Introduction To Routing: Purposes

Purposes
l What is routing control?

Introduction to routing
∼Basics of designing the networks ∼ l Why is routing control necessary?
l How can routing control be effectively applied

for network design?
21, December, 2000
Internet Initiative Japan, Inc.

Jiro Yamaguchi (jiro-y@iij.ad.jp)
2000/12/21 Copyright © 2000 Internet Initiative Japan Inc. 1 2000/12/21 Copyright © 2000 Internet Initiative Japan Inc. 2
Notation of a network
Contents
l Roles of a data link layer and a network layer
l Differences among hubs, switches, and
routers
l Static routing and dynamic routing
l The operating principles of dynamic routing
l backup and balancing using dynamic routing
H R H
l Network design
l A hub or a switch is described, using a single line.
l Address allocation policies
l A host is described as H, and a router is described as R.
l In the explanation, Layer 3 switches are not discriminated
from routers.
OSI reference model and TCP /IP

Data link frame and routing
l The roles of a data link layer and a network OSI reference model TCP /IP
layer are explained. ７ Application layer
l Why are the addresses for both MAC address ６ Presentation layer HTTP, SMTP, etc.
(Ethernet address) and IP address required? ５ Session layer
l Why is routing necessary? ４ Transport layer TCP and UDP
３ Network layer IP
l Why can communications be achieved
without routing? ２ data link layer
Ethernet, FDDI, ATM, etc.
１ Physical layer
ＯＳＩlayer
Layer 2 ：Data link layer
Layer 3 ：Network layer
1
IP datagram which flows on Ethernet Connected network
l A and B are directly connected to the same network.
– Possesses the correspondence table of MAC address and IP
C D address by ARP (address resolution protocol), etc.
To C ↓
Ethernet
To A l This is called “connected.”
↓
A B
l No needs to set up routing. Communications can be
Recipient Sender
achieved when a hub and the like are connected.
A’s MAC address B’s MAC address FCS Data link frame
Header Data Frame Check Sequence
A connected B
Sender Recipient
B’s IP address A’s IP address IP datagram Network X
Header Data
Not connected R
Network Y
C D
How does a connected network How does a connected network

look like from network layer -１ look like from network layer -２
l Address of A l Address of A
– 192.168.1.1/24 – 192.168.1.1/24
l Connected address space from the viewpoint of A l Connected address space from the viewpoint of A
– 192.168.1.0 to 192.168.1.255 – 192.168.1.0 to 192.168.1.255
l Allocate the address to B, selecting from
192.168.1.2 to 192.168.1.254 l Allocate the address to B, excluding the ones
– Allocate 192.168.1.2 to B from 192.168.1.2 to 192.168.1.254
– Communications can be achieved between A and B – No communications can be achieved between A and B
Uncommunicable
A Communicable B
A B
192.168.1.0/24
192.168.1.1/24 192.168.1.2/24 192.168.1.1/24 172.16.1.1/16
Unconnected network -１ Unconnected network -２

l Set up routing
l As A and C are separately connected to different – A: Route network Y to R
networks, they are unconnected. – C: Route network X to R
l Without setting up routing, no communications can l By doing so, mutual communications between A and C can
be achieved between A and C. be achieved.
– R is connected with both A and C, therefore, communications
Routing table of A Routing table of C can be achieved when addresses are set up.
Routing table of A Routing table of C
Destination Next Hop Reachability Destination Next Hop Reachability Destination Next Hop Reachability Destination Next Hop Reachability
X Connected Reachable X No Unr X Connected Reachable X R Reachable
Y No Unr Y Connected Reachable Y R Reachable Y Connected Reachable
[訳注：1]
A B A B
network Y
Network X Network X
Uncommunicable R Communicable R
Network Y network X Network Y

C D C D
2
The status of the data link frame Summary of the network terminology
MAC address IP address l Destination, or Recipient Address
– Means a destination. In a network, it is literally handled as the
A E-Dest E-S r c IP -S r c IP -Dest
destination address, or the recipient address. “Destination” is
XA IA frequently used as what it is, without being translated into
XR XA IA IC Data FCS Japanese. In the case of routing, “Destination” refers to the
XR IR０ network information which includes mask information as well as
address.
R
YR IR1 YC YR IA IC Data FCS l NEXT HOP, and NEXT HOP Address
YC IC – The next address to which packets are forwarded. When a
router or a host is neither “Destination”, nor “Connected”, the next
C IP datagram address to send a packet (NEXT HOP) is referred in order to
send the IP packet. The router or the host which receives the IP
Ethernet data link frame packet forwards it to its next address (NEXT HOP). This is
repeated to reach the “Destination.”
l The recipient and sender of the IP datagram never l Routing, Routing information
– Means a route. Destination and NEXT HOP are paired.
change on the way.
l Routing Table
l The data link frame changes whenever it passes a router. – List of routings that a router and/or a host possesses
l The ”data link frame recipient ” does not always mean the l Route
"IP datagram recipient. " – The Status where a router normally sends out an IP packet,
following the routing table. “This router routes correctly. ” "
The status of the data link frame Summary of the network terminology
MAC address IP address l Destination, or Recipient Address
– Means a destination. In a network, it is literally handled as the
A E-Dest E-S r c IP -S r c IP -Dest
destination address, or the recipient address. “Destination” is
XA IA frequently used as what it is, without being translated into
XR XA IA IC data FCS Japanese. In the case of routing, “Destination” refers to the
XR IR０ network information which includes mask information as well as
address.
R
YR IR1 YC YR IA IC data FCS l NEXT HOP, and NEXT HOP Address
YC IC – The next address to which packets are forwarded. When a router
or a host is neither “Destination”, nor “Connected”, the next
C IP datagram address to send a packet (NEXT HOP) is referred in order to send
the IP packet. The router or the host which receives the IP packet
Ethernet data link frame forwards it to its next address (NEXT HOP). This is repeated to
reach the “Destination.”
l The recipient and sender of the IP datagram never l Routing, Routing information
change on the way. – Means a route. Destination and NEXT HOP are paired.
l The data link frame changes whenever it passes a router. l Routing Table
– List of routings that a router and/or a host possesses
l The ”data link frame recipient ” does not always mean the
"IP datagram recipient. " l Route
– The Status where a router normally sends out an IP packet,
following the routing table. “This router routes correctly. ” "
Summary of data link frame and routing Functional differences between

