Eng. Quimica

Eng.
Qumica
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Contents
Articles
History of chemical engineering Chemical engineering Chemical engineer Chemical industry Chemical process Inorganic chemistry 1 3 10 13 20 23 32 32 34 48 51 54 58 58 75 89
Operaes Unitrias
Unit operation Distillation Mixing (process engineering) Ball mill Filtration
Apendices
Chemical element Timeline of chemical elements discoveries Conversion of units
References
Article Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 117 119
Article Licenses
License 121
History of chemical engineering
History of chemical engineering

Part of a series on
Chemical engineering
History Concepts Unit operations Unit processes Chemical engineer Chemical process Process integration Unit operations Momentum transfer Heat transfer Mass transfer Mechanical operations Unit process Chemical reaction engineering Chemical kinetics Chemical process modeling Chemical technology Process integration Branches Process design Fluid mechanics Process systems engineering Chemical plant design Chemical thermodynamics Transport phenomena *More* others Outline of chemical engineering Index of chemical engineering articles Education for chemical engineers List of chemical engineers List of chemical engineering societies List of chemical process simulators Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook Category:Chemical engineering
Chemical engineering as a discipline is a little over one hundred years old.[1] It grew out of mechanical engineering in the last part of the 19th century, because of a need for chemical processors. Before the Industrial Revolution (18th century), industrial chemicals were mainly produced through batch processing. Batch processing is similar to cooking. Individuals mix ingredients in a vessel, heat or pressurize the mixture, test it, and purify it to get a saleable product. Batch processes are still performed today on expensive products, such as perfumes, or pure maple syrups, where one can still turn a profit, despite batch methods being slow and inefficient. Most chemicals today are
History of chemical engineering produced through a continuous "assembly line" chemical process. The Industrial Revolution was when this shift from batch to continuous processing occurred.
Origin
The Industrial Revolution led to an unprecedented escalation in demand, both with regard to quantity and quality, for bulk chemicals such as sulfuric acid and soda ash. This meant two things: one, the size of the activity and the efficiency of operation had to be enlarged, and two, serious alternatives to batch processing, such as continuous operation, had to be examined. This created the need for an engineer who was not only conversant with how machines behaved, but also understood chemical reactions and transport phenomena (how substances came together to react, how the required conditions could be achieved, etc.), and the influence the equipment had on how these processes operated on the large scale. Thus, Chemical Engineering was born as a distinct discipline; distinct from both Mechanical Engineering on one hand and industrial chemistry on the other.
Professional associations
These early programmes married industrial chemistry with mechanical engineering, with the emphasis most decidedly on engineering. But chemical engineers still needed to clearly define their activity as something more than a mishmash of chemistry and engineering. To emphasize their identity and thus help the growth of their profession, chemical engineers formed the American Institute of Chemical Engineers in 1908. The Institution of Chemical Engineers was founded in 1922 and awarded a Royal Charter in 1957. In 1959, the Instituto Mexicano de Ingenieros Quimicos (IMIQ) was founded in Mexico.[2]
Definitions
For the other established branches of engineering, there were ready associations in the mind of the common man: Mechanical Engineering meant machines, Electrical Engineering meant circuitry, and Civil Engineering meant structures. So chemical engineering can be symbolised as chemicals production.
Unit operation
The answer, provided by Arthur D. Little to the President of MIT, was to emphasize the approach chemical engineers took to the design and analysis of processes rather than a process or a product. The concept of Unit operations was developed to emphasize the underlying unity among seemingly different operations. For example, the principles are the same whether one is concerned about separating alcohol from water in a fermenter, or separating gasoline from diesel in a refinery, as long as the basis of separation is generation of a vapor of a different composition from the liquid. Therefore such separation processes can be studied together as a unit operation (in this case called distillation). The concept has stood the profession in good stead in its phase of growth, and has even been used to understand the way the human body functions.
Unit processes
In the early part of the last century, a parallel concept called Unit Processes was used to classify reactive processes. Thus oxidations, reductions, alkylations etc. formed separate unit processes and were studied as such. This was natural considering the close affinity of chemical engineering to industrial chemistry at its inception. Gradually however, the subject of chemical reaction engineering has largely replaced the unit process concept. This subject looks at the entire body of chemical reactions as having a personality of its own, independent of the particular chemical species or chemical bonds involved. The latter does contribute to this personality in no small measure, but to design and operate chemical reactors, a knowledge of characteristics such as rate behaviour, thermodynamics, single or multiphase nature, etc. are more important. The emergence of chemical reaction engineering as a discipline
History of chemical engineering truly signaled the severance of the umbilical cord connecting chemical engineering to industrial chemistry, and served to cement the truly unique character of this discipline.
References
[1] W. F. Furter (1982) A Century of Chemical Engineering Plenum Press (New York) [2] "History" (http:/ / web. imiq. org/ index. php?option=com_content& view=article& id=47& Itemid=57& lang=en). . Retrieved May 18, 2010.,
External links
"History of ChEn: Struggle for Survival" (http://web.boun.edu.tr/akman/history/h_surviv.html) "About AIChE" (http://www.stevens-tech.edu/aiche/about_aiche.html) (from www.stevens-tech.edu) Chemical Achievers: Chemical Engineering (http://www.chemheritage.org/classroom/chemach/engineering/ index.html), discusses several individuals associated with defining the field of chemical engineering during its early stages
Chemical engineering is the branch of engineering that deals with the application of physical science (e.g., chemistry and physics), and life sciences (e.g., biology, microbiology and biochemistry) with mathematics and economics, to the process of converting raw materials or chemicals into more useful or valuable forms. In addition to producing useful materials, modern chemical engineering is also concerned with pioneering valuable new materials and techniques such as nanotechnology, fuel cells and biomedical engineering.[1] Chemical engineering largely involves the design, improvement and maintenance of processes involving chemical or biological transformations for large-scale manufacture. Chemical engineers ensure the processes are operated safely, sustainably and economically. Chemical engineers in this branch are usually employed under the title of process engineer. A related term with a wider definition is chemical technology. A person employed in this field is called a chemical engineer.
Process engineers design, construct and operate plants
Etymology
A 1996 British Journal for the History of Science article cites James F. Donnelly for mentioning a 1839 reference to chemical engineering in relation to the production of sulfuric acid.[2] In the same paper however, George E. Davis, an English consultant, was credited for having coined the term.[3] The History of Science in United States: An Encyclopedia puts this at around 1880.[4] "Chemical engineering", describing the use of mechanical equipment in the chemical industry, became common vocabulary in England after 1850.[5] By 1910, the profession, "chemical engineer", was already in common use in Britain and the United States.[6]
History
Chemical engineering emerged upon the development of unit operations, a George E. Davis fundamental concept of the discipline. Most authors agree that Davis invented unit operations if not substantially developed it.[7] He gave a series of lectures on unit operations at the Manchester Technical School (University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology today) in 1887, considered to be one of the earliest such about chemical engineering.[8] Three years before Davis' lectures, Henry Edward Armstrong taught a degree course in chemical engineering at the City and Guilds of London Institute. Armstrong's course "failed simply because its graduates ... were not especially attractive to employers." Employers of the time would have rather hired chemists and mechanical engineers.[4] Courses in chemical engineering offered by Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in the United States, Owen's College in Manchester, England and University College London suffered under similar circumstances.[9] Starting from 1888,[10] Lewis M. Norton taught at MIT the first chemical engineering course in the United States. Norton's course was contemporaneous and essentially similar with Armstrong's course. Both courses, however, simply merged chemistry and engineering subjects. "Its practitioners had difficulty convincing engineers that they were engineers and chemists that they were not simply chemists."[4] Unit operations was introduced into the course by William Students inside an industrial chemistry laboratory at MIT Hultz Walker in 1905.[11] By the early 1920s, unit operations became an important aspect of chemical engineering at MIT and other US universities, as well as at Imperial College London.[12] The American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE), established in 1908, played a key role in making chemical engineering considered an independent science, and unit operations central to chemical engineering. For instance, it defined chemical engineering to be a "science of itself, the basis of which is ... unit operations" in a 1922 report; and with which principle, it had published a list of academic institutions which offered "satisfactory" chemical engineering courses.[13] Meanwhile, promoting chemical engineering as a distinct science in Britain lead to the establishment of the Institution of Chemical Engineers (IChemE) in 1922.[14] IChemE likewise helped make unit operations considered essential to the discipline.[15]
New concepts and innovations

By the 1940s, it became clear that unit operations alone was insufficient in developing chemical reactors. While the predominance of unit operations in chemical engineering courses in Britain and the United States continued until the 1960s, transport phenomena started to experience greater focus.[16] Along with other novel concepts, such process systems engineering (PSE), a "second paradigm" was defined.[17] [18] Transport phenomena gave an analytical approach to chemical engineering[19] while PSE focused on its synthetic elements, such as control system and process design.[20] Developments in chemical engineering before and after World War II were mainly incited by the petrochemical industry,[21] however, advances in other fields were made as well. Advancements in biochemical engineering in the 1940s, for example, found application in the pharmaceutical industry, and allowed for the mass production of various antibiotics, including penicillin and streptomycin.[22] Meanwhile, progress in polymer science in the 1950s paved way for the "age of plastics".[23]
Lag and environmental awareness

The years after the 1950s are viewed to have lacked major chemical innovations.[24] Additional uncertainty was presented by declining prices of energy and raw materials between 1950 and 1973. Concerns regarding the safety and environmental impact of large-scale chemical manufacturing facilities were also raised during which period. Silent Spring, published in 1962, alerted its readers of the harmful effects of DDT, a potent insecticide. The 1974 Flixborough disaster in the United The Union Carbide India Limited plant where the 1984 explosion originated Kingdom resulted in the death of 28, and damage of a chemical plant and three nearby villages. The 1984 Bhopal disaster in India which killed almost 4,000. These along with other incidents affected the reputation of the trade as industrial safety and environmental protection was given more focus.[25] In response, the IChemE required safety to be part of every degree course that it accredited after 1982. By the 1970s, legislation and monitoring agencies were instituted in various countries, such as France, Germany and the United States.[26]
Recent progress
Advancements in computer science found applications designing and managing plants, simplifying calculations and drawings that previously have to be done manually. The completion of the Human Genome Project is also seen as a major development, not only advancing chemical engineering but genetic engineering and genomics as well.[27] Chemical engineering principles were used to produce DNA sequences in large quantities.[28] While the application of chemical engineering principles to these fields only began in the 1990s, Rice University researchers see this as a trend towards biotechnology.[29]
Concepts
Part of a series on
Chemical engineering involves the application of several principles. Key concepts are presented below.
Chemical reaction engineering

Chemical reactions engineering involves managing plant processes and conditions to ensure optimal plant operation. Chemical reaction engineers construct models for reactor analysis and design using laboratory data and physical parameters, such as chemical thermodynamics, to solve problems and predict reactor performance.[30]
Plant design
Chemical engineering design concerns the creation of plans and specification, and income projection of plants. Chemical engineers generate designs according to the clients needs. Design is limited by a number of factors, including funding, government regulations and safety standards. These constraints dictate a plant's choice of process, materials and equipment.[31]
Process design
A unit operation is a physical step in an individual chemical engineering process. Unit operations (such as crystallization, drying and evaporation) are used to prepare reactants, purifying and separating its products, recycling unspent reactants, and controlling energy transfer in reactors.[32] On the other hand, a unit process is the chemical equivalent of a unit operation. Along with unit operations, unit processes constitute a process operation. Unit processes (such as nitration and oxidation) involve the conversion of material by biochemical, thermochemical and other means. Chemical engineers responsible for these are called process engineers.[33]
Transport phenomena
Transport phenomena occur frequently in industrial problems. These include fluid dynamics, heat transfer and mass transfer, which mainly concern momentum transfer, energy transfer and transport of chemical species respectively. Basic equations for describing the three transport phenomena in the macroscopic, microscopic and molecular levels are very similar. Thus, understanding transport phenomena requires thorough understanding of mathematics.[34]
Applications and practice

Chemical engineers "develop economic ways of using materials and energy"[36] as opposed to chemists who are more interested in the basic composition of materials and synthesizing products from such. Chemical engineers use chemistry and engineering to turn raw materials into useable products, such as medicine, petrochemicals and plastics. They are also involved in waste management and research. Both applied and research facets make extensive use of computers.[35] A chemical engineer may be involved in industry or university research where he or she is tasked in designing and performing Chemical engineers use computers to manage [35] experiments to create new and better ways of production, controlling automated systems in plants. pollution, conserving resources and making these processes safer. He/she may be involved in designing and constructing plants as a project engineer. In this field, the chemical engineer uses their knowledge in selecting plant equipment and the optimum method of production to minimize costs and increase profitability. After its construction, he/she may help in upgrading its equipment. He/she may also be involved in its daily operations.[37]
Related fields and topics

Today, the field of chemical engineering is a diverse one, covering areas from biotechnology and nanotechnology to mineral processing.
Biochemical engineering Bioinformatics Biomedical engineering Biomolecular engineering Biotechnology Ceramics Chemical process modeling Chemical Technologist Heat transfer Industrial gas Industrial catalysts Mass transfer Materials science Metallurgy Microfluidics Mineral processing Process design Process development Process Systems Engineering Process miniaturization Paper engineering Safety engineering Semiconductor device fabrication Separation processes (see also: separation of mixture) Chemical reactor Chemical weapons Corrosion engineering Electrochemistry Environmental engineering Earthquake engineering Fluid dynamics Food engineering Fuel cell Nanotechnology Natural environment Natural gas processing Nuclear reprocessing Oil exploration Oil refinery Pharmaceutical engineering Plastics engineering Polymers Process control Crystallization processes Distillation processes Membrane processes
Textile engineering Thermodynamics Transport phenomena Unit operations Water technology
Computational fluid dynamics
References
[1] From Petroleum to Penicillin. The First Hundred Years of Modern Chemical Engineering: 18591959. Burnett, J. N. [2] Cohen 1996, p.172. [3] Cohen 1996, p.174. [4] Reynolds 2001, p.176. [5] Cohen 1996, p.186. [6] Perkins 2003, p.20. [7] Cohen 1996, pp.172173. [8] Cohen 1996, p.175. [9] Cohen 1996, p.178. [10] Cohen 1996, p.180. [11] Cohen 1996, p.183. [12] Cohen 1996, p.184. [13] Cohen 1996, p.187. [14] Cohen 1996, p.189. [15] Cohen 1996, p.190. [16] Cohen 1996, p.185. [17] Ogawa 2007, p.2. [18] Perkins 2003, p.29. [19] Perkins 2003, p.30. [20] Perkins 2003, p.31. [21] Reynolds 2001, p.177. [22] Perkins 2003, pp.3233. [23] Kim 2002, p.7S. [24] Perkins 2003, p.34. [25] Kim 2002, p.8S. [26] Perkins 2003, p.35.
[27] [28] [29] [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] [37] Kim 2002, p.9S. American Institute of Chemical Engineers 2003a. Rice University. Carberry 2001, pp.12. Towler & Sinnott 2008, pp.23. McCabe, Smith & Hariott 1993, p.4. Silla 2003, pp.89. Bird, Stewart & Lightfoot 2002, pp.12. Garner 2003, pp.4748. American Institute of Chemical Engineers 2003, Article III. Garner 2003, pp.4950.
Bibliography
American Institute of Chemical Engineers (2003-01-17), AIChE Constitution (http://www.aiche.org/About/ WhoWeAre/Governance/Constitution.aspx), retrieved 2011-08-13. Bird, R. Byron; Stewart, Warren E.; Lightfoot, Edwin N. (2002), Kulek, Petrina, ed., Transport Phenomena (http://books.google.com/books?id=L5FnNlIaGfcC) (2nd ed.), United States: John Wiley & Sons, ISBN0-471-41077-2, LCCQA929.B% 2001, LCCN2001-23739. Carberry, James J., Chemical and Catalytic Reaction Engineering (http://books.google.com/ books?id=arJLaKa4yDQC), McGraw-Hill Chemical Engineering Series, Canada: General Publishing Company, ISBN0-486-41736-0, LCCTP155.7.C37 2001, LCCN2001-17315. Cohen, Clive (June 1996), "The Early History of Chemical Engineering: A Reassessment" (http://www.ruf.rice. edu/~che/links/The early history of chemical engineering- a reassessment.pdf), The British Journal for the History of Science (Cambridge University Press) 29 (2), JSTOR4027832. Rice University, Engineering the Future of Biology and Biotechnology (http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~che/ research/white_paper_1.html), retrieved 2011-08-07. Garner, Geraldine O. (2003), Careers in engineering (http://books.google.com/books?id=6-c4P223B1YC), VGM Professional Career Series (2nd ed.), United States: McGraw-Hill, ISBN0-07-139041-3, LCCTA157.G3267 2002, LCCN2002-27208. Kim, Irene (January 2002), "Chemical engineering: A rich and diverse history" (http://www.clarkson.edu/ ~wilcox/Design/evolvche.pdf), Chemical Engineering Progress (Philadelphia: American Institute of Chemical Engineers) 98 (1), ISSN0360-7275. McCabe, Warren L.; Smith, Julian C.; Hariott, Peter (1993), Clark, B.J.; Castellano, Eleanor, eds., Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering, McGraw-Hill Chemical Engineering Series (5th ed.), Singapore: McGraw-Hill, ISBN0-07-044844-2, LCCTP155.7.M393 1993, LCCN92-unknown operator: u'.'. Ogawa, Khei (2007), "Chapter 1: Information Entropy" (http://books.google.com/ books?id=3oWkzyazNCgC), Chemical engineering: a new perspective (1st ed.), Netherlands: Elsevier, ISBN978-0-444-53096-7. Perkins, J.D. (2003), "Chapter 2: Chemical Engineering the First 100 Years" (http://www.scribd.com/doc/ 7011048/Chemical-Engineering-the-First-1-O0-Years), in Darton, R.C.; Prince, R.G.H.; Wood, D.G., Chemical Engineering: Visions of the World (http://books.google.com/books?id=VCLt0shyTQMC) (1st ed.), Netherlands: Elsevier Science, ISBN0 444 51309 4. Reynolds, Terry S. (2001), "Engineering, Chemical" (http://books.google.com/books?id=K1fXRZIosJMC), in Rothenberg, Marc, History of Science in United States: An Encyclopedia, New York City: Garland Publishing, ISBN0-8153-0762-4, LCCQ127.U6 H57 2000, LCCN99-43757. Silla, Harry (2003), Chemical Process Engineering: Design and Economics (http://books.google.com/ books?id=lWmIX0r-XggC), New York City: Marcel Dekker, ISBN0-8247-4274-5. American Institute of Chemical Engineers (2003a), "Speeding up the human genome project" (http://www. clarkson.edu/~wilcox/Design/evolvche.pdf), Chemical Engineering Progress (Philadelphia) 99 (1),
Chemical engineering ISSN0360-7275. Towler, Gavin; Sinnott, Ray (2008), Chemical engineering design: principles, practice and economics of plant and process design (http://books.google.com/books?id=EkK8X54BsTIC), United States: Elsevier, ISBN978-0-7506-8423-1.
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Chemical engineer
Chemical engineers design, construct and operate plants
Part of a series on
History Concepts Unit operations Unit processes Chemical engineer Chemical process Process integration Unit operations Momentum transfer Heat transfer Mass transfer Mechanical operations
Chemical engineer
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Unit process Chemical reaction engineering Chemical kinetics Chemical process modeling Chemical technology Process integration Branches Process design Fluid mechanics Process systems engineering Chemical plant design Chemical thermodynamics Transport phenomena *More* others Outline of chemical engineering Index of chemical engineering articles Education for chemical engineers List of chemical engineers List of chemical engineering societies List of chemical process simulators Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook Category:Chemical engineering
In the field of engineering, a chemical engineer is the profession in which one works principally in the chemical industry to convert basic raw materials into a variety of products, and deals with the design and operation of plants and equipment to perform such work.[1] In general, a chemical engineer is one who applies and uses principles of chemical engineering in any of various practical applications; primarily with respect to the study of the design, manufacture, and operation of plant and machinery in industrial chemical and related processes. However, modern chemical engineers are becoming more heavily involved in the development of new technologies such as fuel cells, hydrogen power and nanotechnology, as well as working in fields such as polymer engineering and biomedical engineering. A number of famous or historical chemical engineers can be found in the list of chemical engineers.
History
The term appeared in print in 1839, though from the context it suggests a person with mechanical engineering knowledge working in the chemical industry.[2] In 1880, George E. Davis wrote in a letter to Chemical News 'A Chemical Engineer is a person who possesses chemical and mechanical knowledge, and who applies that knowledge to the utilisation, on a manufacturing scale, of chemical action.' He proposed the name Society of Chemical Engineers, for what was in fact constituted as the Society of Chemical Industry. At the first General Meeting of the Society in 1882, some 15 of the 300 members described themselves as chemical engineers, but the Society's formation of a Chemical Engineering Group in 1918 attracted about 400 members.[3] In 1905 a publication called The Chemical Engineer was founded in the USA, and in 1908 the American Institute of Chemical Engineers was established.[4] In 1924 the Institution of Chemical Engineers adopted the following definition 'A chemical engineer is a professional man experienced in the design, construction and operation of plant and works in which matter undergoes a change of state and composition.'[5] (The first female member joined in 1942.)[6]
Chemical engineer As can be seen from the later definition, the occupation is not limited to the chemical industry, but more generally the process industries, or other situations in which complex physical and/or chemical processes are to be managed. In 1951 the President of the Institution of Chemical Engineers said in his Presidential Address "I believe most of us would be willing to regard Edward Charles Howard (1774-1816) as the first chemical engineer of any eminence".[7] Others have suggested Johann Rudolf Glauber (16041670) for his development of processes for the manufacture of the major industrial acids.[8]
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Overview
Historically, the chemical engineer has been primarily concerned with process engineering. The modern discipline of chemical engineering, however, encompasses much more than just process engineering. Chemical engineers are now engaged in the development and production of a diverse range of products, as well as in commodity and specialty chemicals. These products include high performance materials needed for aerospace, automotive, biomedical, electronic, environmental and military applications. Examples include ultra-strong fibers, fabrics, adhesives and composites for vehicles, bio-compatible materials for implants and prosthetics, gels for medical applications, pharmaceuticals, and films with special dielectric, optical or spectroscopic properties for opto-electronic devices. Additionally, chemical engineering is often intertwined with biology and biomedical engineering. Many chemical engineers work on biological projects such as understanding biopolymers (proteins) and mapping the human genome.
Employment and Salaries

