with special reference to Srisailam project, conducted by SLBHES, Srisailam. Chung, M.I., Lee, Y.S., Kwon, Y.W. and Yu, J. (2007) Environmental impacts of groundwater due to tunneling operations, (eds. Eberhardt, E., Stead, D. and Morrison, T.), Rock Mechanics: Meeting society Challenges and Demands, Proceedings of the 1st Canada US Rock Mechanics symposium, Vancouver, Canada, Taylor & Francis, May 27-31, pp. 11871192. Evans, D., Stephenson, M. and Shaw, R. (2009) The present and future use of land below ground, Land Use Policy 26S, S302S316.

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Fong, F.L., Lundin T.K. and Pappas, J.A. (1995) Environmental impact of groundwater discharge during tunnel construction, (eds. Williamson, G.E. and Gowring, I.M.), RETC Proceedings, San Francisco, California, pp. 319-331. Ghosh, R. and Chatterjee, B.S (2004) Environmental Geology, Geo-Ecosystem Protection in Mining Areas (Chapters 6 & 8), Capital Publishing Company, New Delhi, India. IS: 10500 (1991) Indian Standard for Drinking Water-Specification, BIS, New Delhi, India. IS: 2490 (1993) General Standards for Discharge of Environmental Pollutants (Effluents) Part-A, BIS, New Delhi, India. Myers, C.W. and Elkins, N.Z. (2009) Underground collocation of nuclear power reactors and repository to facilitate the post renaissance expansion of nuclear power - 9113, WM2009 Conference, Phoenix AZ, March 1-5. Shyamala. R., Shanthi, M., and Lalitha, P. (2008) Physicochemical analysis of borewell water samples of Telungupalayam area in Coimbatore district, Tamilnadu, India, E-Journal of Chemistry, 5(4), pp. 924-929. Singh, G. (2000) Water pollution Issues and Management Strategies in Mining Areas, Industry Environment and Pollution, (eds. Kumar, A. and Goel, P.K.), ABD Publisher, Jaipur (India), pp. 225-238. Tiwary R.K. (2001) Environmental impact of coal mining on water regime and its management, Water, Air and Soil Pollution 132, pp.185-199. Tularam, G.A. and Krishna, M. (2009) Long term consequences of groundwater pumping in Australia: A review of impacts around the globe, Journal of Applied Sciences in Environmental Sanitation, 4(2), pp.151-166.

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