switches and routers
l When a data link layer as well as a network
layer are “Connected”, communications can l Functional differences between hubs and
be achieved without setting up routing. switches
l When a network and a host is “Unconnected”, l Effective use of switches
a router and routing always need to be set up. l Set up to use routers
l The recipient and sender of the IP datagram l Automatic set-up of a network
never change on the way.
l Differences between switches and routers
l The data link frame changes whenever it
passes a router. l Fault tolerance of switches
l The ”data link frame recipient ” does not l Fault tolerance of routers
always mean the "IP datagram recipient.
l Broadcast flood
3
Differences between hubs and Effective use of switches
switches -1
Constructed using a hub Server
A B 100BaseTX
Switch
Hub
To A
8 ports x 10BaseT
A B H
C D
l Mainly effective for the traffic between a server and
l All the ports are continuously connected to the hub. a host.
l Therefore, it propagates the communications between l A ⇔ Server

Each of them can fully use 10BaseT
different ports to other irrelevant ports, interfering other H ⇔ Server
communications.
Setting to use a router Automatic set-

set-up of a network
Server C
l DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
Network A Network B,C Network C – Automatically allocates addresses.
Network A,B
– RFC2131
R – Mainly used for a client.
Network A,C Network A,C – Automatically renumbers, therefore, it
Network B possesses portability.
A B
l Dynamic routing protocol
– Automatically sets up routing.
l A network is divided into subnets. – Mainly used between routers.
l Set up the routing of the network on the other end of the – RIP, RIP 2, OSPF, and the like
communications.
– it can be automatized by protocols such as DHCP and – Automatically selects a backup route when a
dynamic routing protocol. failure occurs.
Differences between switches and routers Functional differences between

Server C switches and routers
Network A Network C l Functional differences between hubs and switches
– Switches don’t propagate the communications of different
ports to other ports.
R
l Differences between switches and routers
Network B – Routers don’t propagate the communication between
different networks to other networks.
A B – Different from switches, routing needs to be set up.
– Needs to divide the network into subnets.
l The router doesn’t propagate the communications l To use switches effectively
between certain networks to other irrelevant – Introduce switches to the port on which the traffic
networks. concentrates.
What are the problems?
4
Fault tolerance of switches -1 Fault tolerance of switches -2
Server C Server C
Network A Network C Network A Network C
All hosts can ’t get

Switch Switch access to the server
Network B
Network B
←The identical IP
A B A B ←The identical IP
address with the server
address with the server
If the identical IP address with
l When switches are used, the wrong setting at one
the server is allocated to B
client causes a network-wide problem.
by mistake …
Fault tolerance of routers -1 Fault tolerance of routers -2
Server C Server C
Network A Network C Network A Network C
The network B only can’t
Only B can’t communicate communicate with the server
R R
with the server
Network B Network B
A B ←The identical IP A B ←The identical IP
address with the server address with the router
l When routers are used, the wrong setting at one l When routers are used, even in the worst scenario,
client doesn’t cause a network-wide problem. the impact made by the wrong setting at one client
remains within the segment.
Broadcast Flood -1 Broadcast Flood -2

Server C Server C
Broadcast packet has the impact The router doesn’ t pass the broadcast
Switch R
on all ports connected with switches packet to other networks
Broadcast Broadcast
A B A B
l When the number of hosts grows, it creates the traffic that

the broadcast packet can not ignore. l No broadcast flood arises.
l Windows OS tends to create such broadcast packets in l Supports large-scale networks.
high volume.
5
Switches VS Router Connection to the Internet
default WWW Server, etc.
l Advantages of switches Internet
Server
– No needs to consider routing.
Routing by ISP
– When compared to hubs, a more efficient network can Communicable
be constructed. Routing by ISP
default l Default means
l Advantages of routers
R – Terminology in computer and internet
– Backup can be constructed using dynamic routing industries.
protocol. – The route which is selected when no specific
– No broadcast flood arises. routes are selected.
– Scalable even when the network size grows. default – Different from the financial term of “default.”
– Can minimize the damage inflicted by a fault. A
– Relatively easy switching operation when a fault occurs. l By directing the default route to the router
which is connected with the Internet,
l Conclusions communications with servers on the Internet
– Divide the network into subnets by routers, and can be achieved.
introduce switches to the ports on which traffic
concentrates on. l Routing is indispensable for the connection
with the Internet
Explanation about routing Static routing and dynamic routing

l Principles of dynamic routing are explained l Characteristics of static routing
l Characteristics of static routing (static) and – Manually set up a route in a dormant manner.
dynamic routing (dynamic) – Stable.
– Has no impact made by traffic and transmission
l Operating principles of dynamic routing failures.
l Types and characteristics of dynamic routing – Creates no traffic derived from routing protocols.
l What is RIP? l Characteristics of dynamic routing

– Automatically sets up a route.
l VLSM – Can respond to the changes of the network.
l What is OSPF? – Can automatically select the optimized route.
– Can automatically select the backup route.
l Trouble shooting
Reasons to choose dynamic Intricately expanding network

routing -1 Internet
l Must respond to the changes of the Headquarters
network R
– To prevent rewriting all when a network is R
added R
R
l Needs to connect the networks whose
organizers are different
Branch A Branch B Branch C
– Connection with multiple administrated
networks R R R
l Facilitates the setting of routers R R R R

– Difficult to manually control a large-scale
network
6
Backup between Tokyo and Osaka
Reasons to choose dynamic routing -2
Internet Internet
lCan automatically select the optimized route.
– Complicated network topology out of control. Tokyo Osaka
Leased line
lCan automatically select the backup route. R R R R
– When the network which needs to defend to the last

exists.
– Consider the structure which defies failures.
Dynamic routing: propagation of Dynamic routing: routing information

routing information after propagation
Internet Internet
R default R default route
PC PC … PC PC …
Types of dynamic routing protocols RIP

l Routing Information Protocol Version 1
lRIP
–RFC 1058 l RFC 1058
lRIP ２ l Propagates only addresses