In the United States of America, the Department of Labor estimated in 2008 the number of chemical engineers to be 31,000. According to a 2011 salary survey by the American Institution of Chemical Engineers (AIChE), the median annual salary for a chemical engineer was approximately $110,000.[9] In one salary survey, chemical engineering was found to be highest-paying degree for first employment of college graduates.[10] Chemical engineering has been successively ranked in the Top 2 places in the Most Lucrative Degrees Survey by CNN Money in the United States of America.[11] [12] [13] In the UK, the Institution of Chemical Engineers 2006 Salary Survey reported an average salary of approximately 53,000, with a starting salary for a graduate averaging 24,000.[14] Chemical engineering is a male-dominated field: as of 2009, only 17.1% of professional chemical engineers are women.[15] However, that trend is expected to shift as the number of female students in the field continues to increase.[16]
References
[1] Licker, Mark, D. (2003). Dictionary of Engineering", McGraw-Hill, 2nd Ed. [2] Ure, Andrew (1839) A Dictionary of Arts Manufactures and Mines, London: Longman, Orme, Brown, Green & Longman, page 1220 [3] Colin Duvall and Sean F, Johnston (2000) Scaling Up: The Institution of Chemical Engineers and the Rise of a New Profession Kluwer Academic Publishers [4] John C. Olsen (December 1932), Chemical Engineering As A Profession: Origin and Early Growth of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (http:/ / www. aiche. org/ uploadedFiles/ About/ Centennial/ CE_Profession-A. pdf) [5] Transactions of the Institution of Chemical Engineers volume 2 page 23 (1924) [6] Colin Duvall and Sean F, Johnston (2000)Scaling Up: The Institution of Chemical Engineers and the Rise of a New Profession Kluwer Academic Publishers [7] Transactions of the IChemE (1951) Volume 29 page 163 [8] Herman Skolnik in W. F. Furter (ed) (1982) A Century of Chemical Engineering ISBN 0-306-40895-3 page 230 [9] U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics: Chemical Engineers (http:/ / www. bls. gov/ oes/ current/ oes172041. htm) [10] Chemical Engineering Ranked Highest Paying Degree (http:/ / chemical. princeton. edu/ news/ news_info. shtml?id=57), Department of Chemical Engineering, Princeton University, February 15, 2006 [11] (http:/ / money. cnn. com/ 2009/ 07/ 24/ news/ economy/ highest_starting_salaries/ index. htm), 2009 [12] (http:/ / money. cnn. com/ 2006/ 02/ 13/ pf/ college/ starting_salaries/ index. htm), 2006 [13] (http:/ / money. cnn. com/ 2007/ 07/ 11/ pf/ college/ starting_salaries/ index. htm), 2007 [14] Institution of Chemical Engineers Annual Review 2006
Chemical engineer
[15] "Chemical Engineer Careers: Employment & Salary Trends for Aspiring Chemical Engineers" (http:/ / www. collegedegreereport. com/ articles/ chemical-engineer-careers-employment-salary-trends-aspiring-chemical-engineers). CollegeDegreeReport.com. . [16] http:/ / www. intstudy. com/ articles/ sl275a43. htm
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External links
American Institute of Chemical Engineers (USA) (http://www.aiche.org/) Institution of Chemical Engineers (UK) (http://www.icheme.org) Canadian Society for Chemical Engineers (http://www.cheminst.ca/csche_home__e.htm) Engineers Australia (AUS) (http://www.ieaust.org/)
Chemical industry
The chemical industry comprises the companies that produce industrial chemicals. Central to the modern world economy, it converts raw materials (oil, natural gas, air, water, metals, and minerals) into more than 70,000 different products.
Products
Polymers and plastics, especially polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene terephthalate, polystyrene and Oil refinery in Louisiana - an example of chemical industry polycarbonate comprise about 80% of the industrys output worldwide. Chemicals are used to make a wide variety of consumer goods, as well as thousands inputs to agriculture, manufacturing, construction, and service industries. The chemical industry itself consumes 26 percent of its own output. Major industrial customers include rubber and plastic products, textiles, apparel, petroleum refining, pulp and paper, and primary metals. Chemicals is nearly a $3 trillion global enterprise, and the EU and U.S. chemical companies are the world's largest producers.
Chemical industry
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Product category breakdown

Sales of the chemical business can be divided into a few broad categories, including basic chemicals (about 35 to 37 percent of the dollar output), life sciences (30 percent), specialty chemicals (20 to 25 percent) and consumer products (about 10 percent).
Basic chemicals
Basic chemicals, or "commodity chemicals" are a broad chemical category including polymers, bulk petrochemicals and intermediates, other derivatives and basic industrials, inorganic chemicals, and fertilizers. Typical growth rates for basic chemicals are about 0.5 to 0.7 times GDP. Product prices are generally less than fifty cents per pound. Polymers, the largest revenue segment at about 33 percent of the basic chemicals dollar value, includes all categories of plastics and man-made fibers. The major markets for plastics are packaging, followed by home construction, containers, appliances, pipe, transportation, toys, and games. The largest-volume polymer product, polyethylene (PE), is used mainly in packaging films and other markets such as milk bottles, containers, and pipe.
1928 Future war and the German chemical industry
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), another large-volume product, is principally used to make pipe for construction markets as well as siding and, to a much smaller extent, transportation and packaging materials. Polypropylene (PP), similar in volume to PVC, is used in markets ranging from packaging, appliances, and containers to clothing and carpeting. Polystyrene (PS), another large-volume plastic, is used principally for appliances and packaging as well as toys and recreation. The leading man-made fibers include polyester, nylon, polypropylene, and acrylics, with applications including apparel, home furnishings, and other industrial and consumer use. The principal raw materials for polymers are bulk petrochemicals. Chemicals in the bulk petrochemicals and intermediates are primarily made from liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), natural gas, and crude oil. Their sales volume is close to 30 percent of overall basic chemicals. Typical large-volume products include ethylene, propylene, benzene, toluene, xylenes, methanol, vinyl chloride monomer (VCM), styrene, butadiene, and ethylene oxide. These chemicals are the starting points for most polymers and other organic chemicals as well as much of the specialty chemicals category. Other derivatives and basic industrials include synthetic rubber, surfactants, dyes and pigments, turpentine, resins, carbon black, explosives, and rubber products and contribute about 20 percent of the basic chemicals' external sales. Inorganic chemicals (about 12 percent of the revenue output) make up the oldest of the chemical categories. Products include salt, chlorine, caustic soda, soda ash, acids (such as nitric acid, phosphoric acid, and sulfuric acid), titanium dioxide, and hydrogen peroxide. Fertilizers are the smallest category (about 6 percent) and include phosphates, ammonia, and potash chemicals.
Chemical industry
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Life sciences
Life sciences (about 30 percent of the dollar output of the chemistry business) include differentiated chemical and biological substances, pharmaceuticals, diagnostics, animal health products, vitamins, and pesticides. While much smaller in volume than other chemical sectors, their products tend to have very high pricesover ten dollars per poundgrowth rates of 1.5 to 6 times GDP, and research and development spending at 15 to 25 percent of sales. Life science products are usually produced with very high specifications and are closely scrutinized by government agencies such as the Food and Drug Administration. Pesticides, also called "crop protection chemicals", are about 10 percent of this category and include herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides.
Specialty chemicals
Specialty chemicals are a category of relatively high valued, rapidly growing chemicals with diverse end product markets. Typical growth rates are one to three times GDP with prices over a dollar per pound. They are generally characterized by their innovative aspects. Products are sold for what they can do rather than for what chemicals they contain. Products include electronic chemicals, industrial gases, adhesives and sealants as well as coatings, industrial and institutional cleaning chemicals, and catalysts. Coatings make up about 15 percent of specialty chemicals sales, with other products ranging from 10 to 13 percent. Specialty Chemicals are sometimes referred to as "fine chemicals"
Consumer products
Consumer products include direct product sale of chemicals such as soaps, detergents, and cosmetics. Typical growth rates are 0.8 to 1.0 times GDP. Every year, the American Chemistry Council tabulates the U.S. production volume of the top 100 basic chemicals. In 2000, the aggregate production volume of the top 100 chemicals totalled 502 million tons, up from 397 million tons in 1990. Inorganic chemicals tend to be the largest volume, though much smaller in dollar revenue terms due to their low prices. The top 11 of the 100 chemicals in 2000 were sulfuric acid (44 million tons), nitrogen (34), ethylene (28), oxygen (27), lime (22), ammonia (17), propylene (16), polyethylene (15), chlorine (13), phosphoric acid (13) and diammonium phosphates (12).
Companies
The largest corporate producers worldwide, each with plants in numerous countries, include BASF, Bayer, Braskem, Celanese/Ticona, Degussa, Dow, DuPont, Eastman Chemical Company, ExxonMobil, INEOS, Mitsubishi, PPG Industries, SABIC and Shell, along with thousands of smaller firms. In the U.S. there are 170 major chemical companies. They operate internationally with more than 2,800 facilities outside the U.S. and 1,700 foreign subsidiaries or affiliates operating. The U.S. chemical output is $400 billion a year. The U.S. industry records large trade surpluses and employs more than a million people in the United States alone. The chemical industry is also the second largest consumer of energy in manufacturing and spends over $5 billion annually on pollution abatement. In Europe, especially Germany, the chemical, plastics and rubber sectors are among the largest industrial sectors. Together they generate about 3.2 million jobs in more than 60,000 companies. Since 2000 the chemical sector alone has represented 2/3 of the entire manufacturing trade surplus of the EU. The chemical sector accounts for 12% of the EU manufacturing industry's added value. The chemical industry has shown rapid growth for more than fifty years. The fastest-growing areas have involved the manufacture of synthetic organic polymers used as plastics, fibres and elastomers. Historically and presently the chemical industry has been concentrated in three areas of the world, Western Europe, North America and Japan (the Triad). The European Community remains the largest producer area followed by the USA and Japan.
Chemical industry The traditional dominance of chemical production by the Triad countries is being challenged by changes in feedstock availability and price, labour cost, energy cost, differential rates of economic growth and environmental pressures. Instrumental in the changing structure of the global chemical industry has been the growth in China, India, Korea, the Middle East, South East Asia, Nigeria, and Brazil.
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Technology
As accepted by chemical engineers, the chemical industry involves the use of chemical processes such as chemical reactions and refining methods to produce a wide variety of solid, liquid, and gaseous materials. Most of these products are used in manufacture of other items, although a smaller number are used directly by consumers. Solvents, pesticides, lye, washing soda, and portland cement are a few examples of product used by consumers. The industry includes manufacturers of inorganic- and organic-industrial chemicals, ceramic products, petrochemicals, agrochemicals, polymers and rubber (elastomers), oleochemicals (oils, fats, and waxes), explosives, fragrances and flavors. Examples of these products are shown in the Table below.
This is a process diagram of a turbine generator. Knowing how to design a sustainable process in which the system can withstand or manipulate process halting conditions such as; heat, fiction, pressure, emissions, contaminants, is essential for engineers working to produce a sustainable process for use in the chemical industry.
Product Type inorganic industrial organic industrial ceramic products petrochemicals agrochemicals polymers elastomers oleochemicals explosives
Examples ammonia, nitrogen, sodium hydroxide, sulfuric acid, nitric acid acrylonitrile, phenol, ethylene oxide, urea silica brick, frit ethylene, propylene, benzene, styrene fertilizers, insecticides, herbicides polyethylene, Bakelite, polyester polyisoprene, neoprene, polyurethane lard, soybean oil, stearic acid nitroglycerin, ammonium nitrate, nitrocellulose
fragrances and flavors benzyl benzoate, coumarin, vanillin
Chemical industry
17
Although the pharmaceutical industry is often considered a chemical industry , it has many different characteristics that puts it in a separate category. Other closely related industries include petroleum, glass, paint, ink, sealant, adhesive, and food processing manufacturers. Chemical processes such as chemical reactions are used in chemical plants to form new substances in various types of reaction vessels. In many cases the reactions are conducted in special corrosion resistant equipment at elevated temperatures and pressures with the use of catalysts. The products of these reactions are separated using a variety of techniques including distillation especially fractional distillation, precipitation, crystallization, adsorption, filtration, sublimation, and drying. The processes and product or products are usually tested during and after manufacture by dedicated instruments and on-site quality control laboratories to ensure safe operation and to assure that the product will The novel chemical reactor reduces the amount of solvents used from 1000 litres to just 4 litres. meet required specifications. The products are packaged and delivered by many methods, including pipelines, tank-cars, and tank-trucks (for both solids and liquids), cylinders, drums, bottles, and boxes. Chemical companies often have a research and development laboratory for developing and testing products and processes. These facilities may include pilot plants, and such research facilities may be located at a site separate from the production plant(s).
History
Chandler (2005) argues the relative success or failure of American and European chemical companies is explained with reference to three themes: "barriers to entry," "strategic boundaries," and "limits to growth." He says successful chemical firms followed definite "paths of learning" whereby first movers and close followers created entry barriers to would-be rivals by building "integrated learning bases" (or organizational capabilities) which enabled them to develop, produce, distribute, and sell in local and then worldwide markets. Also they followed a "virtuous strategy" of reinvestment of retained earnings and growth through diversification, particularly to utilize "dynamic" scale and scope economies relating to new learning in launching "next generation" products.
Companies in the 21st century

