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Electronics Manufacturing
Industry Description and Practices sides), and multilayer (three or more circuit lay-
ers). Board manufacturing is accomplished by
The electronics industry includes the manufac- producing patterns of conductive material on a
ture of passive components (resistors, capacitors, nonconductive substrate by subtractive or addi-
inductors); semiconductor components (discretes, tive processes. (The conductor is usually copper;
integrated circuits); printed circuit boards (single the base can be pressed epoxy, Teflon, or glass.)
and multilayer boards); and printed wiring assem- In the subtractive process, which is the preferred
blies. This chapter addresses the environmental route, the steps include cleaning and surface
issues associated with the last three manufactur- preparation of the base, electroless copperplating,
ing processes. The manufacture of passive com- pattern printing and masking, electroplating, and
ponents is not included because it is similar to etching.
that of semiconductors. (A difference is that pas- Printed wiring assemblies. Printed wiring assem-
sive component manufacturing uses less of the blies consist of components attached to one or
toxic chemicals employed in doping semiconduc- both sides of the printed circuit board. The at-
tor components and more organic solvents, ep- tachment may be by through-hole technology, in
oxies, plating metals, coatings, and lead.) which the ”legs” of the components are inserted
Semiconductors. Semiconductors are produced through holes in the board and are soldered in
by treating semiconductor substances with place from underneath, or by surface mount tech-
dopants such as boron or phosphorus atoms to nology (SMT), in which components are attached
give them electrical properties. Important semi- to the surface by solder or conductive adhesive.
conductor substances are silicon and gallium ar- (The solder is generally a tin-lead alloy.) In
senide. Manufacturing stages include crystal printed circuit boards of all types, drilled holes
growth; acid etch and epitaxy formation; doping may have to be copper-plated to ensure intercon-
and oxidation; diffusion and ion implantation; nections between the different copper layers.
metallization; chemical vapor deposition; die SMT, which eliminates the drilled holes, allows
separation; die attachment; postsolder cleaning; much denser packing of components, especially
wire bonding; encapsulation packaging; and fi- when components are mounted on both sides. It
nal testing, marking, and packaging. Several of also offers higher-speed performance and is gain-
these process steps are repeated several times, ing over through-hole technology.
so the actual length of the production chain may
well exceed 100 processing steps. Between the Waste Characteristics
repetitions, a cleaning step that contributes to the
amount of effluent produced by the process is Air Emissions
often necessary. Production involves carcinogenic
and mutagenic substances and should therefore Potential air emissions from semiconductor manu-
be carried out in closed systems. facturing include toxic, reactive, and hazardous
Printed circuit board (PCB) manufacturing. There gases; organic solvents; and particulates from the
are three types of boards: single sided (circuits process. The changing of gas cylinders may also
on one side only), double sided (circuits on both result in fugitive emissions of gases. Chemicals
302
Electronics Manufacturing 303
in use may include hydrogen, silane, arsine, phos- Solid and Hazardous Wastes
phine, diborane, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen
fluoride, dichlorosilane, phosphorous oxychlo- Solid and hazardous wastes from semiconductor
ride, and boron tribromide. manufacture may include heavy metals, solder
Potential air emissions from the manufacture dross (solder pot skimmings), arsenic, spent ep-
of printed circuit boards include sulfuric, hydro- oxy, and waste organic solvents (contributing the
chloric, phosphoric, nitric, acetic, and other ac- largest volume of waste). In printed circuit board
ids; chlorine; ammonia; and organic solvent operations, solid wastes may include scrap board
vapors (isopropanol, acetone, trichloroethylene; materials, plating and hydroxide sludges, and
n-butyl acetate; xylene; petroleum distillates; and inks. In the manufacture of printed wiring assem-
ozone-depleting substances). blies, solid wastes may include solder dross, scrap
In the manufacture of printed wiring assemblies, boards, components, organic solvents, and met-
air emissions may include organic solvent vapors als. Boards may also be treated with brominated
and fumes from the soldering process, including flame retardants, which may pose some environ-
aldehydes, flux vapors, organic acids, and so on. mental risk when boards are disposed of in land-
Throughout the electronics manufacturing fills. All conventional electronics present
sector, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) have been a additional hazards in landfills because of the
preferred organic solvent for a variety of appli- presence of lead in cathode-ray tube envelopes
cations. CFCs are ozone-depleting substances and in solder, as well as lead and other metal salts,
(ODSs). Their production in and import into de- particularly if they have not been cleaned in a
veloping countries will soon be banned. postsoldering operation.