– Can be used for VLSM
–RFC 2453
lOSPF l Vector -distance routing
–RFC 2328 l Broadcast only
lBGP 4 l Included in UNIX as standard (route D)
–RFC 1771
7
RIP2 OSPF--1
OSPF
l Routing Information Protocol Version 2
l Open shortest path first
l RFC 2453
l RFC 2328
l Can propagate netｍask
– can be used for VLSM l Protocol 89
l Vector-distance routing – Neither TCP (protocol 6) nor UDP
(protocol 17)
l Compatible with RIP, and can be used
concurrently l Can propagate net mask
– Can be used for VLSM
l Can use multicast
– To reduce the burdens of a host
l Recently supported by some routers［訳注：2］
OSPF--2
OSPF BGP4--1
BGP4
l Uses multicast (224.0.0.5 /224.0.0.6) l Border Gateway Protocol Version 4

l Implements load -balancing l RFC 1771
l Not included in UNIX as standard l TCP 179
– Needs to install gated, etc.
l EBGP as EGP, and IBGP as IGP
l Selects a route in accordance with
the length of the AS path
BGP4--2
BGP4 What is dynamic routing?
l Understand RIP
– When RIP is understood, it is easy to
l Propagates using only the understand the concepts of OSPF and
optimized route when more than BGP 4.
two routes exist
l In the fields, RIP is still used in
l Doesn’t implement load -balancing some cases
– Because the routers for which OSPF
l Update protocol can not be applied still exist
– Because RIP is sufficient enough
l Can aggregate, and supports when only default is sent.
Classless Inter-Domain Routing
(CIDR) l What is OSPF?
– Will be explained based on RIP.
8
RIP operating principles -1 The distance increments by one
whenever data pass a router
Vector-distance routing
(vector-distance /Bellman-Ford) RIP RIP
192.168.1.0
R R R
Vector=destination (network ) Dest=192.168.1.0 Dest=192.168.1.0 Dest=192.168.1.0
Distance=HOP count (the number of routers that Dist= 0 Dist= 1 Dist= 2
the data pass)
Dest=Destination
Dist= Distance
When the destination is the same, Broadcast once every 30 seconds

the route with shortest distance is
selected. Shorter one is selected 192.168.4.0
Dist= 0 Dist= 1 Dist= 2 Once every 30 seconds
192.168.1.0 RIP RIP R

1 192.168.2.0
Not selected
2 3 4 5
Dist= 3
RIP 192.168.4.0 192.168.4.0 192.168.4.0 192.168.4.0

RIP RIP
Dist= 1 Dist= 2
192.168.2.1 192.168.2.1 192.168.2.1 192.168.2.1
When the destinations and the distances are the same,
the priority is given to the route which is achieved first.
The route is deleted when its routing RIP operating principles -2

information is not provided in 3 minutes
R Fault occurs!! → 180 seconds later l When a fault occurs in the network, a route
is switched in 3 minutes. When multiple
routers exist, it takes for 3 minutes X the
number of routers network.
2 3 4 5
l RIP doesn’t propagate net mask.
192.168.4.0 192.168.4.0 192.168.4.0 192.168.4.0 l Is considered to be classful mask.

– Can be used when the address is
192.168.2.1 192.168.2.1 192.168.2.1 192.168.2.1 n 192.168.1.0/24
n 172.16.0.0/16
Deleted Deleted Deleted Deleted n 10.0.0.0/8
The routing information obtained by RIP is 180 seconds
9
RIP propagation Routing information after RIP propagation
Internet
Internet
192.168.2.0 192.168.2.0
192.168.3.0 192.168.3.0
192.168.4.0 R1 192.168.4.0 R1
default default default default
192.168.1.0/24 192.168.1.0/24
192.168.4.0 192.168.4.0
192.168.1.0 192.168.1.0
R4 R2 192.168.4.0 R4 R2 192.168.4.0
192.168.2.0 default default
192.168.4.0/24 192.168.4.0/24 192.168.2.0
192.168.3.0 192.168.2.0/24 192.168.2.0/24
192.168.3.0
192.168.3.0 R3 R3
192.168.3.0
192.168.3.0/24 192.168.3.0/24
RIP operating principles -3 Summary of RIP -1
l Vector-distance routing (vector-distance /bellman -

ford)
l Can not be used when the address is – Vector = destination (network )
– Distance = hop count (number of routers that the data
– 192.168.1.0/26 pass)
– 172.16.0.0/24 l The distance increments by one whenever data
pass a router.
l The address of 0.0.0.0 serves as default.
l When the destination is the same, the route with
shortest distance is selected.
l When the destinations and the distances are the
same, the priority is given to the route which is
achieved first.
Network configuration with subnet

Summary of RIP -2 mask
Internet
l Broadcasts every 30 seconds. 192.168.2.64
192.168.2.192 192.168.2.128
l Deletes the route whose routing R1
information has not been provided 1 default
default
192.168.2.0/26
for 3 minutes. 3 192.168.2.192 2 192.168.2.0
l When a fault occurs in the R4 R2 192.168.2.192
65 default
network, route is switched in 3 193 192.168.2.64
192.168.2.128 192.168.2.64/26
minutes. 192.168.2.192/26 66
– When multiple routers exist, it takes 192.168.2.128 R3
for 3 minutes X the number of 192.168.2.128/26
routers.
10
To use subnet mask by To use To use subnet mask by RIP -2
subnet mask by RIP -1
l Apply the net mask which is set up in the interface.
l When the 192.168.2.1/26 router address is masked.

lWhen the net mask set up by the
interface can not be used, RIP can
Recipient table obtained by RIP Routing table not control routing.
192.168.2.64 192.168.2.64/26
192.168.2.65 192.168.2.65/32
192.168.2.128 192.168.2.128/26
192.168.2.192 192.168.2.192/ 26
192.168.3.0 192.168.3.0/24
192.168.3.64 192.168.3.64/32
Network configuration with VLSM VLSM (Variable Length Subnet Mask)
R 192.168.5.128 l Examples of networks