The chemical industry includes large, medium, and small companies located worldwide. Companies with sales of chemical products greater than $10 billion dollars in fiscal year 2007 appear listed below. For some of these companies the chemical sales might represent only a portion of their total sales; (for example ExxonMobil's chemical sales covered only 8.7 percent of their total sales in 2005).
Chemical industry
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COMPANY, HEADQUARTERS BASF SE, Ludwigshafen, Germany Dow Chemical, Midland, Michigan, USA INEOS, Lyndhurst, UK LyondellBasell, Houston, Texas, USA Formosa Plastics, Taiwan DuPont, Wilmington, Delaware, USA Saudi Basic Industries Corporation, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia Bayer, AG, Leverkusen, Germany Mitsubishi Chemical, Tokyo, Japan
[1] Rank Country 2007 Chemical Sales, billions $65.3 $53.5 $43.6 $42.8 $31.9 $28.5 $26.4 $24.2 $22.2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Akzo Nobel/Imperial Chemical Industries(ICI), Amsterdam/London $19.9 Air Liquide, Paris, France Sumitomo Chemical, Tokyo, Japan Evonik Industries, AG, Essen, Germany Mitsui Chemicals, Tokyo, Japan Asahi Kasei, Tokyo, Japan Toray Industries, Tokyo, Japan Chevron Phillips, The Woodlands, Texas, USA DSM NV, Heerlen, Netherlands PPG Industries, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA Shin-Etsu Chemical Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan $16.3 $15.2 $15.0 $14.3 $13.8 $13.1 $12.5 $12.1 $11.2 $11.1
Global Chemical Shipments by Country/Region [2] (billions of dollars) United States of America Canada Mexico North America Brazil Other Latin America France Germany Italy United Kingdom Belgium Ireland Netherlands
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2008
2009
416.7 21.1 19.1 456.9 46.5 59.2 105.7 79.1 124.9 63.9 70.3 27.1 16.9 29.7
420.3 21.8 21.0 463.1 40.0 58.1 98.1 78.5 123.2 64.6 70.1 27.0 20.1 29.4
449.2 25.0 23.8 498.0 45.7 60.8 106.5 76.5 118.9 59.5 66.8 27.5 22.6 31.3
438.4 24.8 24.4 487.6 41.5 63.4 104.9 76.8 116.1 58.6 66.4 27.1 22.9 30.6
462.5 25.8 24.3 512.6 39.6 58.6 98.2 80.5 120.1 64.5 69.9 28.7 29.1 32.2
487.7 30.5 23.5 541.7 47.4 62.9 110.3 99.6 148.1 75.8 77.3 36.1 32.3 40.1
540.9 36.2 25.6 602.7 60.2 69.9 130.0 111.1 168.6 86.6 91.3 41.8 33.9 49.0
610.9 40.2 29.2 680.3 71.1 77.2 148.3 117.5 178.6 89.8 95.2 43.5 34.9 52.7
657.7 43.7 32.0 733.4 82.8 84.6 167.4 121.3 192.5 95.3 107.8 46.9 37.5 59.2
664.1 45.4 33.4 742.8 96.4 89.5 185.9 138.4 229.5 105.9 118.2 51.6 46.0 67.9
689.3 47.4 37.8 774.6 126.7 102.1 228.8 158.9 263.2 122.9 123.4 62.6 54.8 81.7
Chemical industry
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31.0 11.1 22.1 27.1 503.1 23.8 22.3 46.1 52.7 193.8 215.2 80.9 30.7 11.3 39.3 6.3 21.9 24.8 409.0 30.8 11.4 22.2 26.8 504.0 24.6 20.3 44.9 53.2 220.4 241.9 87.8 35.3 12.1 45.5 8.5 23.7 29.1 462.3 30.8 11.2 19.4 25.9 490.4 27.4 21.9 49.3 59.2 239.7 276.1 103.6 35.3 11.2 56.3 9.5 29.2 30.9 515.7 31.9 11.0 21.1 26.4 488.8 29.1 23.4 52.5 57.4 208.3 271.5 111.0 32.5 10.8 50.4 9.4 26.8 30.8 479.7 33.4 12.5 25.5 27.9 524.4 30.3 25.3 55.6 60.4 197.2 300.5 126.5 33.5 11.3 54.9 12.5 28.4 33.3 497.7 42.0 15.9 30.3 33.5 630.9 33.4 31.4 64.8 73.0 218.8 369.1 159.9 40.8 14.9 64.4 16.1 34.3 38.8 587.8 48.9 18.2 33.8 38.6 721.9 37.5 39.6 77.1 86.4 243.6 463.9 205.0 53.3 17.0 78.7 20.0 44.5 45.5 707.5 52.7 19.3 35.4 42.9 762.7 40.9 46.2 87.1 99.3 251.3 567.5 269.0 63.6 18.7 91.9 22.0 49.5 52.9 818.8 56.7 21.2 37.8 46.2 822.4 53.1 55.0 108.0 109.6 248.5 668.8 331.4 72.5 19.1 103.4 25.8 53.8 62.9 917.3 63.7 21.2 42.7 50.3 935.4 63.0 68.4 131.3 124.2 245.4 795.5 406.4 91.1 22.8 116.7 28.9 57.4 72.2 74.8 22.6 53.1 58.9 1,076.8 77.6 87.5 165.1 160.4 298.0 993.2 549.4 98.2 27.1 133.2 31.6 62.9 90.8
Spain Sweden Switzerland Other Western Europe Russia Other Central/Eastern Europe Africa & Middle East Japan Asia-Pacific excluding Japan China India Australia Korea Singapore Taiwan Other Asia/Pacific Asia/Pacific Total world shipments
1041.0 1291.2
1573.5 1625.5 1719.0 1670.9 1748.8 2008.5 2325.6 2596.4 2858.1 3160.7 3696.8
Just as companies emerge as the main producers of the chemical industry, we can also look on a more global scale to how industrialized countries rank, with regards to the billions of dollars worth of production a country or region could export. Though the business of chemistry is worldwide in scope, the bulk of the worlds $3.7 trillion chemical output is accounted for by only a handful of industrialized nations. The United States alone produced $689 billion, 18.6 percent of the total world chemical output in 2008.[2]
References
[1] "INEOS_Gassmaks09_Trondheim_Final" (http:/ / www. forskningsradet. no/ servlet/ Satellite?blobcol=urldata& blobheader=application/ pdf& blobheadername1=Content-Disposition:& blobheadervalue1=+ attachment;+ filename=INEOSSteinarKvisleGassmaks09TrondheimFinal. pdf& blobkey=id& blobtable=MungoBlobs& blobwhere=1243463935690& ssbinary=true). . Retrieved 2009-06-06. [2] Global (http:/ / www. americanchemistry. com/ s_acc/ sec_directory. asp?CID=292& DID=747)
Fred Aftalion A History of the International Chemical Industry. University of Pennsylvania Press. 1991. online version (http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=10894619) E. N. Brandt. Growth Company: Dow Chemical's First Century. Michigan State University Press. xxii+ 650 pp. Appendices, Select bibliography and index. ISBN 0-87013-426-4. online review (http://eh.net/bookreviews/ library/0207.shtml) Alfred D. Chandler. Shaping the Industrial Century: The Remarkable Story of the Evolution of the Modern Chemical and Pharmaceutical Industries. Harvard University Press, 2005. 366 pp.ISBN 0-674-01720-X. chapters 3-6 deal with DuPont, Dow Chemicals, Monsanto, American Cyanamid, Union Carbide, and Allied in USA; and European chemical producers, Bayer, Farben, and ICI.
Chemical industry Micheal McCoy, et al., "Facts & Figures of the Chemical Industry", Chemical & Engineering News, 84(29), July 10, 2006, pp.3572. Shreve, R. Norris, and Joseph A. Brink Jr. The Chemical Process Industries. 4th ed. New York: McGraw Hill, 1977.
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Chemical process
Part of a series on
Chemical process In a "scientific" sense, a chemical process is a method or means of somehow changing one or more chemicals or chemical compounds. Such a chemical process can occur by itself or be caused by somebody. Such a chemical process commonly involves a chemical reaction of some sort. In an "engineering" sense, a chemical process is a method intended to be used in manufacturing or on an industrial scale (see Industrial process) to change the composition of chemical(s) or material(s), usually using technology similar or related to that used in chemical plants or the chemical industry. Neither of these definitions is exact in the sense that one can always tell definitively what is a chemical process and what is not; they are practical definitions. There is also significant overlap in these two definition variations. Because of the inexactness of the definition, chemists and other scientists use the term "chemical process" only in a general sense or in the engineering sense. However, in the "process (engineering)" sense, the term "chemical process" is used extensively. The rest of the article will cover the engineering type of chemical process. Although this type of chemical process may sometimes involve only one step, often multiple steps, referred to as unit operations, are involved. In a plant, each of the unit operations commonly occur in individual vessels or sections of the plant called units. Often, one or more chemical reactions are involved, but other ways of changing chemical (or material) composition may be used, such as mixing or separation processes. The process steps may be sequential in time or sequential in space along a stream of flowing or moving material; see Chemical plant. For a given amount of a feed (input) material or product (output) material, an expected amount of material can be determined at key steps in the process from empirical data and material balance calculations. These amounts can be scaled up or down to suit the desired capacity or operation of a particular chemical plant built for such a process. More than one chemical plant may use the same chemical process, each plant perhaps at differently scaled capacities. Such chemical processes can be illustrated generally as block flow diagrams or in more detail as process flow diagrams. Block flow diagrams show the units as blocks and the streams flowing between them as connecting lines with arrowheads to show direction of flow. In addition to chemical plants for producing chemicals, chemical processes with similar technology and equipment are also used in oil refining and other refineries, natural gas processing, polymer and pharmaceutical manufacturing, food processing, and water and wastewater treatment.
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Unit processing in chemical engineering

Unit processing is the basic processing in chemical engineering. Together with unit operations it forms the main principle of the varied chemical industries. Each genre of unit processing follows the same chemical law much as each genre of unit operations follows the same physical law. Chemical engineering unit processing consists of the following important processes: Oxidation Reduction Hydrogenation Dehydrogenation Hydrolysis Hydration reaction Dehydration Halogenation Nitrification Sulfonation Ammoniation
Alkaline fusion Alkylation Dealkylation
Chemical process Esterification Polymerization Polycondensation Catalysis
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Inorganic chemistry
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Inorganic chemistry
Inorganic chemistry is the branch of chemistry concerned with the properties and behavior of inorganic compounds. This field covers all chemical compounds except the myriad organic compounds (carbon based compounds, usually containing C-H bonds), which are the subjects of organic chemistry. The distinction between the two disciplines is far from absolute, and there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of organometallic chemistry.
Inorganic compounds show rich variety:A: Diborane features unusual bondingB: Caesium chloride has an archetypal crystal structureC: Fp2 is an organometallic complexD: Silicone's uses range from breast implants to Silly PuttyE: Grubbs' catalyst won the 2005 Nobel Prize for its discovererF: Zeolites find extensive use as molecular sievesG: Copper(II) acetate surprised theoreticians with its diamagnetism
Inorganic chemistry
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Key concepts
Many inorganic compounds are ionic compounds, consisting of cations and anions joined by ionic bonding. Examples of salts (which are ionic compounds) are magnesium chloride MgCl2, which consists of magnesium cations Mg2+ and chloride anions Cl; or sodium oxide Na2O, which consists of sodium cations Na+ and oxide anions O2. In any salt, the proportions of the ions are such that the electric charges cancel out, so that the bulk compound is electrically neutral. The ions are described by their oxidation state and their ease of formation can be inferred from the ionization potential (for cations) or from the electron affinity (anions) of the parent elements. Important classes of inorganic salts are the oxides, the carbonates, the sulfates and the halides. Many inorganic compounds are characterized by high melting points. Inorganic salts typically are poor conductors in the solid state. Another important feature is their solubility in water e.g. (see: solubility chart), and ease of crystallization. Where some salts (e.g. NaCl) are very soluble in water, others (e.g. SiO2) are not.
The structure of the ionic framework in potassium oxide, K2O
The simplest inorganic reaction is double displacement when in mixing of two salts the ions are swapped without a change in oxidation state. In redox reactions one reactant, the oxidant, lowers its oxidation state and another reactant, the reductant, has its oxidation state increased. The net result is an exchange of electrons. Electron exchange can occur indirectly as well, e.g. in batteries, a key concept in electrochemistry. When one reactant contains hydrogen atoms, a reaction can take place by exchanging protons in acid-base chemistry. In a more general definition, an acid can be any chemical species capable of binding to electron pairs is called a Lewis acid; conversely any molecule that tends to donate an electron pair is referred to as a Lewis base. As a refinement of acid-base interactions, the HSAB theory takes into account polarizability and size of ions. Inorganic compounds are found in nature as minerals. Soil may contain iron sulfide as pyrite or calcium sulfate as gypsum. Inorganic compounds are also found multitasking as biomolecules: as electrolytes (sodium chloride), in energy storage (ATP) or in construction (the polyphosphate backbone in DNA). The first important man-made inorganic compound was ammonium nitrate for soil fertilization through the Haber process. Inorganic compounds are synthesized for use as catalysts such as vanadium(V) oxide and titanium(III) chloride, or as reagents in organic chemistry such as lithium aluminium hydride. Subdivisions of inorganic chemistry are organometallic chemistry, cluster chemistry and bioinorganic chemistry. These fields are active areas of research in inorganic chemistry, aimed toward new catalysts, superconductors, and therapies.
Industrial inorganic chemistry

Inorganic chemistry is a highly practical area of science. Traditionally, the scale of a nation's economy could be evaluated by their productivity of sulfuric acid. The top 20 inorganic chemicals manufactured in Canada, China, Europe, Japan, and the US (2005 data):[1] aluminium sulfate, ammonia, ammonium nitrate, ammonium sulfate, carbon black, chlorine, hydrochloric acid, hydrogen, hydrogen peroxide, nitric acid, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphoric acid, sodium carbonate, sodium chlorate, sodium hydroxide, sodium silicate, sodium sulfate, sulfuric acid, and titanium dioxide. The manufacturing of fertilizers is another practical application of industrial inorganic chemistry.
Inorganic chemistry
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Descriptive inorganic chemistry

Descriptive inorganic chemistry focuses on the classification of compounds based on their properties. Partly the classification focuses on the position in the periodic table of the heaviest element (the element with the highest atomic weight) in the compound, partly by grouping compounds by their structural similarities. When studying inorganic compounds, one often encounters parts of the different classes of inorganic chemistry (an organometallic compound is characterized by its coordination chemistry, and may show interesting solid state properties). Different classifications are:
Coordination compounds
Classical coordination compounds feature metals bound to "lone pairs" of electrons residing on the main group atoms of ligands such as H2O, NH3, Cl, and CN. In modern coordination compounds almost all organic and inorganic compounds can be used as ligands. The "metal" usually is a metal from the groups 3-13, as well as the trans-lanthanides and trans-actinides, but from a certain perspective, all chemical compounds can be described as coordination complexes. The stereochemistry of coordination complexes can be quite rich, as hinted at by Werner's separation of two enantiomers of [Co((OH)2Co(NH3)4)3]6+, an early demonstration that chirality is not inherent to organic compounds. A topical theme within this specialization is supramolecular coordination chemistry.[2] Examples: [Co(EDTA)], [Co(NH3)6]3+, TiCl4(THF)2.
EDTA chelates an octahedrally coordinated Co3+ ion in [Co(EDTA)]
Main group compounds

These species feature elements from groups 1, 2 and 13-18 (excluding hydrogen) of the periodic table. Due to their often similar reactivity, the elements in group 3 (Sc, Y, and La) and group 12 (Zn, Cd, and Hg) are also generally included.[3] Main group compounds have been known since the beginnings of chemistry, e.g. elemental sulfur and the distillable white phosphorus. Experiments on oxygen, O2, by Lavoisier and Priestley not only identified an important diatomic gas, but opened the way for describing compounds and reactions according to stoichiometric ratios. The discovery of a practical synthesis of ammonia using iron catalysts by Carl Bosch and Fritz Haber in the early 1900s deeply impacted mankind, demonstrating the Tetrasulfur tetranitride, S4N4, is a main group significance of inorganic chemical synthesis. Typical main group compound that continues to intrigue chemists compounds are SiO2, SnCl4, and N2O. Many main group compounds can also be classed as organometallic, as they contain organic groups, e.g. B(CH3)3). Main group compounds also occur in nature, e.g. phosphate in DNA, and therefore may be classed as bioinorganic. Conversely, organic compounds lacking (many) hydrogen ligands can be classed as inorganic, such as the fullerenes, buckytubes and binary carbon oxides. Examples: tetrasulfur tetranitride S4N4, diborane B2H6, silicones, buckminsterfullerene C60.
Inorganic chemistry
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Transition metal compounds

Compounds containing metals from group 4 to 11 are considered transition metal compounds. Compounds with a metal from group 3 or 12 are sometimes also incorporated into this group, but also often classified as main group compounds. Transition metal compounds show a rich coordination chemistry, varying from tetrahedral for titanium (e.g. TiCl4) to square planar for some nickel complexes to octahedral for coordination complexes of cobalt. A range of transition metals can be found in biologically important compounds, such as iron in hemoglobin. Examples: iron pentacarbonyl, titanium tetrachloride, cisplatin
Organometallic compounds
Usually, organometallic compounds are considered to contain the M-C-H group.[4] The metal (M) in these species can either be a main group element or a transition metal. Operationally, the definition of an organometallic compound is more relaxed to include also highly lipophilic complexes such as metal carbonyls and even metal alkoxides. Organometallic compounds are mainly considered a special category because organic ligands are often sensitive to hydrolysis or oxidation, necessitating that organometallic chemistry employs more specialized preparative methods than was traditional in Werner-type complexes. Synthetic methodology, especially the ability to manipulate complexes in solvents of low coordinating power, enabled the exploration of very weakly coordinating ligands such as hydrocarbons, H2, and N2. Because the ligands are petrochemicals in some sense, the area of organometallic chemistry has greatly benefited from its relevance to industry.
Organolithium reagents are most often found in polymeric form, such as n-butyllithium shown here
Examples: Cyclopentadienyliron dicarbonyl dimer (C5H5)Fe(CO)2CH3, Ferrocene Fe(C5H5)2, Molybdenum hexacarbonyl Mo(CO)6, Diborane B2H6, Tetrakis(triphenylphosphine)palladium(0) Pd[P(C6H5)3]4
Cluster compounds
Clusters can be found in all classes of chemical compounds. According to the commonly accepted definition, a cluster consists minimally of a triangular set of atoms that are directly bonded to each other. But metal-metal bonded dimetallic complexes are highly relevant to the area. Clusters occur in "pure" inorganic systems, organometallic chemistry, main group chemistry, and bioinorganic chemistry. The distinction between very large clusters and bulk solids is increasingly blurred. This interface is the chemical basis of nanoscience or nanotechnology and specifically arise from the study of quantum size effects in cadmium selenide clusters. Thus, large clusters can be described as an array of bound atoms intermediate in character between a molecule and a solid.
Decaborane is a powerfully toxic cluster compound of boron
Examples: Fe3(CO)12, B10H14, [Mo6Cl14]2, 4Fe-4S
Inorganic chemistry
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Iron-sulfur clusters are central components of iron-sulfur proteins, essential for human metabolism
Bioinorganic compounds
By definition, these compounds occur in nature, but the subfield includes anthropogenic species, such as pollutants (e.g. methylmercury) and drugs (e.g. Cisplatin).[5] The field, which incorporates many aspects of biochemistry, includes many kinds of compounds, e.g. the phosphates in DNA, and also metal complexes containing ligands that range from biological macromolecules, commonly peptides, to ill-defined species such as humic acid, and to water (e.g. coordinated to gadolinium The octahedral cobalt centre of Vitamin B12 complexes employed for MRI). Traditionally bioinorganic chemistry focuses on electron- and energy-transfer in proteins relevant to respiration. Medicinal inorganic chemistry includes the study of both non-essential and essential elements with applications to diagnosis and therapies. Examples: hemoglobin, methylmercury, carboxypeptidase
Solid state compounds

This important area focuses on structure,[6] bonding, and the physical properties of materials. In practice, solid state inorganic chemistry uses techniques such as crystallography to gain an understanding of the properties that result from collective interactions between the subunits of the solid. Included in solid state chemistry are metals and their alloys or intermetallic derivatives. Related fields are condensed matter physics, mineralogy, and materials science. Examples: silicon chips, zeolites, YBa2Cu3O7
Theoretical inorganic chemistry