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) have been All three manufacturing processes may gen-
developed as a substitute for CFCs, but they too erate sludges containing heavy metals from
are ODSs and will be phased out. Methyl chloro- wastewater treatment plants. Organic solvent
form, another organic solvent, has also been used residues also require management and disposal.
by the electronics industry; it too is an ODS and
is being eliminated globally on the same sched- Pollution Prevention and Control
ule as CFCs. Chlorobromomethane and n-propyl
bromide are also unacceptable because of their Semiconductor Industry
high ozone-depleting potential.
Measures such as plasma etching of silicon ni-
Effluents tride (a dry process) in metal oxide semiconduc-
tor (MOS) technology replace the hot corrosive
Effluents from the manufacture of semiconductors phosphoric acid (H3PO4) wet process and offer
may have a low pH from hydrofluoric, hydro- reductions in generated waste and better safety
chloric, and sulfuric acids (the major contribu- for workers while reducing the number of pro-
tors to low pH) and may contain organic solvents, cessing steps. Because of the reaction of the
phosphorous oxychloride (which decomposes in plasma with the substrate, several substances are
water to form phosphoric and hydrochloric ac- formed that are regarded as carcinogenic or mu-
ids), acetate, metals, and fluorides. tagenic and that may pose a danger to mainte-
Effluents from the manufacture of printed cir- nance personnel. Risks are minimized by
cuit boards may contain organic solvents, vinyl sweeping equipment with nitrogen before open-
polymers; stannic oxide; metals such as copper, ing it. A gas mask with breathing equipment
nickel, iron, chromium, tin, lead, palladium, and should be worn by personnel during repair and
gold; cyanides (because some metals may be maintenance.
complexed with chelating agents); sulfates; fluo-
rides and fluoroborates; ammonia; and acids. Printed Circuit Board Manufacturing
Effluents from printed wiring assemblies may
contain acids, alkalis, fluxes, metals, organic sol- A number of process alternatives exist for the
vents, and, where electroplating is involved, manufacture of printed circuit boards. These in-
metals, fluorides, cyanides, and sulfates. clude:
304 PROJECT GUIDELINES: INDUSTRY SECTOR GUIDELINES
gies should be considered where available. Sol- vironmental assessment (EA) process on the ba-
der dross should not be sent to landfills. (Waste sis of country legislation and the Pollution Pre-
can be sent to suppliers or approved waste recy- vention and Abatement Handbook, as applied to
clers for recovery of the lead and tin content of local conditions. The emissions levels selected
the dross.) Scrap boards and assemblies having must be justified in the EA and acceptable to the
soldered components should have their compo- World Bank Group.
nents and solder connections removed before The guidelines given below present emissions
they are sent to landfills or recycled for other uses. levels normally acceptable to the World Bank
Group in making decisions regarding provision
Treatment Technologies of World Bank Group assistance. Any deviations
from these levels must be described in the World
Wet scrubbers, point-of-use control systems, and Bank Group project documentation. The emis-
volatile organic compound (VOC) control units sions levels given here can be consistently
are used to control toxic and hazardous emissions achieved by well-designed, well-operated, and
of the chemicals used in semiconductor manu- well-maintained pollution control systems.
facturing. It is often appropriate to scrub acid and The guidelines are expressed as concentrations
alkaline waste gases in separate scrubbers be- to facilitate monitoring. Dilution of air emissions
cause different scrubber liquids can then be used, or effluents to achieve these guidelines is un-
resulting in higher removal efficiencies. acceptable.
Air emission concentrations of chemicals such All of the maximum levels should be achieved
as arsine, diborane, phosphine, silane, and other for at least 95% of the time that the plant or unit
chemicals used in the process should be reduced is operating, to be calculated as a proportion of
below worker health levels for plant operations. annual operating hours.
Because of the many chemicals used in the elec-
tronics industry, wastewater segregation simpli- Air Emissions
fies waste treatment and allows recovery and
reuse of materials. Organic wastes are collected The air emissions levels presented in Table 1
separately from wastewater systems. (Note that should be achieved.
solvent used in the semiconductor industry
cannot be readily recycled because much of it
Liquid Effluents
is generated from complex mixtures such as pho-
toresist.) Acids and alkalis are sent to onsite
wastewater treatment facilities for neutralization, The effluent levels presented in Table 2 should
after segregation of heavy-metal-bearing streams be achieved.
for separate treatment. Fluoride-bearing streams
in a semiconductor plant are segregated and Ambient Noise
treated on site or sent off site for treatment or
disposal. Treatment steps for effluents from the Noise abatement measures should achieve either
electronics industry may include precipitation, the levels given below or a maximum increase in
coagulation, sedimentation, sludge dewatering, background levels of 3 decibels (measured on the
ion exchange, filtering, membrane purification
and separation, and neutralization, depending on Table 1. Air Emissions from Electronics
the particular stream. Sanitary wastes are treated Manufacturing
separately (primary and secondary treatment (milligrams per normal cubic meter)