192.168.5.0/2
– 192.168.5.0/26
192.168.5.128 6
192.168.6.0 – 192.168.5.64/26
R R 192.168.5.128 – 192.168.5.128/25
192.168.5.64/2 192.168.6.0/2
192.168.5.64 4
6 l When 192.168.5.1 receives 192.168.5.128
– Confused with 192.168.5.128/26
PC R 192.168.5.128/ – From 192.168.5.192 to 192.168.5.255, no
192.168.5.65 25 routing is made.
Not PC l VLSM can’t be supported by RIP alone

propagated – To support VLSM, use RIP 2 or OSPF
192.168.5.193
Routing control by RIP at a router Trouble shooting: RIP doesn't propagate -1
l When the identical broadcast address is not

l Request Advertisement used
– When the Broadcast addresses are different
Can be operated by RIP
alone – When 192.168.1.0/24 is used
n 192.168.1.255 network+all-1
- Can be used only to n 192.168.1.0 network+all-0
advertise default n 255.255.255.255 all-1
information n 0.0.0.0 all-0
- Use when the default is l Some old routers and workstations use either
not advertised
0 or 1 for all.
11
Backup using RIP - Route propagation (under
Trouble shooting - RIP doesn't propagate -2 normal conditions)
A-Dist: １Network A A-Dist: ２ Network B
B-Dist: ２ B-Dist: 1Network B
Main circuit A-Dist: ３
l The broadcast address is filtered Network A R R B-Dist: ０
– Does the interface output filter off at A-Dist: ０ R

B-Dist: ３ Network B Network B Network A
255.255.255.255 or 0.0.0.0? R Network A Network B
Network B Network A
l The protocol or the port is filtered Sub circuit
Network A
Network A R R R
– Is UDP 520 filtered? Network A
A-Dist: １ A-Dist: ２ A-Dist: ３
B-Dist: ３ Network BB-Dist: ２Network B
B-Dist: １
l Broadcast could not propagated via
unnumbered interface Due to its distances are greater than
– Set up to advertise via unicast. the other, these are not selected
– Is it O.K. to advertise using unicast? l The configuration uses RIP, and mainly aims at
backup.
l Under normal conditions, only main circuit is used.
Backup using RIP - Routing table (under normal Backup using RIP - Traffic flows (under normal
conditions) conditions)
Network A Network B Network B
Main circuit Main circuit
Network A R R Network B R R
R R
Network B Network A
R Network B R
Network B
Network A
Network A
Sub circuit Sub circuit
Network A R R R R R R
Network A Network A
Network B Network B
l Due to the propagation of RIP l Under normal conditions, only

routing information, the routing main circuit is used.
information is set up at respective
routers.
l Due to the difference in distance,
the main circuit route is selected.
Backup using RIP: Route propagation (when a Backup using RIP: Routing table (when a failure
failure occurs) occurs)
Failure
A-Dist: １ A-Dist: ５ Network B Failure Network B
B-Dist: ４ B-Dist: 1
NetworkA-Dist:
B ４
Network A R R B-Dist: ０ Network A R R Network B
A-Dist: ０ Network A R Network A R

B-Dist: ４
R Network A Network B R Network A Network B
Network B Network A Network B Network A
Network A Network A
Sub circuit Sub circuit
Network A R R R Network A R R R
Network A Network A
A-Dist: １ A-Dist: ２Network BA-Dist: ３ Network B
B-Dist: ３ Network B B-Dist: ２ B-Dist: １ Network B
l As a failure occurs on the main l Due to the changes of the

circuit, the propagation of the routing information
routing information changes. propagation, the routing
information set at respective
routers changes.
12
Backup using RIP - Traffic flows (when a failure occurs) What is OSPF? -１
Failure Network B
l Policies for this explanation
R R
R
– General applications will be explained to
R those who don’t know OSPF.
– Some may differ from the strict definitions
Sub circuit
R R R about OSPF defined by RFC, however, that
Network A is to give better and easy-to-understand
pictures to you. Your understanding is
greatly appreciated.
l As a failure occurs on the main – For a large -scale network, the association
circuit, the traffic flow with BGP is indispensable, but, it is not
changes. explained this time.
l The sub circuit is used as
backup to maintain
communications.
What is OSPF? -２ What is OSPF cost?

l Link State type routing protocol l OSPF uses “Cost”, which is equivalent
– Creates the database of the network with “Distance” of RIP.
topology in the format called LSA (Link – The OSPF cost value varies from 0 to 65535.
State Advertisement) to select the
optimized route. – Cost can be set up for respective interfaces,
n Different from RIP and BGP, simple route exchange
as desired.
is not implemented, therefore, routing filter is
difficult to implement.
– The smaller cost means smaller distance.
– When the topology changes, – Some routers automatically add costs,
immediately, the change is reflected. depending on the line speed, but, it may not
be able to support the speedup of the
– Can detect a broken router. network. Therefore, it is safe to explicitly
n Using HELLO packets, a broken router is detected to
switch to the backup route.
set up the important interfaces including
n Switching is remarkably faster than RIP (for several backbone.
seconds to approximately 1 minutes).
Simple way to calculate OSPF cost -1 Simple way to calculate OSPF cost -2
Cost to Network A Cost to Network A Cost to Network A Cost to Network B Cost to Network B Cost to Network B
0 76 86 86 20 0
Network A Network A Network B Network B

Network A Network B Network A Network B
Circuit Circuit
H1 R1 R2 R3 H2 H1 R1 R2 R3 H2
Cost is set up Cost is set up

at each I/F at each I/F
Cost: 10 Cost: 66 Cost: 10 Cost: 66 Cost: 10 Cost: 10
l Route to H1 from R1 l Route to H2 from R3

– R1 is directly connected to Network A, and the cost of H1 which is – R3 is directly connected to Network B, and the cost of H2 which
also connected to Network A is considered to be zero. is also connected to Network B is considered to be zero.