An alternative perspective on the area of inorganic chemistry begins with the Bohr model of the atom and, using the tools and models of theoretical chemistry and computational chemistry, expands into bonding in simple and then more complex molecules. Precise quantum mechanical descriptions for
YBa2Cu3O7, or YBCO, is a high temperature superconductor able to levitate above a magnet when colder than its critical temperature of about 90 K (183C)
Inorganic chemistry multielectron species, the province of inorganic chemistry, is difficult. This challenge has spawned many semi-quantitative or semi-empirical approaches including molecular orbital theory and ligand field theory, In parallel with these theoretical descriptions, approximate methodologies are employed, including density functional theory. Exceptions to theories, qualitative and quantitative, are extremely important in the development of the field. For example, CuII2(OAc)4(H2O)2 is almost diamagnetic below room temperature whereas Crystal Field Theory predicts that the molecule would have two unpaired electrons. The disagreement between qualitative theory (paramagnetic) and observation (diamagnetic) led to the development of models for "magnetic coupling." These improved models led to the development of new magnetic materials and new technologies.
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Qualitative theories
Inorganic chemistry has greatly benefited from qualitative theories. Such theories are easier to learn as they require little background in quantum theory. Within main group compounds, VSEPR theory powerfully predicts, or at least rationalizes, the structures of main group compounds, such as an explanation for why NH3 is pyramidal whereas ClF3 is T-shaped. For the transition metals, crystal field theory allows one to understand the magnetism of many simple complexes, such as why [FeIII(CN)6]3 Crystal field theory explains why [FeIII(CN)6]3 has has only one unpaired electron, whereas [FeIII(H2O)6]3+ has five. only one unpaired electron A particularly powerful qualitative approach to assessing the structure and reactivity begins with classifying molecules according to electron counting, focusing on the numbers of valence electrons, usually at the central atom in a molecule.
Molecular symmetry group theory

A central construct in inorganic chemistry is the theory of molecular symmetry.[7] Mathematical group theory provides the language to describe the shapes of molecules according to their point group symmetry. Group theory also enables factoring and simplification of theoretical calculations. Spectroscopic features are analyzed and described with respect to the symmetry properties of the, inter alia, vibrational or electronic states. Knowledge of the symmetry properties of the ground and excited states allows one to predict the numbers and intensities of absorptions in vibrational and electronic spectra. A classic Nitrogen dioxide, NO2, exhibits C2v symmetry application of group theory is the prediction of the number of C-O vibrations in substituted metal carbonyl complexes. The most common applications of symmetry to spectroscopy involve vibrational and electronic spectra. As an instructional tool, group theory highlights commonalities and differences in the bonding of otherwise disparate species, such as WF6 and Mo(CO)6 or CO2 and NO2.
Inorganic chemistry
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Thermodynamics and inorganic chemistry

An alternative quantitative approach to inorganic chemistry focuses on energies of reactions. This approach is highly traditional and empirical, but it is also useful. Broad concepts that are couched in thermodynamic terms include redox potential, acidity, phase changes. A classic concept in inorganic thermodynamics is the Born-Haber cycle, which is used for assessing the energies of elementary processes such as electron affinity, some of which cannot be observed directly.
Mechanistic inorganic chemistry

An important and increasingly popular aspect of inorganic chemistry focuses on reaction pathways. The mechanisms of reactions are discussed differently for different classes of compounds.
Main group elements and lanthanides

The mechanisms of main group compounds of groups 13-18 are usually discussed in the context of organic chemistry (organic compounds are main group compounds, after all). Elements heavier than C, N, O, and F often form compounds with more electrons than predicted by the octet rule, as explained in the article on hypervalent molecules. The mechanisms of their reactions differ from organic compounds for this reason. Elements lighter than carbon (B, Be, Li) as well as Al and Mg often form electron-deficient structures that are electronically akin to carbocations. Such electron-deficient species tend to react via associative pathways. The chemistry of the lanthanides mirrors many aspects of chemistry seen for aluminium.
Transition metal complexes

Mechanisms for the reactions of transition metals are discussed differently from main group compounds.[8] The important role of d-orbitals in bonding strongly influences the pathways and rates of ligand substitution and dissociation. These themes are covered in articles on coordination chemistry and ligand. Both associative and dissociative pathways are observed. An overarching aspect of mechanistic transition metal chemistry is the kinetic lability of the complex illustrated by the exchange of free and bound water in the prototypical complexes [M(H2O)6]n+: [M(H2O)6]n+ + 6 H2O* [M(H2O*)6]n+ + 6 H2O where H2O* denotes isotopically enriched water, e.g. H217O The rates of water exchange varies by 20 orders of magnitude across the periodic table, with lanthanide complexes at one extreme and Ir(III) species being the slowest. Redox reactions Redox reactions are prevalent for the transition elements. Two classes of redox reaction are considered: atom-transfer reactions, such as oxidative addition/reductive elimination, and electron-transfer. A fundamental redox reaction is "self-exchange", which involves the degenerate reaction between an oxidant and a reductant. For example, permanganate and its one-electron reduced relative manganate exchange one electron: [MnO4] + [Mn*O4]2 [MnO4]2 + [Mn*O4] Reactions at ligands Coordinated ligands display reactivity distinct from the free ligands. For example, the acidity of the ammonia ligands in [Co(NH3)6]3+ is elevated relative to NH3 itself. Alkenes bound to metal cations are reactive toward nucleophiles whereas alkenes normally are not. The large and industrially important area of catalysis hinges on the ability of metals to modify the reactivity of organic ligands. Homogeneous catalysis occurs in solution and heterogeneous catalysis occurs when gaseous or dissolved substrates interact with surfaces of solids. Traditionally homogeneous
Inorganic chemistry catalysis is considered part of organometallic chemistry and heterogeneous catalysis is discussed in the context of surface science, a subfield of solid state chemistry. But the basic inorganic chemical principles are the same. Transition metals, almost uniquely, react with small molecules such as CO, H2, O2, and C2H4. The industrial significance of these feedstocks drives the active area of catalysis.
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Characterization of inorganic compounds

Because of the diverse range of elements and the correspondingly diverse properties of the resulting derivatives, inorganic chemistry is closely associated with many methods of analysis. Older methods tended to examine bulk properties such as the electrical conductivity of solutions, melting points, solubility, and acidity. With the advent of quantum theory and the corresponding expansion of electronic apparatus, new tools have been introduced to probe the electronic properties of inorganic molecules and solids. Often these measurements provide insights relevant to theoretical models. For example, measurements on the photoelectron spectrum of methane demonstrated that describing the bonding by the two-center, two-electron bonds predicted between the carbon and hydrogen using Valence Bond Theory is not appropriate for describing ionisation processes in a simple way. Such insights led to the popularization of molecular orbital theory as fully delocalised orbitals are a more appropriate simple description of electron removal and electron excitation. Commonly encountered techniques are: X-ray crystallography: This technique allows for the 3D determination of molecular structures. Dual polarisation interferometer: This technique measures the conformation and conformational change of molecules. Various forms of spectroscopy Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy: Historically, this has been an important tool, since many inorganic compounds are strongly colored NMR spectroscopy: Besides 1H and 13C many other "good" NMR nuclei (e.g. 11B, 19F, 31P, and 195Pt) give important information on compound properties and structure. Also the NMR of paramagnetic species can result in important structural information. Proton NMR is also important because the light hydrogen nucleus is not easily detected by X-ray crystallography. Infrared spectroscopy: Mostly for absorptions from carbonyl ligands Electron nuclear double resonance (ENDOR) spectroscopy Mssbauer spectroscopy Electron-spin resonance: ESR (or EPR) allows for the measurement of the environment of paramagnetic metal centres. Electrochemistry: Cyclic voltammetry and related techniques probe the redox characteristics of compounds.
Synthetic inorganic chemistry

Although some inorganic species can be obtained in pure form from nature, most are synthesized in chemical plants and in the laboratory. Inorganic synthetic methods can be classified roughly according the volatility or solubility of the component reactants.[9] Soluble inorganic compounds are prepared using methods of organic synthesis. For metal-containing compounds that are reactive toward air, Schlenk line and glove box techniques are followed. Volatile compounds and gases are manipulated in vacuum manifolds consisting of glass piping interconnected through valves, the entirety of which can be evacuated to 0.001mm Hg or less. Compounds are condensed using liquid nitrogen (b.p.78K) or other cryogens. Solids are typically prepared using tube furnaces, the reactants and products being sealed in containers, often made of fused silica (amorphous SiO2) but sometimes more specialized materials such as welded Ta tubes or Pt boats. Products and reactants are transported between temperature zones to drive reactions.
Inorganic chemistry
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References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] "Facts & Figures Of The Chemical Industry Chemical and Engineering News, July 10, 2006. Lehn, J. M., Supramolecular Chemistry: Concepts and Perspectives, VCH: Weinhiem, 1995 Greenwood, N. N.; & Earnshaw, A. (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd Edn.), Oxford:Butter worth-Heineken. ISBN 0-7506-3365-4. C. Elschenbroich, A. Salzer Organometallics : A Concise Introduction (2nd Ed) (1992); Wiley-VCH: Weinheim. ISBN 3-527-28165-7 S. J. Lippard, J. M. Berg Principles of Bioinorganic Chemistry University Science Books: Mill Valley, CA; 1994. ISBN 0-935702-73-3. Wells, A.F. (1984). Structural Inorganic Chemistry, Oxford: Clarendon Press. Cotton, F. A., Chemical Applications of Group Theory, John Wiley & Sons: New York, 1990 R. G. Wilkins "Kinetics and Mechanism of Reactions of Transition Metal Complexes" Wiley-VCH Verlag; 2nd, 1991) ISBN 3-527-28389-7 Girolami, G. S.; Rauchfuss, T. B. and Angelici, R. J., Synthesis and Technique in Inorganic Chemistry, University Science Books: Mill Valley, CA, 1999
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Operaes Unitrias
Unit operation
An ore extraction process broken into its constituent unit operations (Quincy Mine, Hancock, MI ca. 1900)
Part of a series on
History Concepts Unit operations Unit processes Chemical engineer Chemical process Process integration
Unit operation
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Unit operations Momentum transfer Heat transfer Mass transfer Mechanical operations Unit process Chemical reaction engineering Chemical kinetics Chemical process modeling Chemical technology Process integration Branches Process design Fluid mechanics Process systems engineering Chemical plant design Chemical thermodynamics Transport phenomena *More* others Outline of chemical engineering Index of chemical engineering articles Education for chemical engineers List of chemical engineers List of chemical engineering societies List of chemical process simulators Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook Category:Chemical engineering
In chemical engineering and related fields, a unit operation is a basic step in a process. For example in milk processing, homogenization, pasteurization, chilling, and packaging are each unit operations which are connected to create the overall process. A process may have many unit operations to obtain the desired product. Historically, the different chemical industries were regarded as different industrial processes and with different principles. Arthur Dehon Little propounded the concept of "unit operations" to explain industrial chemistry processes in 1916.[1] In 1923, William H.Walker, Warren K. Lewis and William H. McAdams wrote the book The Principles of Chemical Engineering[2] and explained the variety of chemical industries have processes which follow the same physical laws. They summed-up these similar processes into unit operations. Each unit operation follows the same physical laws and may be used in all chemical industries. The unit operations form the fundamental principles of chemical engineering. Chemical engineering unit operations consist of five classes: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Fluid flow processes, including fluids transportation, filtration, solids fluidization Heat transfer processes, including evaporation, condensation Mass transfer processes, including gas absorption, distillation, extraction, adsorption, drying Thermodynamic processes, including gas liquefaction, refrigeration Mechanical processes, including solids transportation, crushing and pulverization, screening and sieving
Chemical engineering unit operations also fall in the following categories: Combination (mixing)
Unit operation Separation (distillation) Reaction (chemical reaction) Chemical engineering unit operations and chemical engineering unit processing form the main principles of all kinds of chemical industries and are the foundation of designs of chemical plants, factories, and equipment used.
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References
[1] "The MIT Connection"http:/ / libraries. mit. edu/ archives/ exhibits/ adlittle/ mit-connection. html Retrieved March 6, 2010. [2] The Encyclopedia of Earth. "Walker, William H. http:/ / www. eoearth. org/ article/ Walker,_William_H. Accessed April 4, 2010.
Distillation
Distillation is a method of separating mixtures based on differences in their boiling points. Distillation is a unit operation, or a physical separation process, and not a chemical reaction. Commercially, distillation has a number of applications. It is used to separate crude oil into more fractions for specific uses such as transport, power generation and heating. Water is distilled to remove impurities, such as salt from seawater. Air is distilled to separate its componentsnotably oxygen, nitrogen, and argon for industrial use. Distillation of fermented solutions has been used since ancient times to produce distilled beverages with a higher alcohol content. The premises where distillation is carried out, especially distillation of alcohol, are known as a distillery.
Laboratory display of distillation: 1: A heating device 2: Still pot 3: Still head 4: Thermometer/Boiling point temperature 5: Condenser 6: Cooling water in 7: Cooling water out 8: Distillate/receiving flask 9: Vacuum/gas inlet 10: Still receiver 11: Heat control 12: Stirrer speed control 13: Stirrer/heat plate 14: Heating (Oil/sand) bath 15: Stirring means e.g.(shown), boiling chips or mechanical stirrer 16: [1] Cooling bath.
Distillation
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History
The first clear evidence of distillation comes from Greek alchemists working in Alexandria in the first century AD.[2] Distilled water has been known since at least ca. 200 AD, when Alexander of Aphrodisias described the process.[3] Arabs learned the process from the Egyptians and used it extensively in their chemical experiments. Clear evidence of the distillation of alcohol comes from the School of Salerno in the 12th century.[2] [4] Fractional distillation was developed by Tadeo Alderotti in the 13th century.[5] In 1500, German alchemist Hieronymus Braunschweig published Liber de arte Distillation apparatus of Zosimus, from Marcelin Berthelot, Collection des destillandi (The Book of the Art of anciens alchimistes grecs (3 vol., Paris, 1887-1888). Distillation)[6] the first book solely dedicated to the subject of distillation, followed in 1512 by a much expanded version. In 1651, John French published The Art of Distillation [7] the first major English compendium of practice, though it has been claimed[8] that much of it derives from Braunschweig's work. This includes diagrams with people in them showing the industrial rather than bench scale of the operation. As alchemy evolved into the science of chemistry, vessels called retorts became used for distillations. Both alembics and retorts are forms of glassware with long necks pointing to the side at a downward angle which acted as air-cooled condensers to condense the distillate and let it drip downward for collection. Later, copper alembics were invented. Riveted joints were often kept tight by using various mixtures, for instance a dough made of rye flour.[9] These alembics often featured a cooling system around the beak, using cold water for instance, which made the condensation of alcohol more efficient. These were called pot stills. Today, the retorts and pot stills have been largely supplanted by more efficient distillation methods in most industrial processes. However, the pot still is still widely used for the elaboration of some fine alcohols such as cognac, Scotch
A retort.
Old Ukrainian vodka still
whisky, tequila and some vodkas. Pot stills made of various materials (wood, clay, stainless steel) are also used by bootleggers in various countries. Small pot stills are also sold for the domestic production[10] of flower water or
Distillation essential oils. Early forms of distillation were batch processes using one vaporization and one condensation. Purity was improved by further distillation of the condensate. Greater volumes were processed by simply repeating the distillation. Chemists were reported to carry out as many as 500 to 600 distillations in order to obtain a pure compound.[11] In the early 19th century the basics of modern techniques including pre-heating and reflux were developed, particularly by the French,[11] then in 1830 a British Patent was issued to Aeneas Coffey for a whiskey distillation column,[12] which worked continuously and may be regarded as the archetype of modern petrochemical units. In 1877, Ernest Solvay was granted a U.S. Patent for a tray column for ammonia distillation[13] and the same and subsequent years saw developments of this theme for oil and spirits. With the emergence of chemical engineering as a discipline at the end of the 19th century, scientific rather than empirical methods could be applied. The developing petroleum industry in the early 20th century provided the impetus for the development of accurate design methods such as the McCabe-Thiele method and the Fenske equation. The availability of powerful computers has also allowed direct computer simulation of distillation columns.
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Applications of distillation
The application of distillation can roughly be divided in four groups: laboratory scale, industrial distillation, distillation of herbs for perfumery and medicinals (herbal distillate), and food processing. The latter two are distinctively different from the former two in that in the processing of beverages, the distillation is not used as a true purification method but more to transfer all volatiles from the source materials to the distillate. The main difference between laboratory scale distillation and industrial distillation is that laboratory scale distillation is often performed batch-wise, whereas industrial distillation often occurs continuously. In batch distillation, the composition of the source material, the vapors of the distilling compounds and the distillate change during the distillation. In batch distillation, a still is charged (supplied) with a batch of feed mixture, which is then separated into its component fractions which are collected sequentially from most volatile to less volatile, with the bottoms (remaining least or non-volatile fraction) removed at the end. The still can then be recharged and the process repeated. In continuous distillation, the source materials, vapors, and distillate are kept at a constant composition by carefully replenishing the source material and removing fractions from both vapor and liquid in the system. This results in a better control of the separation process.
Idealized distillation model