– From R2, the cost will be: [the cost of Network A which is set up – From R2, the cost will be: [the cost of Network B which is set up
at R1I/F] + [the cost of the I/F which is connected to R1] at R3 I/F] + [the cost of the I/F which is connected to R3]

– From R3, the cost will be: [the cost of Network A from R2] + [the – From R1, the cost will be: [the cost of Network B from R2] + [the
cost of the I/F which is connected to R2] cost of the I/F which is connected to R2]
13
Simple way to calculate OSPF cost -３ In order to implement backup and
Network A: 0 Network A: 76 Network A: 86
Network B: 86 Network B: 20 Network B: 0 balancing
Network A
Network A,B Network A,B
Network B l OSPF can afford backup and balancing
Circuit
H1 R1 R2 R3 H2 when it has multiple routes.
Cost is set up l When routes have different costs
at each I/F
Cost: 10 Cost: 66 Cost: 66 Cost: 10 Cost: 10 Cost: 10 – The route with smaller costs can be used as
a main route, and the the one with greater
l By assigning the same cost to the same I/F, the costs costs can be used as backup.
for outgoing and return can be identical.
l Different costs can be separately assigned for l When routes have the same costs
outgoing and return, but this will make the control
complicated. Therefore, it should not be implemented – By balancing, the traffic can be dispersed.
without some particular reasons. – Even if one of the route for which balancing
l The figure here may give you the impression that is implemented, remaining routes can be
routes are exchanged, but, practically, the route is serve as backups.
determined by exchanging topology database.
Backup using OSPF -Route propagation (under normal Backup using OSPF -Traffic flows (under normal
conditions) Main circuit conditions) Main circuit
Cost: 10 A-Cost(R1): 20 Cost: 10 A-Cost(R1): 20
A-Cost(R2): 86 A-Cost(R2): 86
Cost: 10 B-Cost(R3): 86 B-Cost(R4): 20 Cost: 10 B-Cost(R3): 86 B-Cost(R4): 20
B-Cost(R4): 0 B-Cost(R4): 0
A-Cost(R1): 0 R2 R3 A-Cost(R3): 96 A-Cost(R1): 0 R2 R3 A-Cost(R3): 96
A-Cost(R6):163 Network Cost: 66
B-Cost(R2): 96 Cost: 66 B-Cost(R2): 96 A-Cost(R6): 163 Network
B-Cost(R5): 163 B B-Cost(R5): 163 B
R1 Set the cost at a R4 R1 R4

greater number
R5 R6 R5 R6
Network A Cost: 133 Cost: 10 Network A Cost: 133 Cost: 10
A-Cost(R1): 20 A-Cost(R3): 96 Cost: 10 A-Cost(R1): 20 A-Cost(R3): 96 Cost: 10
B-Cost(R2): 96 A-Cost(R5):153 B-Cost(R2): 96 A-Cost(R5):153
B-Cost(R6):153 B-Cost(R4): 20 B-Cost(R6):153 B-Cost(R4): 20
Route which is Traffic to Network A
Sub circuit not selected Sub circuit
l Using OSPF, only the main circuit Cost value l As OSPF HELLO packets flow in the Traffic to Network B
is used under normal conditions. Router name of sub circuit as well, it is impossible to
the propagation make its traffic zero.
l When a failure occurs, the sub source
circuit is used as backup. (NEXT HOP)
backup using OSPF -Route propagation (when a failure

Backup using OSPF -Traffic flows (when a failure occurs)
occurs) Main circuit Main circuit
Cost: 10 A-Cost(R1): 20 Cost: 10 A-Cost(R1): 20
A-Cost(R6): 163 A-Cost(R6): 163
Cost: 10 B-Cost(R6): 163 B-Cost(R4): 20 Cost: 10 B-Cost(R6): 163 B-Cost(R4): 20
A-Cost(R1): 0 R2 R3 B-Cost(R4): 0 Network A-Cost(R1): 0 R2 R3 B-Cost(R4): 0 Network

Cost: 66 A-Cost(R6):163 Cost: 66 A-Cost(R6):163
B-Cost(R5):163 B B-Cost(R5):163 B
R1 R4 R1 R4
R5 R6 R5 R6
Network A Cost: 133 Cost: 10 Network A Cost: 10
A-Cost(R1): 20 A-Cost(R5):153 Cost: 10 A-Cost(R1): 20 Cost: 133 A-Cost(R5):153 Cost: 10
B-Cost(R6):153 B-Cost(R4): 20 B-Cost(R6):153 B-Cost(R4): 20
Sub circuit Sub circuit Traffic to Network A

Cost value
l When the line is cut off, the l The backup is completed using the Traffic to Network B
connection between R2 and R3 is Router name of sub circuit.
deleted. the propagation
source
(NEXT HOP)
14
Characteristics of OSPF backup routing Backup using OSPF -Traffic flows (when a failure occurs)
Main circuit
Cost: 10 A-Cost(R1): 20 A-Cost(R6): 163
l Different from RIP, quick backup can be Cost: 10 B-Cost(R6): 163 B-Cost(R4): 20
R2 R3
accomplished. A-Cost(R1): 0
B-Cost(R5):163 Cost: 66 B-Cost(R4): 0 Network
B
A-Cost(R6):163
l The sub circuit can't be cut off because R1 R4

OSPF HELLO packets flow in the backup
lines as well. R5 R6
Network A Cost: 10
– It needs other measures than OSPF A-Cost(R1): 20 Cost: 133 A-Cost(R5):153 Cost: 10
B-Cost(R6):153 B-Cost(R4): 20
configuration to backup with ISDN.
Sub circuit Traffic to Network A
l Two lines can be used for different l The backup is completed using the
purposes, and when a failure occurs, the sub circuit. Traffic to Network B
remaining line can be used as backup for

the faulty line.
backup,and balancing using OSPF -Route propagation (under

Characteristics of OSPF backup routing normal conditions)
Cost: 10 A-Cost(R1):20 A-Cost(R2):86
B-Cost(R3):86 A-Cost(R6):96
l Different from RIP, quick backup can be Cost: 10 B-Cost(R5):96 B-Cost(R4):20
R2 R3 B-Cost(R4): 0 Network
accomplished. A-Cost(R1): 0
B-Cost(R2):96 Cost: 66 A-Cost(R3):96
B
l The sub circuit can't be cut off because R1 Adjust to the same cost R4
OSPF HELLO packets flow in the backup
lines as well. R5 Cost: 66
R6
Network A Cost: 10
– It needs other measures than OSPF A-Cost(R1):20 A-Cost(R3):96 Cost: 10
configuration to backup with ISDN. B-Cost(R6):86 B-Cost(R4):20
Route which is
l Set up the two lines at the same costs. not selected
l Two lines can be used for different Cost value
purposes, and when a failure occurs, the l From R1 to Network B, the costs of Router name of
both R2 and R5 should be the same. the propagation
remaining line can be used as backup for source
l From R4 to Network A, the costs of (NEXT HOP)
the faulty line. both R3 and R6 should be the same.
Backup and balancing using OSPF-