The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the pressure in the liquid, enabling bubbles to form without being crushed. A special case is the normal boiling point, where the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the ambient atmospheric pressure. It is a common misconception that in a liquid mixture at a given pressure, each component boils at the boiling point corresponding to the given pressure and the vapors of each component will collect separately and purely. This, however, does not occur even in an idealized system. Idealized models of distillation are essentially governed by Raoult's law and Dalton's law, and assume that vapor-liquid equilibria are attained. Raoult's law assumes that a component contributes to the total vapor pressure of the mixture in proportion to its percentage of the mixture and its vapor pressure when pure, or succinctly: partial pressure equals mole fraction multiplied by vapor pressure when pure. If one component changes another component's vapor pressure, or if the volatility of a component is dependent on its percentage in the mixture, the law will fail. Dalton's law states that the total vapor pressure is the sum of the vapor pressures of each individual component in the mixture. When a multi-component liquid is heated, the vapor pressure of each component will rise, thus causing the
Distillation total vapor pressure to rise. When the total vapor pressure reaches the pressure surrounding the liquid, boiling occurs and liquid turns to gas throughout the bulk of the liquid. Note that a mixture with a given composition has one boiling point at a given pressure, when the components are mutually soluble. An implication of one boiling point is that lighter components never cleanly "boil first". At boiling point, all volatile components boil, but for a component, its percentage in the vapor is the same as its percentage of the total vapor pressure. Lighter components have a higher partial pressure and thus are concentrated in the vapor, but heavier volatile components also have a (smaller) partial pressure and necessarily evaporate also, albeit being less concentrated in the vapor. Indeed, batch distillation and fractionation succeed by varying the composition of the mixture. In batch distillation, the batch evaporates, which changes its composition; in fractionation, liquid higher in the fractionation column contains more lights and boils at lower temperatures. The idealized model is accurate in the case of chemically similar liquids, such as benzene and toluene. In other cases, severe deviations from Raoult's law and Dalton's law are observed, most famously in the mixture of ethanol and water. These compounds, when heated together, form an azeotrope, which is a composition with a boiling point higher or lower than the boiling point of each separate liquid. Virtually all liquids, when mixed and heated, will display azeotropic behaviour. Although there are computational methods that can be used to estimate the behavior of a mixture of arbitrary components, the only way to obtain accurate vapor-liquid equilibrium data is by measurement. It is not possible to completely purify a mixture of components by distillation, as this would require each component in the mixture to have a zero partial pressure. If ultra-pure products are the goal, then further chemical separation must be applied. When a binary mixture is evaporated and the other component, e.g. a salt, has zero partial pressure for practical purposes, the process is simpler and is called evaporation in engineering.
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Batch distillation
Heating an ideal mixture of two volatile substances A and B (with A having the higher volatility, or lower boiling point) in a batch distillation setup (such as in an apparatus depicted in the opening figure) until the mixture is boiling results in a vapor above the liquid which contains a mixture of A and B. The ratio between A and B in the vapor will be different from the ratio in the liquid: the ratio in the liquid will be determined by how the original mixture was prepared, while the ratio in the vapor will be enriched in the more A batch still showing the separation of A and B. volatile compound, A (due to Raoult's Law, see above). The vapor goes through the condenser and is removed from the system. This in turn means that the ratio of compounds in the remaining liquid is now different from the initial ratio (i.e. more enriched in B than the starting liquid). The result is that the ratio in the liquid mixture is changing, becoming richer in component B. This causes the boiling point of the mixture to rise, which in turn results in a rise in the temperature in the vapor, which results in a changing ratio of A : B in the gas phase (as distillation continues, there is an increasing proportion of B in the gas phase). This results in a slowly changing ratio A : B in the distillate. If the difference in vapor pressure between the two components A and B is large (generally expressed as the difference in boiling points), the mixture in the beginning of the distillation is highly enriched in component A, and when component A has distilled off, the boiling liquid is enriched in component B.
Distillation
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Continuous distillation
Continuous distillation is an ongoing distillation in which a liquid mixture is continuously (without interruption) fed into the process and separated fractions are removed continuously as output streams as time passes during the operation. Continuous distillation produces at least two output fractions, including at least one volatile distillate fraction, which has boiled and been separately captured as a vapor condensed to a liquid. There is always a bottoms (or residue) fraction, which is the least volatile residue that has not been separately captured as a condensed vapor. Continuous distillation differs from batch distillation in the respect that concentrations should not change over time. Continuous distillation can be run at a steady state for an arbitrary amount of time. For any source material of specific composition, the main variables that affect the purity of products in continuous distillation are the reflux ratio and the number of theoretical equilibrium stages (practically, the number of trays or the height of packing). Reflux is a flow from the condenser back to the column, which generates a recycle that allows a better separation with a given number of trays. Equilibrium stages are ideal steps where compositions achieve vapor-liquid equilibrium, repeating the separation process and allowing better separation given a reflux ratio. A column with a high reflux ratio may have fewer stages, but it refluxes a large amount of liquid, giving a wide column with a large holdup. Conversely, a column with a low reflux ratio must have a large number of stages, thus requiring a taller column.
General improvements
Both batch and continuous distillations can be improved by making use of a fractionating column on top of the distillation flask. The column improves separation by providing a larger surface area for the vapor and condensate to come into contact. This helps it remain at equilibrium for as long as possible. The column can even consist of small subsystems ('trays' or 'dishes') which all contain an enriched, boiling liquid mixture, all with their own vapor-liquid equilibrium. There are differences between laboratory-scale and industrial-scale fractionating columns, but the principles are the same. Examples of laboratory-scale fractionating columns (in increasing efficiency) include: Air condenser Vigreux column (usually laboratory scale only) Packed column (packed with glass beads, metal pieces, or other chemically inert material) Spinning band distillation system.
Laboratory scale distillation

Laboratory scale distillations are almost exclusively run as batch distillations. The device used in distillation, sometimes referred to as a still, consists at a minimum of a reboiler or pot in which the source material is heated, a condenser in which the heated vapour is cooled back to the liquid state, and a receiver in which the concentrated or purified liquid, called the distillate, is collected. Several laboratory scale techniques for distillation exist (see also distillation types).
Simple distillation
In simple distillation, all the hot vapors produced are immediately channeled into a condenser that cools and condenses the vapors. Therefore, the distillate will not be pure - its composition will be identical to the composition of the vapors at the given temperature and pressure, and can be computed from Raoult's law. As a result, simple distillation is usually used only to separate liquids whose boiling points differ greatly (rule of thumb is 25 C),[14] or to separate liquids from involatile solids or oils. For these cases, the vapor pressures of the components are usually sufficiently different that Raoult's law may be neglected due to the insignificant contribution of the less volatile component. In this case, the distillate may be sufficiently pure for its intended purpose.
Distillation
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Fractional distillation
For many cases, the boiling points of the components in the mixture will be sufficiently close that Raoult's law must be taken into consideration. Therefore, fractional distillation must be used in order to separate the components well by repeated vaporization-condensation cycles within a packed fractionating column. This separation, by successive distillations, is also referred to as rectification.[15] As the solution to be purified is heated, its vapors rise to the fractionating column. As it rises, it cools, condensing on the condenser walls and the surfaces of the packing material. Here, the condensate continues to be heated by the rising hot vapors; it vaporizes once more. However, the composition of the fresh vapors are determined once again by Raoult's law. Each vaporization-condensation cycle (called a theoretical plate) will yield a purer solution of the more volatile component.[16] In reality, each cycle at a given temperature does not occur at exactly the same position in the fractionating column; theoretical plate is thus a concept rather than an accurate description. More theoretical plates lead to better separations. A spinning band distillation system uses a spinning band of Teflon or metal to force the rising vapors into close contact with the descending condensate, increasing the number of theoretical plates.[17]
Steam distillation
Like vacuum distillation, steam distillation is a method for distilling compounds which are heat-sensitive.[18] This process involves bubbling steam through a heated mixture of the raw material. By Raoult's law, some of the target compound will vaporize (in accordance with its partial pressure). The vapor mixture is cooled and condensed, usually yielding a layer of oil and a layer of water. Steam distillation of various aromatic herbs and flowers can result in two products; an essential oil as well as a watery herbal distillate. The essential oils are often used in perfumery and aromatherapy while the watery distillates have many applications in aromatherapy, food processing and skin care.
Vacuum distillation
Some compounds have very high boiling points. To boil such compounds, it is often better to lower the pressure at which such compounds are boiled instead of increasing the temperature. Once the pressure is lowered to the vapor pressure of the compound (at the given temperature), boiling and the rest of the distillation process can commence. This technique is referred to as vacuum distillation and it is commonly found in the laboratory in the form of the rotary evaporator. This technique is also very useful for compounds which boil beyond their decomposition temperature at atmospheric pressure and which would therefore be decomposed by any attempt to boil them under atmospheric pressure. Molecular distillation is vacuum distillation below the pressure of 0.01 torr.[19] 0.01 torr is one order of magnitude above high vacuum, where fluids are in the free molecular flow regime, i.e. the mean free path of molecules is comparable to the size of the equipment. The gaseous phase
Dimethyl sulfoxide usually boils at 189 C. Under a vacuum, it distills off into the receiver at only 70 C.
Distillation
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no longer exerts significant pressure on the substance to be evaporated, and consequently, rate of evaporation no longer depends on pressure. That is, because the continuum assumptions of fluid dynamics no longer apply, mass transport is governed by molecular dynamics rather than fluid dynamics. Thus, a short path between the hot surface and the cold surface is necessary, typically by suspending a hot plate covered with a film of feed next to a cold plate with a line of sight in between. Molecular distillation is used industrially for purification of oils.
Air-sensitive vacuum distillation

Some compounds have high boiling points as well as being air sensitive. A simple vacuum distillation system as exemplified above can be used, whereby the vacuum is replaced with an inert gas after the distillation is complete. However, this is a less satisfactory system if one desires to collect fractions under a reduced pressure. To do this a "cow" or "pig" adaptor can be added to the end of the condenser, or for better results or for very air sensitive compounds a Perkin triangle apparatus can be used.
The Perkin triangle, has means via a series of glass or Teflon taps to allows fractions to be isolated from the rest of the still, without the main body of the distillation being removed from either the vacuum or heat source, and thus can remain in a state of reflux. To do this, the sample is first isolated from the vacuum by means of the taps, the vacuum over the sample is then replaced with an inert gas (such as nitrogen or argon) and can then be stoppered and removed. A fresh collection vessel can then be added to the system, evacuated and linked back into the distillation system via the taps to collect a second fraction, and so on, until all fractions have been collected.
Perkin triangle distillation setup 1: Stirrer bar/anti-bumping granules 2: Still pot 3: Fractionating column 4: Thermometer/Boiling point temperature 5: Teflon tap 1 6: Cold finger 7: Cooling water out 8: Cooling water in 9: Teflon tap 2 10: Vacuum/gas inlet 11: Teflon tap 3 12: Still receiver
Distillation
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Short path distillation

Short path distillation is a distillation technique that involves the distillate travelling a short distance, often only a few centimeters, and is normally done at reduced pressure.[20] A classic example would be a distillation involving the distillate travelling from one glass bulb to another, without the need for a condenser separating the two chambers. This technique is often used for compounds which are unstable at high temperatures or to purify small amounts of compound. The advantage is that the heating temperature can be considerably lower (at reduced pressure) than the boiling point of the liquid at standard pressure, and the distillate only has to travel a short distance before condensing. A short path ensures that little compound is lost on the sides of the apparatus. The Kugelrohr is a kind of a short path distillation apparatus which often contain multiple chambers to collect distillate fractions.
Other types
The process of reactive distillation involves using the reaction vessel as the still. In this process, the product is usually significantly lower-boiling than its reactants. As the product is formed from the reactants, it is vaporized and removed from the reaction mixture. This technique is an example of a continuous vs. a batch process; advantages include less downtime to charge the reaction vessel with starting material, and less workup. Pervaporation is a method for the separation of mixtures of liquids by partial vaporization through a non-porous membrane. Extractive distillation is defined as distillation in the presence of a miscible, high boiling, relatively non-volatile component, the solvent, that forms no azeotrope with the other components in the mixture. Flash evaporation (or partial evaporation) is the partial vaporization that occurs when a saturated liquid stream undergoes a reduction in pressure by passing through a throttling valve or other throttling device. This process is one of the simplest unit operations, being equivalent to a distillation with only one equilibrium stage. Codistillation is distillation which is performed on mixtures in which the two compounds are not miscible. The unit process of evaporation may also be called "distillation": In rotary evaporation a vacuum distillation apparatus is used to remove bulk solvents from a sample. Typically the vacuum is generated by a water aspirator or a membrane pump. In a kugelrohr a short path distillation apparatus is typically used (generally in combination with a (high) vacuum) to distill high boiling (> 300 C) compounds. The apparatus consists of an oven in which the compound to be distilled is placed, a receiving portion which is outside of the oven, and a means of rotating the sample. The vacuum is normally generated by using a high vacuum pump. Other uses: Dry distillation or destructive distillation, despite the name, is not truly distillation, but rather a chemical reaction known as pyrolysis in which solid substances are heated in an inert or reducing atmosphere and any volatile fractions, containing high-boiling liquids and products of pyrolysis, are collected. The destructive distillation of wood to give methanol is the root of its common name - wood alcohol. Freeze distillation is an analogous method of purification using freezing instead of evaporation. It is not truly distillation, but a recrystallization where the product is the mother liquor, and does not produce products equivalent to distillation. This process is used in the production of ice beer and ice wine to increase ethanol and sugar content, respectively. It is also used to produce applejack. Unlike distillation, freeze distillation concentrates
Short path vacuum distillation apparatus with vertical condenser (cold finger), to minimize the distillation path; 1: Still pot with stirrer bar/anti-bumping granules 2: Cold finger - bent to direct condensate 3: Cooling water out 4: cooling water in 5: Vacuum/gas inlet 6: Distillate flask/distillate.
Distillation poisonous congeners rather than removing them. Adiabatic distillation is the condensation process whereby water vapor is reduced to a liquid. It is a patented process used in Atmospheric Water Generation (AWG). Adiabatic distillation replicates and augments nature's process of condensation by simulating the dew point. The advantages of Adiabatic Distillation is that it allows the AWG device to make water continuously, in low humidity conditions and with lower electric power consumption.
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Azeotropic distillation
Interactions between the components of the solution create properties unique to the solution, as most processes entail nonideal mixtures, where Raoult's law does not hold. Such interactions can result in a constant-boiling azeotrope which behaves as if it were a pure compound (i.e., boils at a single temperature instead of a range). At an azeotrope, the solution contains the given component in the same proportion as the vapor, so that evaporation does not change the purity, and distillation does not effect separation. For example, ethyl alcohol and water form an azeotrope of 95.6% at 78.1 C. If the azeotrope is not considered sufficiently pure for use, there exist some techniques to break the azeotrope to give a pure distillate. This set of techniques are known as azeotropic distillation. Some techniques achieve this by "jumping" over the azeotropic composition (by adding an additional component to create a new azeotrope, or by varying the pressure). Others work by chemically or physically removing or sequestering the impurity. For example, to purify ethanol beyond 95%, a drying agent or a (desiccant such as potassium carbonate) can be added to convert the soluble water into insoluble water of crystallization. Molecular sieves are often used for this purpose as well. Immiscible liquids, such as water and toluene, easily form azeotropes. Commonly, these azeotropes are referred to as a low boiling azeotrope because the boiling point of the azeotrope is lower than the boiling point of either pure component. The temperature and composition of the azeotrope is easily predicted from the vapor pressure of the pure components, without use of Raoult's law. The azeotrope is easily broken in a distillation set-up by using a liquid-liquid separator (a decanter) to separate the two liquid layers that are condensed overhead. Only one of the two liquid layers is refluxed to the distillation set-up. High boiling azeotropes, such as a 20 weight percent mixture of hydrochloric acid in water, also exist. As implied by the name, the boiling point of the azeotrope is greater than the boiling point of either pure component. To break azeotropic distillations and cross distillation boundaries, such as in the DeRosier Problem, it is necessary to increase the composition of the light key in the distillate.
Breaking an azeotrope with unidirectional pressure manipulation

The boiling points of components in an azeotrope overlap to form a band. By exposing an azeotrope to a vacuum or positive pressure, it's possible to bias the boiling point of one component away from the other by exploiting the differing vapour pressure curves of each; the curves may overlap at the azeotropic point, but are unlikely to be remain identical further along the pressure axis either side of the azeotropic point. When the bias is great enough, the two boiling points no longer overlap and so the azeotropic band disappears. This method can remove the need to add other chemicals to a distillation, but it has two potential drawbacks. Under negative pressure, power for a vacuum source is needed and the reduced boiling points of the distillates requires that the condenser be run cooler to prevent distillate vapours being lost to the vacuum source. Increased cooling demands will often require additional energy and possibly new equipment or a change of coolant. Alternatively, if positive pressures are required, standard glassware can not be used, energy must be used for pressurization and there is a higher chance of side reactions occurring in the distillation, such as decomposition, due to the higher temperatures required to effect boiling. A unidirectional distillation will rely on a pressure change in one direction, either positive or negative.
Distillation
43
Pressure-swing distillation
Further information: Pressure-Swing Distillation (section on the main Azeotrope page) Pressure-swing distillation is essentially the same as the unidirectional distillation used to break azeotropic mixtures, but here both positive and negative pressures may be employed. This has an important impact on the selectivity of the distillation and allows a chemist to optimize a process such that fewer extremes of pressure and temperature are required and less energy is consumed. This is particularly important in commercial applications. Pressure-swing distillation is employed during the industrial purification of ethyl acetate after its catalytic synthesis from ethanol.
Industrial distillation
Large scale industrial distillation applications include both batch and continuous fractional, vacuum, azeotropic, extractive, and steam distillation. The most widely used industrial applications of continuous, steady-state fractional distillation are in petroleum refineries, petrochemical and chemical plants and natural gas processing plants. Industrial distillation[15] [21] is typically performed in large, vertical cylindrical columns known as distillation towers or distillation columns with diameters ranging from about 65 centimeters to 16 meters and heights ranging from about 6 meters to 90 meters or more. When the process feed has a diverse composition, as in distilling crude oil, liquid outlets at intervals up the column allow for the withdrawal of different fractions or products having different boiling points or boiling ranges. The "lightest" products (those with the lowest boiling point) exit from the top of the columns and the "heaviest" products (those with the highest boiling point) exit from the bottom of the column and are often called the bottoms.
Typical industrial distillation towers
Distillation
44 Industrial towers use reflux to achieve a more complete separation of products. Reflux refers to the portion of the condensed overhead liquid product from a distillation or fractionation tower that is returned to the upper part of the tower as shown in the schematic diagram of a typical, large-scale industrial distillation tower. Inside the tower, the downflowing reflux liquid provides cooling and condensation of the upflowing vapors thereby increasing the efficiency of the distillation tower. The more reflux that is provided for a given number of theoretical plates, the better the tower's separation of lower boiling materials from higher boiling materials. Alternatively, the more reflux that is provided for a given desired separation, the fewer the number of theoretical plates required. Such industrial fractionating towers are also used in air separation, producing liquid oxygen, liquid nitrogen, and high purity argon. Distillation of chlorosilanes also enables the production of high-purity silicon for use as a semiconductor.
Diagram of a typical industrial distillation tower
Design and operation of a distillation tower depends on the feed and desired products. Given a simple, binary component feed, analytical methods such as the McCabe-Thiele method[15] [22] or the Fenske equation[15] can be used. For a multi-component feed, simulation models are used both for design and operation. Moreover, the efficiencies of the vapor-liquid contact devices (referred to as "plates" or "trays") used in distillation towers are typically lower than that of a theoretical 100% efficient equilibrium stage. Hence, a distillation tower needs more trays than the number of theoretical vapor-liquid equilibrium stages. In modern industrial uses, generally a packing material is used in the column instead of trays, especially when low pressure drops across the column are required, as when operating under vacuum.
Section of an industrial distillation tower showing detail of trays with bubble caps
Distillation
45 This packing material can either be random dumped packing (1-3" wide) such as Raschig rings or structured sheet metal. Liquids tend to wet the surface of the packing and the vapors pass across this wetted surface, where mass transfer takes place. Unlike conventional tray distillation in which every tray represents a separate point of vapor-liquid equilibrium, the vapor-liquid equilibrium curve in a packed column is continuous. However, when modeling packed columns, it is useful to compute a number of "theoretical stages" to denote the separation efficiency of the packed column with respect to more traditional trays. Differently shaped packings have different surface areas and void space between packings. Both of these factors affect packing performance.
Another factor in addition to the packing shape and surface area that affects the performance of random or structured packing is the liquid and vapor distribution entering the packed bed. The number of theoretical stages required to make a given separation is calculated using a specific vapor to liquid ratio. If the liquid and vapor are not evenly distributed across the superficial tower area as it enters the packed bed, the liquid to vapor ratio will not be correct in the packed bed and the required separation will not be achieved. The packing will Large-scale, industrial vacuum distillation appear to not be working properly. The height equivalent of a [23] column theoretical plate (HETP) will be greater than expected. The problem is not the packing itself but the mal-distribution of the fluids entering the packed bed. Liquid mal-distribution is more frequently the problem than vapor. The design of the liquid distributors used to introduce the feed and reflux to a packed bed is critical to making the packing perform to it maximum efficiency. Methods of evaluating the effectiveness of a liquid distributor to evenly distribute the liquid entering a packed bed can be found in references.[24] [25] Considerable work as been done on this topic by Fractionation Research, Inc. (commonly known as FRI).[26]
Multi-effect distillation
The goal of multi-effect distillation is to increase the energy efficiency of the process, for use in desalination, or in some cases one stage in the production of ultrapure water. The number of effects is proportional to the kWh/m3 of water recovered figure, and refers to the volume of water recovered per unit of energy compared with single-effect distillation. One effect is roughly 636kWh/m3. Multi-stage flash distillation Can achieve more than 20 effects with thermal energy input, as mentioned in the article. Vapor compression evaporation Commercial large-scale units can achieve around 72 effects with electrical energy input, according to manufacturers. There are many other types of multi-effect distillation processes, including one referred to as simply multi-effect distillation (MED), in which multiple chambers, with intervening heat exchangers, are employed.
Distillation
46
Distillation in food processing

Distilled beverages
Carbohydrate-containing plant materials are allowed to ferment, producing a dilute solution of ethanol in the process. Spirits such as whiskey and rum are prepared by distilling these dilute solutions of ethanol. Components other than ethanol, including water, esters, and other alcohols, are collected in the condensate, which account for the flavor of the beverage.
Gallery
Chemistry on its beginnings used retorts as laboratory equipment exclusively for distillation processes.
A simple set-up to distill dry and oxygen-free toluene.
Diagram of an industrial-scale vacuum distillation column as commonly used in oil refineries
A rotary evaporator is able to distill solvents more quickly at lower temperatures through the use of a vacuum.
Distillation using semi-microscale apparatus. The jointless design eliminates the need to fit pieces together. The pear-shaped flask allows the last drop of residue to be removed, compared with a similarly-sized round-bottom flask The small holdup volume prevents losses. A pig is used to channel the various distillates into three receiving flasks. If necessary the distillation can be carried out under vacuum using the vacuum adapter at the pig.
Notes
[1] Laurence M. Harwood, Christopher J. Moody (13 June 1989). Experimental organic chemistry: Principles and Practice (Illustrated ed.). Oxford: WileyBlackwell. pp.141143. ISBN978-0632020171. [2] Forbes, Robert James (1970). A short history of the art of distillation: from the beginnings up to the death of Cellier Blumenthal (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=XeqWOkKYn28C). BRILL. pp.57, 89. ISBN9789004006171. . Retrieved 29 June 2010. [3] Taylor, F. (1945). "The evolution of the still". Annals of Science 5: 185. doi:10.1080/00033794500201451. [4] Sarton, George (1975). Introduction to the history of science. R. E. Krieger Pub. Co.. p.145. ISBN0882751727. [5] Holmyard, Eric John (1990). Alchemy. Courier Dover Publications. p.53. ISBN0486262987. [6] Magnum Opus Hermetic Sourceworks Series (http:/ / www. alchemywebsite. com/ bookshop/ mohs32. html) [7] http:/ / www. levity. com/ alchemy/ jfren_ar. html [8] Industrial Engineering Chemistry (1936) page 677 [9] Sealing Technique (http:/ / www. copper-alembic. com/ manufacturing/ specs_sealing. php), accessed 16 November 2006. [10] Traditional Alembic Pot Still (http:/ / www. essentialoil. com/ alembic5. html), accessed 16 November 2006. [11] D. F. Othmer (1982) Distillation - Some Steps in its Development, in W. F. Furter (ed) A Century of Chemical Engineering ISBN 0-306-40895-3 [12] A. Coffey British Patent 5974, 5 August 1830 [13] U.S. Patent 198699 (http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=198699) Improvement in the Ammonia-Soda Manufacture
Distillation
[14] ST07 Separation of liquid - liquid mixtures (solutions) (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ didac/ Didac Eng/ Didac05/ Content/ ST07. htm), DIDAC by IUPAC [15] Perry, Robert H. and Green, Don W. (1984). Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook (6th ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN0-07-049479-7. [16] Fractional Distillation (http:/ / wulfenite. fandm. edu/ labtech/ fractdistill. htm) [17] Spinning Band Distillation (http:/ / www. brinstrument. com/ fractional-distillation/ spinning_band_distillation. html) at B/R Instrument Corporation (accessed 8 September 2006) [18] Laurence M. Harwood, Christopher J. Moody (1989). Experimental organic chemistry: Principles and Practice (Illustrated ed.). Wiley, Blackwell. pp.151153. ISBN978-0632020171. [19] Vogel's 5th ed. [20] Laurence M. Harwood, Christopher J. Moody (13 June 1989). Experimental organic chemistry: Principles and Practice (Illustrated ed.). Wiley, Blackwell. pp.150. ISBN978-0632020171. [21] Kister, Henry Z. (1992). Distillation Design (1st ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN0-07-034909-6. [22] Seader, J. D., and Henley, Ernest J. (1998). Separation Process Principles. New York: Wiley. ISBN0-471-58626-9. [23] Energy Institute website page (http:/ / resources. schoolscience. co. uk/ SPE/ knowl/ 4/ 2index. htm?vacuum. html) [24] Random Packing, Vapor and Liquid Distribution: Liquid and gas distribution in commercial packed towers, Moore, F., Rukovena, F., Chemical Plants & Processing, Edition Europe, August 1987, p. 11-15 [25] Spiegel, L (2006). "A new method to assess liquid distributor quality". Chemical Engineering and Processing 45: 1011. doi:10.1016/j.cep.2006.05.003. [26] Kunesh, John G.; Lahm, Lawrence; Yanagi, Takashi (1987). "Commercial scale experiments that provide insight on packed tower distributors". Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research 26: 1845. doi:10.1021/ie00069a021.
47
Further reading
Allchin, F. R. (1979). "India: The Ancient Home of Distillation?". Man 14 (1): 5563. doi:10.2307/2801640. JSTOR2801640. Forbes, R. J. (1970). A Short History of the Art of Distillation from the Beginnings up to the Death of Cellier Blumenthal (http://books.google.com/?id=XeqWOkKYn28C&printsec=frontcover). BRILL. ISBN9004006176. Needham, Joseph (1980). Science and Civilisation in China (http://books.google.com/ books?id=JvLroG7r2MYC&printsec=frontcover). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 052108573X. Geankoplis, Christie John (2003). Transport Processes and Separation Process Principles (4th ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN013101367X.
External links
Alcohol distillation (http://www.agcom.purdue.edu/AgCom/Pubs/AE/AE-117.html) Case Study: Petroleum Distillation (http://www.members.tripod.com/historycheme/h_distill.html) "Binary Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium Data" (http://www.cheric.org/research/kdb/hcvle/hcvle.php) (searchable database). Chemical Engineering Research Information Center. Retrieved 5 May 2007.
Mixing (process engineering)
48

In industrial process engineering, mixing is a unit operation that involves manipulating a heterogeneous physical system, with the intent to make it more homogeneous. Familiar examples include pumping of the water in a swimming pool to homogenize the water temperature, and the stirring of pancake batter to eliminate lumps.
Solids mixing
Blending powders is one of the oldest unit-operations in the solids handling industries. For many decades powder blending has been used just to homogenise bulk materials. Many different machines have been designed in order to be able to handle materials with various bulk solids properties. On the basis of the practical experience gained with these different machines, engineering knowledge has been developed to construct reliable equipment and to predict scale-up and mixing behaviour. Nowadays the same mixing technologies are used for many more applications: to agitating vessel improve product quality, to coat particles, to fuse materials, to wet, to dispers in liquid, to agglomerate, to alter functional material properties, etc. This wide range of applications of mixing equipment requires a high level of knowledge, long time experience and extended test facilities in order to come to the optimal selection of equipment and processes.
Mixing mechanisms
In powder mixing two different dimensions in the mixing process can be determined: convective mixing and intensive mixing. In the case of convective mixing material in the mixer is transported from one location to another. This type of mixing process will lead to a less ordered state inside the mixer, the components which have to be mixed will be distributed over the other components. With progressing time the mixture will become more and more randomly ordered. After a certain mixing time the ultimate random state is reached. Usually this type of mixing is applied for free-flowing and coarse materials. Possible threat during macro mixing is the de-mixing of the components, since differences in size, shape or density of the different particles can lead to segregation. In the convective mixing range, Hosokawa has several processes available from silo mixers to horizontal mixers and conical mixers. When materials are cohesive, which is the case with e.g. fine particles and also with wet material, convective mixing is no longer sufficient to obtain a randomly ordered mixture. The relative strong inter-particle forces will form lumps, which are not broken up by the mild transportation forces in the convective mixer. In order to decrease the lump size additional forces are necessary; i.e. more energy intensive mixing is required. These additional forces can either be impact forces or shear forces.
49
Mixing Calculations
The level of mixing is determined by the pumping effect or dynamic response that the mixer imparts into the fluid. When a mixing impeller rotates in the fluid, it generates a combination of flow and shear. The impeller generated flow can be calculated by using the following equation: Flow = (Flow_Number * RPM * Impeller_Diameter^3) / 231 Output is in Gallons / Minute Flow numbers for impellers have been published by the North American Mixing Forum, Post Mixing, and Fusion Fluid Equipment. An online mixing calculator is available http://www.fusionfluid.com/html/Knowledge-MixingCalculator.html
Laboratory mixing
At a laboratory scale, mixing is achieved by magnetic stirrers or by simple hand-shaking.
A magnetic stirrer
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Industrial mixing
At an industrial scale, efficient mixing can be difficult to achieve. A great deal of engineering effort goes into designing and improving mixing processes. Mixing at industrial scale is done in batches (dynamic mixing) or with help of static mixers. Typical example of a mixing process in the industry is concrete mixing, where cement, sand, small stones or gravel and water are commingled to a homogeneous self-hardening mass, used in the construction industry. Another classical mixing process is mulling foundry molding sand, where sand, bentonite clay, fine coal dust and water are mixed to a plastic, moldable and reusable mass, applied for molding and pouring molten metal to obtain sand castings that are metallic parts for automobile, machine building, construction or other industries. The opposite of mixing is segregation. A classical example of segregation is the brazil nut effect.
Schematics of an agitated vessel
Ball mill
51
Ball mill
For the type of end mill, see Ball nose cutter. A ball mill is a type of grinder used to grind materials into extremely fine powder for use in mineral dressing processes, paints, pyrotechnics, and ceramics.
Ball mill
Description
A ball mill, a type of grinder, is a cylindrical device used in grinding (or mixing) materials like ores, chemicals, ceramic raw materials and paints. Ball mills rotate around a horizontal axis, partially filled with the material to be ground plus the grinding medium. Different materials are used as media, including ceramic balls, flint pebbles and stainless steel balls. An internal cascading effect reduces the material to a fine powder. Industrial ball mills can operate continuously, fed at one end and discharged at the other end. Large to medium-sized ball mills are mechanically rotated on their axis, but small ones normally consist of a cylindrical capped container that sits on two drive shafts (pulleys and belts are used to transmit rotary motion). A rock tumbler functions on the same principle. Ball mills are also used in pyrotechnics and the manufacture of black powder, but cannot be used in the preparation of some pyrotechnic mixtures such as flash powder because of their sensitivity to impact. High-quality ball mills are potentially expensive and can grind mixture particles to as small as 5 nm, enormously increasing surface area and reaction rates. The grinding works on the principle of critical speed. The critical speed can be understood as that speed after which the steel balls (which are responsible for the grinding of particles) start rotating along the direction of the cylindrical device; thus causing no further grinding.
Bench top ball mill
Laboratory scale ball mill
Ball mills are used extensively in the Mechanical alloying process[1] in which they are not only used for grinding but for cold welding as well, with the purpose of producing alloys from powders.[2]
Ball mill
52
High-energy ball milling
Lead antimony grinding media with aluminum powder.
The ball mill is a key piece of equipment for grinding crushed materials, and it is widely used in production lines for powders such as including cement, silicates, refractory material, fertilizer, glass ceramics, etc. as well as for ore dressing of both ferrous non-ferrous metals. The ball mill can grind various ores and other materials either wet or dry. There are two kinds of ball mill, grate type and overfall type due to different ways of discharging material. There are many types of grinding media suitable for use in a ball mill, each material having its own specific properties and advantages. Key properties of grinding media are size, density, hardness, and composition.
Size: The smaller the media particles, the smaller the particle size of the final product. At the same time, the grinding media particles should be substantially larger than the largest pieces of material to be ground. Density: The media should be denser than the material being ground. It becomes a problem if the grinding media floats on top of the material to be ground. A ball mill inside the Mayflower Mill near Silverton, Colorado. Hardness: The grinding media needs to be durable enough to grind the material, but where possible should not be so tough that it also wears down the tumbler at a fast pace. Composition: Various grinding applications have special requirements. Some of these requirements are based on the fact that some of the grinding media will be in the finished product. Others are based in how the media will react with the material being ground.
Ball mill Where the color of the finished product is important, the color and material of the grinding media must be considered. Where low contamination is important, the grinding media may be selected for ease of separation from the finished product (i.e.: steel dust produced from stainless steel media can be magnetically separated from non-ferrous products). An alternative to separation is to use media of the same material as the product being ground. Flammable products have a tendency to become explosive in powder form. Steel media may spark, becoming an ignition source for these products. Either wet-grinding, or non-sparking media such as ceramic or lead must be selected. Some media, such as iron, may react with corrosive materials. For this reason, stainless steel, ceramic, and flint grinding media may each be used when corrosive substances are present during grinding. The grinding chamber can also be filled with an inert shield gas that does not react with the material being ground, to prevent oxidation or explosive reactions that could occur with ambient air inside the mill.
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Varieties
Aside from common ball mills there is a second type of ball mill called Planetary Ball Mill. Planetary ball mills are smaller than common ball mills and mainly used in laboratories for grinding sample material down to very small sizes. A planetary ball mill consists of at least one grinding jar which is arranged eccentrically on a so-called sun wheel. The direction of movement of the sun wheel is opposite to that of the grinding jars (ratio: 1:-2 or 1:-1 or else). The grinding balls in the grinding jars are subjected to superimposed rotational movements, the so-called Coriolis forces. The difference in speeds between the balls and grinding jars produces an interaction between frictional and impact forces, which releases high dynamic energies. The interplay between these forces produces the high and very effective degree of size reduction of the planetary ball mill.
History
Devices for shaking materials along with hard balls might be old, but it was not until the industrial revolution and the invention of steam power that a machine could be built. It is reported to have been used for grinding flint for pottery in 1870.[3]
References
[1] M. I. Florez-Zamora et al. Comparative study of Al-Ni-Mo alloys obtained by mechanical alloying in different ball mills (http:/ / www. ipme. ru/ e-journals/ RAMS/ no_31808/ martinez3. pdf) Rev. Adv. Mater. Sci. 18 (2008) 301 [2] Mechanical Alloying Technology (http:/ / www. imp. mtu. edu/ webform/ index. htm), Institute of Materials Processing [3] Lynch, A., Rowland C (2005). The history of grinding (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Kj7PSOqTZ3IC& printsec=frontcover). SME. ISBN0873352386. .
Filtration
54
Filtration
Filtration is commonly the mechanical or physical operation which is used for the separation of solids from fluids (liquids or gases) by interposing a medium through which only the fluid can pass. Oversize solids in the fluid are retained, but the separation is not complete; solids will be contaminated with some fluid and filtrate will contain fine particles (depending on the pore size and filter thickness). Filtration is also used to describe some biological processes, especially in water treatment and sewage treatment in which undesirable constituents are removed by adsorption into a biological film grown on or in the filter medium.
Diagram of simple filtration: oversize particles in the feed cannot pass through the lattice structure of the filter, while fluid and small particles pass through, becoming filtrate.
Applications
Filtration is used to separate particles and fluid in a suspension, where the fluid can be a liquid, a gas or a supercritical fluid. Depending on the application, either one or both of the components may be isolated. Filtration, as a physical operation is very important in chemistry for the separation of materials of different chemical composition. A solvent is chosen which dissolves one component, while not dissolving the other. By dissolving the mixture in the chosen solvent, one component will go into the solution and pass through the filter, while the other will be retained. This is one of the most important techniques used by chemists to purify compounds. Filtration is also important and widely used as one of the unit operations of chemical engineering. It may be simultaneously combined with other unit operations to process the feed stream, as in the biofilter, which is a combined filter and biological digestion device. Filtration differs from sieving, where separation occurs at a single perforated layer (a sieve). In sieving, particles that are too big to pass through the holes of the sieve are retained (see particle size distribution). In filtration, a multilayer lattice retains those particles that are unable to follow the tortuous channels of the filter.[1] Oversize particles may form a cake layer on top of the filter and may also block the filter lattice, preventing the fluid phase from crossing the filter (blinding). Commercially, the term filter is applied to membranes where the separation lattice is so thin that the surface becomes the main zone of particle separation, even though these products might be described as sieves.[2] Filtration differs from adsorption, where it is not the physical size of particles that causes separation but the effects of surface charge. Some adsorption devices containing activated charcoal and ion exchange resin are commercially called filters, although filtration is not their principal function.[3] Filtration differs from removal of magnetic contaminants from fluids with magnets (typically lubrication oil, coolants and fuel oils), because there is no filter medium. Commercial devices called "magnetic filters" are sold, but the name reflects their use, not their mode of operation.[4] The remainder of this article focuses primarily on liquid filtration.
Filtration
55
Methods
There are many different methods of filtration; all aim to attain the separation of substances. Separation is achieved by some form of interaction between the substance or objects to be removed and the filter. The substance that is to pass through the filter must be a fluid, i.e. a liquid or gas. Methods of filtration vary depending on the location of the targeted material, i.e. whether it is dissolved in the fluid phase or suspended as a solid.
Filter media
Two main types of filter media are employed in the chemical laboratory surface filter, a solid sieve which traps the solid particles, with or without the aid of filter paper (e.g. Bchner funnel, Belt filter, Rotary vacuum-drum filter, Cross-flow filters, Screen filter), and a depth filter, a bed of granular material which retains the solid particles as it passes (e.g. sand filter). The first type allows the solid particles, i.e. the residue, to be collected intact; the second type does not permit this. However, the second type is less prone to clogging due to the greater surface area where the particles can be trapped. Also, when the solid particles are very fine, it is often cheaper and easier to discard the contaminated granules than to clean the solid sieve. Filter media can be cleaned by rinsing with solvents or detergents. Alternatively, in engineering applications, such as swimming pool water treatment plants, they may be cleaned by backwashing. Self-cleaning screen filters utilize point-of-suction backwashing to clean the screen without interrupting system flow.
Achieving flow through the filter