OSPF-Route propagation (when a Backup and balancing using OSPF -Traffic flows (under
failure occurs) normal conditions)
Cost: 10 A-Cost(R1):20 A-Cost(R6):96 Cost: 10 A-Cost(R1):20 A-Cost(R2):86
B-Cost(R5):96 B-Cost(R4):20 B-Cost(R3):86 A-Cost(R6):96
Cost: 10 Cost: 10 B-Cost(R5):96 B-Cost(R4):20
A-Cost(R1): 0 R2 R3 B-Cost(R4): 0 Network A-Cost(R1): 0 R2 R3 B-Cost(R4): 0 Network

Cost: 66 A-Cost(R6):96 Cost: 66 A-Cost(R3):96
B-Cost(R5):96 B-Cost(R2):96
B A-Cost(R6):96 B
B-Cost(R5):96
Adjust to the same cost Adjust to the same cost
R1 R4 R1 R4
R5 R6 R5 R6
Network A Cost: 66 Cost: 10 Network A Cost: 66 Cost: 10
A-Cost(R1):20 A-Cost(R5):86 Cost: 10 A-Cost(R1):20 A-Cost(R3):96 Cost: 10
B-Cost(R6):86 B-Cost(R4):20 B-Cost(R2):96 A-Cost(R5):86
B-Cost(R6):86 B-Cost(R4):20
Traffic to Network A
Cost value
l Due to a failure, the network l Using OSPF, respective lines can
information between R2 and R3 is Router name of be balanced to use under normal Traffic to Network B
deleted. the propagation conditions.
source
(NEXT HOP)
15
Backup and balancing using OSPF - Traffic flows (when a
failure occurs) Characteristics of backup and
Cost: 10 A-Cost(R1):20
B-Cost(R5):96
A-Cost(R6):96
B-Cost(R4):20
balancing
Cost: 10
A-Cost(R1): 0 R2 Cost: 66
R3 B-Cost(R4): 0 Network l When a failure occurs, 50% of the bandwidth is
B used for backup.
R1 R4 l Balancing is basically achieved by the ratio of
1 to 1, therefore, it is difficult to balance the
R5 R6 lines whose speeds are different.
Network A Cost: 66 Cost: 10
A-Cost(R1):20 A-Cost(R5):86 Cost: 10
B-Cost(R6):86 B-Cost(R4):20 l Two lines are effectively used to reduce line
costs.
Traffic to Network A
l The line which doesn ’t have the l When they are applied for a LAN, 100Mbps
failure is used to backup. Traffic to Network B media can be used as 200Mbps media.
OSPF settings for beginners -1 OSPF settings for beginners -2

l Inject routes from static
l Area – Similar with a default route, use External Type 1.
– Always set 0 n When a route injection from static and/or RIP other than OSPF, it
affords to select either External Type 1 or External Type 2.
n OSPF has the concept called “Area” to aggregate
routes. In a small -sized network, it can be constructed n What is External Type 1?
by setting the backbone Area as Area 0, and there are no —Itadds the OSPF cost from the point of the route injection to t he router
needs to divide Areas for construction. which receives the OSPF route to the cost obtained at the time of
n Any Areas other than Area 0 always need to have injection to evaluate. When the same routes are injected, it is used to
contacts with Area 0. If the areas are indiscriminately control choosing the closest interface. In the case of static, the point of
divided, the expansion of the backbone will become the injection can be determined as the closest point, therefore, Type 1 is
difficult. suitable.
n BGP + OSPF is the mainstream of large-scale networks n What is External Type 2?
including ISP, and BGP has superiority in route —The injected cost is maintained. When same routes are injected,
aggregation. For those reasons, Areas except the evaluation is made based on the priority given at the time of the injection.
backbone Area is used little. This is effective to substantialize the BGP and other protocol ni formation
by OSPF, however, it is not quite meaningful because BGP practically
can ’t run on OSPF without any modifications.
l Default route —Note: Cisco router’ s default setting is External Type 2.
– Always set a default route by “static”, and n Don’t mix External Type 1 and External Type 2
then inject default route by OSPF. —Besides OSPF costs, External Type 1 has priority over External Type 2.
Therefore, switching at the time of a failure will become diffic ult.
n If it affords, use External Type 1.
Trouble shooting - RIPv2 and OSPF don’

don’ t
OSPF settings for beginners -3 propagate
l Router ID
– No needs to concern about it in the case of
small-sized networks but it is better to set l Check if a router’s filter restricts multicast
the loopback interface.
n OSPF uses router ID (the IP address assigned for a addresses, protocols, and ports.
router) for router to router communications. – RIP 2
n Normally, when the loopback interface is set up, its n 224.0.0.9
address will be used.
n UDP 520
n When the identical address is assigned for the loopback
interfaces of multiple routers, malfunction occurs. – OSPF
Attentions need to be paid. n 224.0.0.5/224.0.0.6
l The order to start up routers n Protocol 89
– Better to start up with a router with higher l When Multicast is not supported
performance and smaller load. – Some OS can ’t handle multicast.
n OSPF gives the priority to DR (Designated Router), BDR In this case, use broadcast as substitute.
(Backup DR), or DROTHER, or the start-up order. In the
case of multimedia communications such as Ethernet,
DR controls information. For those reasons, it better to
start up with a router with higher performance to control
information.
n In many small-sized networks, it is not necessary to
concern.
16
Conclusions of dynamic routing Fault-resistant network configuration
Fault-
using dynamic routing protocol
l Considering VLSM, the introduction of RIP
2 and/or OSPF is desired. l Backup and balancing using the dual
structure + OSPF
l For a simple network configuration,
choose static. l Backup by ring topology
l When only default routes are used, RIP is
sufficient enough. l ATM failure detection
l To implement balancing and others, use
OSPF.
Backup and balancing using the dual structure + Backup and balancing using the dual structure +
OSPF - Connection diagram ‐Route propagation (under normal conditions)
OSPF‐
OSPF
Network A
Network X switch
Network A
Network A
R R R
R Network X R
Network A
Switch Network A Network Y switch
Network A
Switch
l Use OSPF to advertise the Network A routing
information.
Network Y
R R l The routing information equivalently
propagates from 2 switches to respective
routers.
Backup and balancing using the dual structure + OSPF Backup and balancing using the dual structure +
-Route propagation (when a failure occurs) OSPF - Traffic flows (when a failure occurs)
Network A
Failure Network X switch Network X switch
Failure
R R R R R R
Network A
Network A Network Y switch Network A Network Y switch
Network A
l Due to a failure, the propagation of routing l When a failure occurs, use either of those 2
information partially changes. switches to avoid the failure.
17
Backup by ring topology - Route Backup by ring topology
propagation (under normal conditions) -Traffic flows (when a failure occurs)
Not Selected because
Selected because its of its greater distance
distance is the smallest
R Network A
Network A R
Failure
Distance=1 Distance=2
R R
R R
Network A
Distance=1
Network A
Network A
l Use RIP to advertise the Network A routing
information. l When a failure occurs, make a detour to back
up communications.
l Under normal conditions, the shortest route
has the priority.
ATM failure detection -1 ATM failure detection -2