Fluids flow through a filter due to a difference in pressure fluid flows from the high pressure side to the low pressure side of the filter, leaving some material behind. The simplest method to achieve this is by gravity and can be seen in the coffeemaker example. In the laboratory, pressure in the form of compressed air on the feed side (or vacuum on the filtrate side) may be applied to make the filtration process faster, though this may lead to clogging or the passage of fine particles. Alternatively, the liquid may flow through the filter by the force exerted by a pump, a method commonly used in industry when a reduced filtration time is important. In this case, the filter need not be mounted vertically.
Filter aid
Certain filter aids may be used to aid filtration. These are often incompressible diatomaceous earth, or kieselguhr, which is composed primarily of silica. Also used are wood cellulose and other inert porous solids such as the cheaper and safer perlite. These filter aids can be used in two different ways. They can be used as a precoat before the slurry is filtered. This will prevent gelatinous-type solids from plugging the filter medium and also give a clearer filtrate. They can also be added to the slurry before filtration. This increases the porosity of the cake and reduces resistance of the cake during filtration. In a rotary filter, the filter aid may be applied as a precoat; subsequently, thin slices of this layer are sliced off with the cake. The use of filter aids is usually limited to cases where the cake is discarded or where the precipitate can be separated chemically from the filter.
Filtration
56
Alternatives
Filtration is a more efficient method for the separation of mixtures than decantation, but is much more time consuming. If very small amounts of solution are involved, most of the solution may be soaked up by the filter medium. An alternative to filtration is centrifugation instead of filtering the mixture of solid and liquid particles, the mixture is centrifuged to force the (usually) denser solid to the bottom, where it often forms a firm cake. The liquid above can then be decanted. This method is especially useful for separating solids which do not filter well, such as gelatinous or fine particles. These solids can clog or pass through the filter, respectively.
Examples
Examples of filtration include The coffee filter to keep the coffee separate from the grounds HEPA filters in air conditioning to remove particles from air Belt filters to extract precious metals in mining. Horizontal plate filter, also known as Sparkler filter. Furnaces use filtration to prevent the furnace elements from fouling with particulates. Pneumatic conveying systems often employ filtration to stop or slow the flow of material that is transported, through the use of a baghouse. In the laboratory, a Bchner funnel is often used, with a filter paper serving as the porous barrier. An experiment to prove the existence of microscopic organisms involves the comparison of water passed through unglazed porcelain and unfiltered water. When left in sealed containers the filtered water takes longer to go foul, demonstrating that very small items (such as bacteria) can be removed from fluids by filtration. In the kidney, renal filtration is the filtration of blood in the glomerulus, followed by selective reabsorbtion of many substances essential for the body.
Filter flask (suction flask, with sintered glass filter containing sample). Note the almost colourless filtrate in the receiver flask.
References
[1] Lecture notes, Postgraduate course on Filtration and Size separation at the Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Lougborough, England [2] Sterlitech (http:/ / www. sterlitech. com/ 37617/ Membrane-Disc-Filters. html) [3] How does a Brita water filter work FAQ (http:/ / www. brita. net/ uk/ faqs_household. html?L=1#10) [4] Eclipse Magnetics Magnetic filter supplier (http:/ / www. eclipse-magnetics. co. uk/ product-categories/ magneticfiltration)
Filtration
57
External links
The Encyclopedia of Filters - Liquid Filtration (http://www.qfilter.com/Resource.aspx/DocumentDetail/16) An overview of the many types of liquid filtration.
58
Apendices
Chemical element
A chemical element is a pure chemical substance consisting of one type of atom distinguished by its atomic number, which is the number of protons in its nucleus.[1] Familiar examples of elements include carbon, oxygen, aluminum, iron, copper, gold, mercury, and lead. As of May 2011, 118 elements have been identified, the latest being ununoctium in 2002.[2] Of the 118 known elements, only the first 92 are The periodic table of the chemical elements believed to occur naturally on Earth. Of these naturally occurring elements, 80 are stable or essentially so, while the others are radioactive, decaying into other, lighter elements over various timescales from fractions of a second to billions of years. Additional elements, of higher atomic numbers than those naturally occurring, have been produced technologically in recent decades as the products of nuclear reactions. Hydrogen and helium are by far the most abundant elements in the universe. However, oxygen is the most abundant element in the Earth's crust, making up almost half of its mass.[3] Although all known chemical matter is composed of these various elements, chemical matter itself constitutes only about 15% of the total matter in the universe. The remainder is dark matter, which is not believed to consist of chemical elements as we know them since it does not contain protons, neutrons or electrons. The universe's naturally occurring chemical elements are thought to have been produced by various cosmic processes, including hydrogen and helium creation during the Big Bang, production of elements as heavy as iron by stellar nucleosynthesis and cosmic-ray spallation, and formation of many heavier elements in supernovae and other cataclysmic cosmic events. While most elements are generally viewed as stable, transformation of one element to another occurs through decay of radioactive elements as well as other nuclear processes such as cosmic ray bombardment and natural nuclear fission of the nuclei of various heavy elements. When two distinct elements are chemically combined, with the atoms held together by chemical bonds, the result is termed a chemical compound. Two thirds of the chemical elements occur on Earth only as compounds, and in many cases in the remaining third, often the compound forms are the most common. Chemical compounds may be composed of elements combined in exact whole-number ratios of atoms, as in water, table salt, and such minerals as quartz, calcite, and some metal ores. However, chemical bonding of many types of elements may result in the formation of crystalline solids and metallic alloys for which exact chemical formulas do not exist. Most of the solid substance of the Earth is of this latter type: the atoms that are present in the substance of the Earth's crust, mantle, and inner core are combined into chemical compounds of many compositions, but these do not have precise empirical formulas.
Chemical element In all of these presentations, the physical and chemical properties of the pure individual elements are not apparent. This is true even for elements that occur in uncombined form, if they occur in mixtures, which most do. While all of the 94 naturally occurring elements have been identified in mineral samples from the Earth's crust, only a small minority of elements are found on Earth as recognizable, relative pure minerals. Among the more common of such "native elements" are copper, silver, gold, carbon (as coal, graphite, or diamonds), sulfur, and mercury. All but a few of the most inert elements, such as noble gases and noble metals, are usually found on Earth in chemically combined form, as chemical compounds. While about 32 of the chemical elements occur on Earth in native uncombined form, many of these are unrecognizable mixtures. For example, atmospheric air is primarily a mixture of gaseous elements, with nitrogen, oxygen, and argon being most abundant. The various solid native elements that occur on Earth are also present in nature in various mixtures, such as the alloy of iron and nickel invariably found in metallic deposits of meteoritic origin. The history of discovery of the chemical elements began with the numerous primitive human societies that found such native elements as copper and gold, and extracted (smelted) iron and a few other metallic elements from their ores. Alchemists and chemists subsequently identified and characterized many more, with nearly all of the naturally-occurring elements known by 1900. The properties of the chemical elements are often summarized using the periodic table that organizes the elements by increasing atomic number into rows ("periods") in which the columns ("groups") share recurring ("periodic") physical and chemical properties. In human society, almost every element has at least one unique household, commercial, industrial, scientific, or medical use, either in its pure forms or in various chemical compounds, mixtures, alloys, and other substances. Nearly all of the elements through uranium, and also americium, are now available industrially, most to high degrees of purity, except for a few radioactive ones that exist only transiently. Many of the elements, alone or in various combined forms, are essential to various kinds of biological life, with carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, and sulfur among the most important. Certain kinds of organisms require particular additional elements, for example the magnesium in chlorophyll in green plants, the calcium in mollusc shells, or the iron in the hemoglobin in vertebrate animals' red blood cells. Humans require recurrent consumption of small or trace amounts of dozens of elements, often included in vitamin and mineral supplements.
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Description
The lightest of the chemical elements are hydrogen and helium, both created by Big Bang nucleosynthesis during the first 20 minutes of the universe[4] in a ratio of around 3:1 by mass (approximately 12:1 by number of atoms). Almost all other elements found in nature, including some further hydrogen and helium created since then, were made by various natural or (at times) artificial methods of nucleosynthesis. On Earth, small amounts of new atoms are naturally produced in nucleogenic reactions, or in cosmogenic processes, such as cosmic ray spallation. New atoms are also naturally produced on Earth as radiogenic daughter isotopes of ongoing radioactive decay processes such as alpha decay, beta decay, spontaneous fission, cluster decay, and other rarer modes of decay. Of the 94 naturally occurring elements, those with atomic numbers 1 through 40 are all considered to be stable isotopes. Elements with atomic numbers 41 through 82 are apparently stable (except technetium and promethium) but theoretically unstable, or radioactive. The half-lives of elements 41 through 82 are so long however that their radioactive decay has yet to be detected by experiment. These "theoretical radionuclides" have half-lives at least 100 million times longer than the estimated age of the universe. Elements with atomic numbers 83 through 94 are unstable to the point that their radioactive decay can be detected. Some of these elements, notably thorium (atomic number 90) and uranium (atomic number 92), have one or more isotopes with half-lives long enough to survive as remnants of the explosive stellar nucleosynthesis that produced the heavy elements before the formation of our solar system. For example, at over 1.91019 years, over a billion times longer than the current estimated age of the universe, bismuth-209 (atomic number 83) has the longest known alpha decay half-life of any naturally occurring
Chemical element element.[5] [6] The very heaviest elements (those beyond plutonium, atomic number 94) undergo radioactive decay with half-lives so short that they have only been observed as the result of experimental observation. As of 2010, there are 118 known elements (in this context, "known" means observed well enough, even from just a few decay products, to have been differentiated from any other element).[7] [8] Of these 118 elements, 94 occur naturally on Earth. Six of these occur in extreme trace quantities: technetium, atomic number 43; promethium, number 61; astatine, number 85; francium, number 87; neptunium, number 93; and plutonium, number 94. These 94 elements, and also possibly element 98 californium, have been detected in the universe at large, in the spectra of stars and also supernovae, where short-lived radioactive elements are newly being made. The first 94 elements have been detected directly on Earth as naturally-occurring fission or transmutation products of uranium and thorium. Some californium may be present on Earth, but at present, natural californium is only known from supernovae spectra and even there its presence is uncertain (see californium for detail). The remaining 24 heavier elements, not found today either on Earth or in astronomical spectra, have been derived artificially. All of the heavy elements that are derived solely through artificial means are radioactive, with very short half-lives; if any atoms of these elements were present at the formation of Earth, they are extremely likely to have already decayed, and if present in novae, have been in quantities too small to have been noted. Technetium was the first purportedly non-naturally occurring element to be synthesized, in 1937, although trace amounts of technetium have since been found in nature (and also the element may have been discovered naturally in 1925). This pattern of artificial production and later natural discovery has been repeated with several other radioactive, naturally-occurring rare elements. Lists of the elements are available by name, by symbol, by atomic number, by density, by melting point, and by boiling point as well as Ionization energies of the elements. The nuclides of stable and radioactive elements are also available as a list of nuclides, sorted by length of half-life for those that are unstable. One of the most convenient, and certainly the most traditional presentation of the elements, is in form of periodic table, which groups elements with similar chemical properties (and usually also similar electronic structures) together.
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Atomic number
The atomic number of an element, Z, is equal to the number of protons that defines the element. For example, all carbon atoms contain 6 protons in their nucleus; so the atomic number "Z" of carbon is 6. Carbon atoms may have different numbers of neutrons; atoms of the same element having different numbers of neutrons are known as isotopes of the element. The number of protons in the atomic nucleus also determines its electric charge, which in turn determines the number of electrons of the atom in its non-ionized state. The electrons are placed into atomic orbitals which determine the atom's various chemical properties. The number of neutrons in a nucleus usually has very little effect on an elements' chemical properties (except in the case of hydrogen and deuterium). Thus, all carbon isotopes have nearly identical chemical properties because they all have six protons and six electrons, even though carbon atoms may differ in number of neutrons. It is for this reason that atomic number rather than mass number (or atomic weight) is considered the identifying characteristic of a chemical element.
Chemical element
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Atomic mass
The mass number of an element, A, is the number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) in the atomic nucleus. Different isotopes of a given element are distinguished by their mass numbers, which are conventionally written as a super-index on the left hand side of the atomic symbol (e.g., 238U). The relative atomic mass of an element is the average of the atomic masses of all the chemical element's isotopes as found in a particular environment, weighted by isotopic abundance, relative to the atomic mass unit (u). This number may be a fraction that is not close to a whole number, due to the averaging process. On the other hand, the atomic mass of a pure isotope is quite close to its mass number. Whereas the mass number is a natural (or whole) number, the atomic mass of a single isotope is a real number that is close to a natural number. In general, it differs slightly from the mass number as the mass of the protons and neutrons is not exactly 1 u, the electrons also contribute slightly to the atomic mass, and because of the nuclear binding energy. For example, the mass of 19F is 18.9984032 u. The only exception to the atomic mass of an isotope not being a natural number is 12C, which has a mass of exactly 12, because u is defined as 1/12 of the mass of a free neutral carbon-12 atom in the ground state.
Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (that is, with the same number of protons in their atomic nucleus), but having different numbers of neutrons. Most (66 of 94) naturally occurring elements have more than one stable isotope. Thus, for example, there are three main isotopes of carbon. All carbon atoms have 6 protons in the nucleus, but they can have either 6, 7, or 8 neutrons. Since the mass numbers of these are 12, 13 and 14 respectively, the three isotopes of carbon are known as carbon-12, carbon-13, and carbon-14, often abbreviated to 12C, 13C, and 14C. Carbon in everyday life and in chemistry is a mixture of 12C, 13C, and 14C atoms. Except in the case of the isotopes of hydrogen (which differ greatly from each other in relative massenough to cause chemical effects), the isotopes of the various elements are typically chemically nearly indistinguishable from each other. For example, the three naturally occurring isotopes of carbon have essentially the same chemical properties, but different nuclear properties. In this example, carbon-12 and carbon-13 are stable atoms, but carbon-14 is unstable; it is radioactive, undergoing beta decay into nitrogen-14. As illustrated by carbon, all of the elements have some isotopes that are radioactive (radioisotopes), which decay into other elements upon radiating an alpha or beta particle. Certain elements only have radioactive isotopes: specifically the elements without any stable isotopes are technetium (atomic number 43), promethium (atomic number 61), and all observed elements with atomic numbers greater than 82. Of the 80 elements with at least one stable isotope, 26 have only one stable isotope, and the mean number of stable isotopes for the 80 stable elements is 3.1 stable isotopes per element. The largest number of stable isotopes that occur for an element is 10 (for tin, element 50).
Allotropes
Atoms of pure elements may bond to each other chemically in more than one way, allowing the pure element to exist in multiple structures (spacial arrangements of atoms), known as allotropes, which differ in their properties. For example, carbon can be found as diamond, which has a tetrahedral structure around each carbon atom; graphite, which has layers of carbon atoms with a hexagonal structure stacked on top of each other; graphene, which is a single layer of graphite that is incredibly strong; fullerenes, which have nearly spherical shapes; and carbon nanotubes, which are tubes with a hexagonal structure (even these may differ from each other in electrical properties). The ability for an element to exist in one of many structural forms is known as 'allotropy'. The standard state, or reference state, of an element is defined as its thermodynamically most stable state at 1 bar at a given temperature (typically at 298.15 K). In thermochemistry, an element is defined to have an enthalpy of formation of zero in its standard state. For example, the reference state for carbon is graphite, because it is more
Chemical element stable than the other allotropes.
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Properties
Several kinds of descriptive categorizations can be applied broadly to the elements, including consideration of their general physical and chemical properties, their states of matter under familiar conditions, their melting and boiling points, their densities, their crystal structures as solids, and their origins. General properties Several terms are commonly used to characterize the general physical and chemical properties of the chemical elements. A first distinction is between the metals, which readily conduct electricity, and the nonmetals, which do not, with a small group (the metalloids) having intermediate properties, often behaving as semiconductors. A more refined classification is often shown in colored presentations of the periodic table; this system restricts the terms "metal" and "nonmetal" to only certain of the more broadly defined metals and nonmetals, adding additional terms for certain sets of the more broadly viewed metals and nonmetals. The version of this classification used in the periodic tables presented here includes: actinides, alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, halogens, lanthanides, metals (or "other metals"), metalloids, noble gases, nonmetals (or "other nonmetals"), and transition metals. In this system, the alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, and transition metals, as well as the lanthanides and the actinides, are special groups of the metals viewed in a broader sense. Similarly, the halogens and the noble gases are nonmetals, viewed in the broader sense. In some presentations, the halogens are not distinguished, with astatine identified as a metalloid and the others identified as nonmetals. States of matter Another commonly used basic distinction among the elements is their state of matter (phase), solid, liquid, or gas, at a selected standard temperature and pressure (STP). Most of the elements are solids at conventional temperatures and atmospheric pressure, while several are gases. Only bromine and mercury are liquids at 0 degrees Celsius (32 degrees Fahrenheit) and normal atmospheric pressure; caesium and gallium are solids at that temperature, but melt at 28.4 C (83.2 F) and 29.8 C (85.6 F), respectively. Melting and boiling points Melting and boiling points, typically expressed in degrees Celsius at a pressure of one atmosphere, are commonly used in characterizing the various elements. While known for most elements, either or both of these measurements is still undetermined for some of the radioactive elements available in only tiny quantities. Since helium remains a liquid even at absolute zero at atmospheric pressure, it has only a boiling point, and not a melting point, in conventional presentations. Densities The density at a selected standard temperature and pressure (STP) is frequently used in characterizing the elements. Density is often expressed in grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3). Since several elements are gases at commonly encountered temperatures, their densities are usually stated for their gaseous forms; when liquefied or solidified, the gaseous elements have densities similar to those of the other elements. When an element has allotropes with different densities, one representative allotrope is typically selected in summary presentations, while densities for each allotrope can be stated where more detail is provided. For example, the three familiar allotropes of carbon (amorphous carbon, graphite, and diamond) have densities of 1.82.1, 2.267, and 3.515 g/cm3 respectively.
Chemical element Crystal structures The elements studied to date as solid samples have eight kinds of crystal structures: cubic, body-centered cubic, face-centered cubic, hexagonal, monoclinic, orthorhombic, rhombohedral, and tetragonal. For some of the synthetically produced transuranic elements, available samples have been too small to determine crystal structures. Origins The elements may also be categorized by their origins, with the first 94 considered naturally occurring, and those with atomic numbers beyond 94 being synthetic (produced technologically, but not known to occur naturally). Of the naturally occurring elements, 84 are considered primordial, either stable or long-persisting, and the remaining 10 transient, produced either recurrently or incidentally as decay products or through other nuclear processes, but not themselves long-persisting. The 91 regularly occurring natural elements include the 80 stable or essentially stable, primordial elements (from hydrogen through lead, omitting technetium and promethium); bismuth, thorium, uranium, and plutonium (radioactive but still remaining from primordial times); and the 7 transiently existing but recurrently produced decay products of thorium, uranium, and plutonium (polonium, astatine, radon, francium, radium, actinium, and protactinium). Three additional naturally occurring elements, technetium, promethium, and neptunium, are only incidentally occurring, present in natural materials only as transiently existing atoms produced from uranium or other heavy elements by rare nuclear processes. Note that helium is recurrently produced naturally from radioactive decay, but little if any primordial helium still exists at the Earth's surface, since this light gas readily escapes from the atmosphere into outer space.
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The periodic table