Network A Network B Network A Network B Network A Network B
OSPF
ATM line ATM line
R R R R
Network B Network A
l It can’t detect that VP is down to automatically l When OSPF is used for dynamic routing to implement
shut down the interface (Cisco IOS11.X). balancing, even an ATM line can detect a failure.
l For this reason, when the static routing is set up Failure
as described above to bundle 2 ATM lines, the Network A Network B
OSPF ATM line
desired backup can ’t be achieved.
Failure R R
Network A Network B Network A Network B
ATM line
R R l OSPF detects a failure, and stops using the line.
Therefore, no packets will be lost.
Network B Network A
l In this case, approximately 50% of packets will be
lost.
Backup and balancing technologies

HSRP--1
HSRP
except dynamic routing
Failure
l STP (spanning tree protocol)
– Redundant structure in Layer 2
– When a failure occurs, it takes approximately 10 seconds to R R R R
change the spanning tree.
l FDDI DAS (dual attachment station)

– Redundant structure in Layer 2 default
default
– Almost instantly, it switches.
Server Server
l I/F down and static
– When it detects that an I/F down, the routing which directs the l When a failure occurs, the correspondence between
interface is deleted. This is the backup which uses this fact.
– However, it can ’t be applied for ATM leased lines because line MAC addresses and routers changes
failure doesn ’t result in I/F down. – Under default settings, the following shutdown occurs.
n Tries to use the OAM cell as a substitute of“keepalive” in order to detect the n 10 seconds for switching (recently, 3 seconds)
line failure (IOS12.X). n 30 seconds for switching back (recently, 9 seconds)
l HSRP – When routers are connected to switches, a discrepancy
– Instead of using dynamic routing at servers, one virtual MAC arises in the correspondence between ports and MAC
address is shared by multiple routers to implement switching addresses, and, in some cases, the switching will take
when a failure occurs. more time.
18
HSRP--2
HSRP HSRP--3
HSRP
Failure l HSRP+Interface Tracking
(when a failure occurs)
R R – Switches by Interface
l HSRP+Interface Tracking Tracking
R R (under normal operation) – Stops for 10 seconds (3
seconds, recently)
default
default Server
Server
l HSRP+Interface Tracking
(when a failure occurs)
l When a failure occurs, the faulty interface is R R – Due to recovery, switching
back occurs.
detected, and it implements tracking to switch to
– Stops for 30 seconds (10
active routers. seconds, recently).
default – Recent firmware provides the
Server HSRP Delay function to
eliminate the shutdown time
derived from switching back.
HSRP--5
HSRP MHSRP--1
MHSRP
l Use multiple groups to apply MHSRP, the

OSPF l HSRP+OSPF (Fault - traffic will be separated for respective
R R recovery phase) servers.
– Switching back occurs
due to fault-recovery.
default – No shutdown because
only routes are switched. l MHSRP (under normal
Server operation)
R R
– Respective servers direct
defaults to their
l Dynamic routing doesn ’t associate switching corresponding HSRP
back with shutdown, therefore, it ’s better to use default virtual addresses.
dynamic routing such as OSPF and others for
Server Server
the router to router communications.
MHSRP--2
MHSRP Design to consider the future
expansion -1 Features of the network configuration
Failure l MHSRP on the left
(when a failure occurs) Server
l Even if the size is small, the
R R segment for the server is
separate.
default R → To assure the safety for the
server
Server Server
l Clients obtain address allocation
and default routes by DHCP.
H H H
l It protects the server against the
l However, MHSRP has the group ID conflict impact made by the broadcast
problem, therefore, attentions need to be paid flood.
when it is used for open networks.
19
Design to consider the future Design to consider the future
expansion -2 Add a server expansion -3 Add a server segment
Server Server Server Server
l Add a server, while ensuring the
Server Server safety of the server segment.
l When more segments
l Client segment broadcast can be R R are added, it can be
confined to the segment, handled only by
Backbone segment
therefore, it prevents the accelerating the
R broadcast flood phenomena from 100BaseTXswitch,
Giga bit Ethernet, speed of the
arising. FDDI switch R R backbone segment.
l When a network
H H H H expands from the
switching-based
H H H H network to the one
described on the left,
H H renumbering
H H H H becomes inevitable.
Add a network Add more networks
Network design What is the address allocation

l Considering scalability, creation of subnets is policy?
inevitable.
l Assuming the future expansion, the network
l Considering the safety, servers should be addresses need to be allocated in the
allocated in different segments. organization.
l Introduce switches for the servers and routers
on which traffic concentrates.
l Use address from the beginning in ascending
l Design the network topology, expecting future order or from the beginning and the end?
expansion.
l How can the addresses be allocated to
respective departments?
Address allocation in expectation of network expansion l How can the addresses be allocated to
respective hosts in respective departments?
Address allocation for the entire Address allocation

organization -1 for respective departments -1
Bad example Bad example
192.168.1.0/24 Handle Department A
192.168.1.0/24
1 254 Divide into 1 9 10 19 20 as a subnet
subnets
Server Renumbering
Router
Department A Department B Department C
1415 16 17
192.168.1.0/25 192.168.1.128/25
Router Department A Renumbering l When 10 addresses are

allocated to respective
l When the addresses are used from the departments, creation of
beginning and the end, renumbering becomes 192.168.1.0/28 subnets always requires
necessary when the network is divided into renumbering.
subnets.
20
Address allocation
Address allocation in a department -1
for respective departments -2
Department A
Good example Bad example Creates
192.168.1.0/24 Creates
1 14 1516 17 303132 33 1 7 14 subnets
subnets
Server PC Router
Department A Department B
Transferred without changes
subnetsA subnetsB Department A Department B

l Renumbering can be l When the address space is determined to
192.168.1.0/28 avoided by allocating allocate addresses depending on objects, such
addresses for respective as routers and server in a department, it can ’t
departments in support the newly created subnets, and
expectation of future renumbering becomes inevitable.
subnet creation.
Address allocation in a department -2 What is the address allocation

Department A
policy ?
Good example Divides into
l Use address from the beginning in ascending
1 14 subnets order or from the beginning and the end?
– Use addresses from the beginning in ascending
order.
routerServer PC
Server
respective departments?
– Consider subnets, and allocate 1 to 14 to the
department A, and 17 to 30 to the department B,
for example.

Department A Department B
respective hosts in respective departments?
l When the addresses are used from the – Use addresses from the beginning in ascending
order.
beginning in ascending order, it can support
newly created subnets without any obstacles.
Conclusions -１ Conclusions -２
l Difference between a data link layer and a
network layer l Use RIP 2 and/or OSPF to introduce
– A data link frame changes whenever interchange VLSM.
occurs.
– IP datagram never changes. l Use dynamic routing to construct fault-
– The data link frame recipient doesn ’t always mean the resistant networks.
IP datagram recipient.
l Use OSPF to implement balancing and
l Differences between hubs and switches, as well backup concurrently.
as those between switches and routers
– Allocate them effectively l Allocate servers and others, for which the
safety needs to be assured, to different
l Routing is essential for connections with the segments.
Internet
l Operate following the address allocation
l Once you understand the basic of dynamic policy which concerns about the future
routing, you can apply it expansion of the network.
21
［訳注：
1］unreachableと入力されていますが、パワーポイント上の表示がうまくい
きません。ご確認をお願いします。
［訳注：
2］原文はroutedとなっていますが、routerの間違いではないかと推測しま
した。ご確認をお願い致します。
いくつか全く同じページが含まれています。
P13と15、P14と16、P84と86、P85と87がそれぞれ同一のようです。
構成上の必要と推定して、そのまま翻訳しています。
ご確認をお願いします。
2000/12/21 Copyright © 2000 Internet Initiative Japan Inc. 127
22

Introduction To Routing: Purposes

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originalbeschreibung:

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Introduction To Routing: Purposes

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Purposes

l What is routing control?

l How can routing control be effectively applied

Internet Initiative Japan, Inc.

OSI reference model and TCP /IP

How does a connected network How does a connected network

192.168.1.1/24 192.168.1.2/24 192.168.1.1/24 172.16.1.1/16

Unconnected network -１ Unconnected network -２

Network Y network X Network Y

Summary of data link frame and routing Functional differences between

l Therefore, it propagates the communications between l A ⇔ Server

Setting to use a router Automatic set-

Differences between switches and routers Functional differences between

What are the problems?

All hosts can ’t get

Fault tolerance of routers -1 Fault tolerance of routers -2

Broadcast Flood -1 Broadcast Flood -2

l When the number of hosts grows, it creates the traffic that

Explanation about routing Static routing and dynamic routing

l What is RIP? l Characteristics of dynamic routing

Reasons to choose dynamic Intricately expanding network

l Facilitates the setting of routers R R R R

– When the network which needs to defend to the last

Dynamic routing: propagation of Dynamic routing: routing information

R default R default route

Types of dynamic routing protocols RIP

lRIP ２ l Propagates only addresses

l Recently supported by some routers［訳注：2］

l Uses multicast (224.0.0.5 /224.0.0.6) l Border Gateway Protocol Version 4

When the destination is the same, Broadcast once every 30 seconds

Dist= 0 Dist= 1 Dist= 2 Once every 30 seconds

192.168.1.0 RIP RIP R

RIP 192.168.4.0 192.168.4.0 192.168.4.0 192.168.4.0

The route is deleted when its routing RIP operating principles -2

192.168.4.0 192.168.4.0 192.168.4.0 192.168.4.0 l Is considered to be classful mask.

The routing information obtained by RIP is 180 seconds

RIP operating principles -3 Summary of RIP -1

l Vector-distance routing (vector-distance /bellman -

Network configuration with subnet

l When the 192.168.2.1/26 router address is masked.

Network configuration with VLSM VLSM (Variable Length Subnet Mask)

R 192.168.5.128 l Examples of networks

Not PC l VLSM can’t be supported by RIP alone

Routing control by RIP at a router Trouble shooting: RIP doesn't propagate -1

l When the identical broadcast address is not

– Does the interface output filter off at A-Dist: ０ R

l Due to the propagation of RIP l Under normal conditions, only

A-Dist: ０ Network A R Network A R

l As a failure occurs on the main l Due to the changes of the

What is OSPF? -２ What is OSPF cost?

Network A Network A Network B Network B

Cost is set up Cost is set up

l Route to H1 from R1 l Route to H2 from R3

l Route to H1 from R2 l Route to H2 from R2

l Route to H1 from R3 l Route to H2 from R1

R1 Set the cost at a R4 R1 R4

backup using OSPF -Route propagation (when a failure

A-Cost(R1): 0 R2 R3 B-Cost(R4): 0 Network A-Cost(R1): 0 R2 R3 B-Cost(R4): 0 Network

Sub circuit Sub circuit Traffic to Network A

l The sub circuit can't be cut off because R1 R4

remaining line can be used as backup for

backup,and balancing using OSPF -Route propagation (under