The properties of the chemical elements are often summarized using the periodic table, which powerfully and elegantly organizes the elements by increasing atomic number into rows ("periods") in which the columns ("groups") share recurring ("periodic") physical and chemical properties. The current standard table contains 118 confirmed elements as of April 10, 2010. Although earlier precursors to this presentation exist, its invention is generally credited to Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869, who intended the table to illustrate recurring trends in the properties of the elements. The layout of the table has been refined and extended over time, as new elements have been discovered, and new theoretical models have been developed to explain chemical behavior. Use of the periodic table is now ubiquitous within the academic discipline of chemistry, providing an extremely useful framework to classify, systematize and compare all the many different forms of chemical behavior. The table has also found wide application in physics, geology, biology, materials science, engineering, agriculture, medicine, nutrition, environmental health, and astronomy. Its principles are especially important in chemical engineering.
Nomenclature and symbols

The various chemical elements are formally identified by their unique atomic numbers, by their accepted names, and by their symbols.
Atomic numbers
The known elements have atomic numbers from 1 through 118, conventionally presented as Arabic numerals. Since the elements can be uniquely sequenced by atomic number, conventionally from lowest to hightest (as in a periodic table), sets of elements are sometimes specified by such notation as "through", "beyond", or "from ... through", as in "through iron", "beyond uranium", or "from lanthanum through lutetium". The terms "light" and "heavy" are sometimes also used informally to indicate relative atomic numbers (not densities!), as in "lighter than carbon" or "heavier than lead", although technically the weight or mass of atoms of an element (their atomic weights
Chemical element or atomic masses) do not always increase monotonically with their atomic numbers.
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Element names
The naming of various substances now known as elements precedes the atomic theory of matter, as names were given locally by various cultures to various minerals, metals, compounds, alloys, mixtures, and other materials, although at the time it was not known which chemicals were elements and which compounds. As they were identified as elements, the existing names for anciently-known elements (e.g., gold, mercury, iron) were kept in most countries. National differences emerged over the names of elements either for convenience, linguistic niceties, or nationalism. For a few illustrative examples: German speakers use "Wasserstoff" (water substance) for "hydrogen", "Sauerstoff" (acid substance) for "oxygen" and "Stickstoff" (smothering substance) for "nitrogen", while English and some romance languages use "sodium" for "natrium" and "potassium" for "kalium", and the French, Italians, Greeks, Portuguese and Poles prefer "azote/azot/azoto" (from roots meaning "no life") for "nitrogen". For purposes of international communication and trade, the official names of the chemical elements both ancient and more recently recognized are decided by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), which has decided on a sort of international English language, drawing on traditional English names even when an element's chemical symbol is based on a Latin or other traditional word, for example adopting "gold" rather than "aurum" as the name for the 79th element (Au). IUPAC prefers the British spellings "aluminium" and "caesium" over the U.S. spellings "aluminum" and "cesium", and the U.S. "sulfur" over the British "sulphur". However, elements that are practical to sell in bulk in many countries often still have locally used national names, and countries whose national language does not use the Latin alphabet are likely to use the IUPAC element names. According to IUPAC, chemical elements are not proper nouns in English; consequently, the full name of an element is not routinely capitalized in English, even if derived from a proper noun, as in californium and einsteinium. Isotope names of chemical elements are also uncapitalized if written out, e.g., carbon-12 or uranium-235. In the second half of the twentieth century, physics laboratories became able to produce nuclei of chemical elements with half-lives too short for an appreciable amount of them to exist at any time. These are also named by IUPAC, which generally adopts the name chosen by the discoverer. This practice can lead to the controversial question of which research group actually discovered an element, a question that has delayed naming of elements with atomic number of 104 and higher for a considerable time. (See element naming controversy). Precursors of such controversies involved the nationalistic namings of elements in the late 19th century. For example, lutetium was named in reference to Paris, France. The Germans were reluctant to relinquish naming rights to the French, often calling it cassiopeium. Similarly, the British discoverer of niobium originally named it columbium, in reference to the New World. It was used extensively as such by American publications prior to international standardization.
Chemical symbols
Specific chemical elements Before chemistry became a science, alchemists had designed arcane symbols for both metals and common compounds. These were however used as abbreviations in diagrams or procedures; there was no concept of atoms combining to form molecules. With his advances in the atomic theory of matter, John Dalton devised his own simpler symbols, based on circles, which were to be used to depict molecules. The current system of chemical notation was invented by Berzelius. In this typographical system chemical symbols are not used as mere abbreviations though each consists of letters of the Latin alphabet they are symbols intended to be used by peoples of all languages and alphabets. The first of these symbols were intended to be fully universal; since Latin was the common language of science at that time, they were abbreviations based on the Latin names of metals Cu comes from Cuprum, Fe comes from Ferrum, Ag from Argentum. The symbols were not
Chemical element followed by a period (full stop) as abbreviations were. Later chemical elements were also assigned unique chemical symbols, based on the name of the element, but not necessarily in English. For example, sodium has the chemical symbol 'Na' after the Latin natrium. The same applies to "W" (wolfram) for tungsten, "Fe" (ferrum) for iron, "Hg" (hydrargyrum) for mercury, "Sn" (stannum) for tin, "K" (kalium) for potassium, "Au" (aurum) for gold, "Ag" (argentum) for silver, "Pb" (plumbum) for lead, "Cu" (Cuprum) for copper, and "Sb" (stibium) for antimony. Chemical symbols are understood internationally when element names might need to be translated. There are sometimes differences; for example, the Germans have used "J" instead of "I" for iodine, so the character would not be confused with a Roman numeral. The first letter of a chemical symbol is always capitalized, as in the preceding examples, and the subsequent letters, if any, are always lower case (small letters). Thus, the symbols for californium or einsteinium are Cf and Es. General chemical symbols There are also symbols for series of chemical elements, for comparative formulas. These are one capital letter in length, and the letters are reserved so they are not permitted to be given for the names of specific elements. For example, an "X" is used to indicate a variable group amongst a class of compounds (though usually a halogen), while "R" is used for a radical, meaning a compound structure such as a hydrocarbon chain. The letter "Q" is reserved for "heat" in a chemical reaction. "Y" is also often used as a general chemical symbol, although it is also the symbol of yttrium. "Z" is also frequently used as a general variable group. "L" is used to represent a general ligand in inorganic and organometallic chemistry. "M" is also often used in place of a general metal. At least one additional, two-letter generic chemical symbol is also in informal usage, "Ln" for any lanthanide element. Isotope symbols Isotopes are distinguished by the atomic mass number (total protons and neutrons) for a particular isotope of an element, with this number combined with the pertinent element's symbol. IUPAC prefers that isotope symbols be written in superscript notation when practical, for example 12C and 235U. However, other notations, such as carbon-12 and uranium-235, or C-12 and U-235, are also used. As a special case, the three naturally occurring isotopes of the element hydrogen are often specified as H for 1H (protium), D for 2H (deuterium), and T for 3H (tritium). This convention is easier to use in chemical equations, replacing the need to write out the mass number for each atom. For example, the formula for heavy water may be written D2O instead of 2H2O.
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Chemical element
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Origin of the elements

Only about 4% of the total mass of the universe is made of atoms or ions, and thus represented by chemical elements. This fraction is about 15% of the total matter, with the remainder of the matter (85%) being dark matter. The nature of dark matter is unknown, but it is not composed of atoms of chemical elements because it contains no protons, neutrons, or electrons. (The remaining non-matter part of the mass of the universe is composed of the even more mysterious dark energy). The universe's 94 naturally occurring chemical elements are thought to have been produced by at least four cosmic processes. Most of the hydrogen and helium in the universe was produced primordially in the first few minutes of the Big Bang. Three recurrently occurring later processes are thought to have produced the remaining elements. Stellar nucleosynthesis, an ongoing process, produces all elements from carbon through iron in atomic number, but little lithium, beryllium, or boron. Elements heavier in atomic number than iron, as heavy as uranium and plutonium, are produced by explosive nucleosynthesis in supernovas and other cataclysmic cosmic events. Cosmic ray spallation (fragmentation) of carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen is important to the production of lithium, beryllium and boron.
Estimated distribution of dark matter and dark energy in the universe. Only the fraction of the mass and energy in the universe labeled "atoms" is composed of chemical elements.
During the early phases of the Big Bang, nucleosynthesis of hydrogen nuclei resulted in the production of hydrogen-1 (protonium, 1H) and helium-4 (4He), as well as a smaller amount of deuterium (2H) and very minuscule amounts (on the order of 1010) of lithium and beryllium. Even smaller amounts of boron may have been produced in the Big Bang, since it has been observed in some very old stars, while carbon has not.[9] It is generally agreed that no heavier elements than boron were produced in the Big Bang. As a result, the primordial abundance of atoms (or ions) consisted of roughly 75% 1H, 25% 4He, and 0.01% deuterium, with only tiny traces of lithium, beryllium, and perhaps boron.[10] Subsequent enrichment of galactic halos occurred due to stellar nucleosynthesis and supernova nucleosynthesis.[11] However, the element abundance in intergalactic space can still closely resemble primordial conditions, unless it has been enriched by some means. On Earth (and elsewhere), trace amounts of various elements continue to be produced from other elements as products of natural transmutation processes. These include some produced by cosmic rays or other nuclear reactions (see cosmogenic and nucleogenic nuclides), and others produced as decay products of long-lived primordial nuclides.[12] For example, trace (but detectable) amounts of carbon-14 (14C) are continually produced in the atmosphere by cosmic rays impacting nitrogen atoms, and argon-40 (40Ar) is continually produced by the decay of primordially occurring but unstable potassium-40 (40K). Also, three primordially occurring but radioactive actinides, thorium, uranium, and plutonium, decay through a series of recurrently produced but unstable radioactive elements such as radium and radon, which are transiently present in any sample of these metals or their ores or compounds. Three other radioactive elements, technetium, promethium, and neptunium, occur only incidentally in natural
Chemical element materials, produced as individual atoms by natural fission of the nuclei of various heavy elements or in other rare nuclear processses. Human technology has produced various additional elements beyond these first 94, with those through atomic number 118 now known.
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Abundance
The following graph (note log scale) shows abundance of elements in our solar system. The table shows the twelve most common elements in our galaxy (estimated spectroscopically), as measured in parts per million, by mass.[13] Nearby galaxies that have evolved along similar lines have a corresponding enrichment of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium. The more distant galaxies are being viewed as they appeared in the past, so their abundances of elements appear closer to the primordial mixture. As physical laws and processes appear common throughout the visible universe, however, it is expected that these galaxies will likewise have evolved similar abundances of elements.
Abundances of the chemical elements in the Solar system. Hydrogen and helium are most common, from the Big Bang. The next three elements (Li, Be, B) are rare because they are poorly synthesized in the Big Bang and also in stars. The two general trends in the remaining stellar-produced elements are: (1) an alternation of abundance in elements as they have even or odd atomic numbers, and (2) a general decrease in abundance, as elements become heavier.
Element
Parts per million by mass 739,000 240,000 10,400 4,600 1,340 1,090 960 650
Hydrogen Helium Oxygen Carbon Neon Iron Nitrogen Silicon
Magnesium 580 Sulfur Potassium Nickel 440 210 100
Chemical element
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History
Evolving definitions
The concept of an "element" as an undivisible substance has developed through three major historical phases: Classical definitions (such as those of the ancient Greeks), chemical definitions, and atomic definitions. Classical definitions Ancient philosophy posited a set of classical elements to explain observed patterns in nature. These elements originally referred to earth, water, air and fire rather than the chemical elements of modern science. The term 'elements' (stoicheia) was first used by the Greek philosopher Plato in about 360 BCE, in his dialogue Timaeus, which includes a discussion of the composition of inorganic and organic bodies and is a speculative treatise on chemistry. Plato believed the elements introduced a century earlier by Empedocles were composed of small polyhedral forms: tetrahedron (fire), octahedron (air), icosahedron (water), and cube (earth).[14] [15]
Mendeleev's 1869 periodic table
Aristotle, c. 350 BCE, also used the term stoicheia and added a fifth element called aether, which formed the heavens. Aristotle defined an element as: Element one of those bodies into which other bodies can decompose, and that itself is not capable of being divided into other.[16] Chemical definitions In 1661, chemist Robert Boyle showed that there were more than just the four classical elements that the ancients had assumed.[17] The first modern list of chemical elements was given in Antoine Lavoisier's 1789 Elements of Chemistry, which contained thirty-three elements, including light and caloric.[18] By 1818, Jns Jakob Berzelius had determined atomic weights for forty-five of the forty-nine then-accepted accepted elements. Dmitri Mendeleev had sixty-six elements in his periodic table of 1869. From Boyle until the early 20th century, an element was defined as a pure substance that could not be decomposed into any simpler substance.[17] Put another way, a chemical element cannot be transformed into other chemical elements by chemical processes. Elements during this time were generally distinguished by their atomic weights, a property measurable with fair accuracy by available analytical techniques.
Chemical element Atomic definitions The 1913 discovery by Henry Moseley that the nuclear charge is the physical basis for an atom's atomic number, further refined when the nature of protons and neutrons became appreciated, eventually led to the current definition of an element, based on atomic number (number of protons per atomic nucleus). The use of atomic numbers, rather than atomic weights, to distinguish elements has greater predictive value (since these numbers are integers), and also resolves some ambiguities in the chemistry-based view due to varying properties of isotopes and allotropes within the same element. Currently IUPAC defines an element to exist if it has isotopes with a lifetime longer than the 1014 seconds which takes the nucleus to form an electronic cloud.[19] By 1914, seventy-two elements were known, all naturally occurring.[20] The remaining naturally occurring elements were discovered or isolated is subsequent decades, and various additional elements have also been produced synthetically, with much of that work pioneered by Glenn T. Seaborg. In 1955, element 101 was discovered and named mendelevium in honor of D.I. Mendeleev, the first to arrange the elements in a periodic manner. Most recently, the synthesis of element 118 was reported in October 2006, and the synthesis of element 117 was reported in April 2010.[21]
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Discovery and recognition of various elements

Ten materials familiar to various prehistoric cultures are now known to be chemical elements: Carbon, copper, gold, iron, lead, mercury, silver, sulfur, tin, and zinc. Three additional materials now accepted as elements, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth, were recognized as distinct substances prior to 1500 AD. Phosphorus, cobalt, and platinum were isolated before 1750. Most of the remaining naturally occurring chemical elements were identified and characterized by 1900, including: Such now-familiar industrial materials as aluminum, silicon, nickel, chromium, magnesium, and tungsten Reactive metals such as lithium, sodium, potassium, and calcium The halogens fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine Gases such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, helium, argon, and neon Most of the rare-earth elements, including cerium, lanthanum, gadolinium, and neodymium, and The more common radioactive elements, including uranium, thorium, radium, and radon
Elements isolated or produced since 1900 include: The three remaining undiscovered regularly occurring stable natural elements: hafnium, lutetium, and rhenium Plutonium, first produced synthetically but now also known from a few long-persisting natural occurrences The three incidentally occurring natural elements (neptunium, promethium, and technetium), all first produced synthetically but later discovered in trace amounts in certain geological samples Three scarcer decay products of uranium or thorium (astatine, francium, and protactinium), Various synthetic transuranic elements, beginning with americium, curium, berkelium, and californium
Recently discovered elements

The first transuranium element (element with atomic number greater than 92) discovered was neptunium in 1940. As of February 2010, only the elements up to 112, copernicium, have been confirmed as discovered by IUPAC, while claims have been made for synthesis of elements 113, 114, 115, 116, 117[22] and 118. The discovery of element 112 was acknowledged in 2009, and the name 'copernicium' and the atomic symbol 'Cn' were suggested for it.[23] The name and symbol were officially endorsed by IUPAC on February 19, 2010.[24] The heaviest element that is believed to have been synthesized to date is element 118, ununoctium, on October 9, 2006, by the Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions in Dubna, Russia.[8] [25] Element 117 was the latest element claimed to be discovered, in 2009.[22] IUPAC officially recognized ununquadium and ununhexium, elements 114 and 116, in June 2011.[26]
Chemical element
70
List of the 118 known chemical elements

The following sortable table includes the 118 known chemical elements, with the names linking to the Wikipedia articles on each. Atomic number, name, and symbol all serve independently as unique identifiers. Names are those accepted by IUPAC; provisional names for recently produced elements not yet formally named are in parentheses. Group, period, and block refer to an element's position in the periodic table. State of matter (solid, liquid, or gas) applies at standard temperature and pressure conditions (STP). Occurrence distinguishes naturally occurring elements, categorized as either primordial or transient (from decay), and additional synthetic elements that have been produced technologically, but are not known to occur naturally. Description summarizes an element's properties using the broad categories commonly presented in periodic tables: Actinide, alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, halogen, lanthanide, metal, metalloid, noble gas, non-metal, and transition metal.
List of elements
Atomic no. Name Symbol Group Period Block State at STP Gas Gas Solid Solid Solid Solid Gas Gas Gas Gas Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Gas Gas Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Occurrence Description
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Hydrogen Helium Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium
H He Li Be B C N O F Ne Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar K Ca Sc Ti V
1 18 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4
s s s s p p p p p p s s p p p p p p s s d d d
Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial
Non-metal Noble gas Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal Metalloid Non-metal Non-metal Non-metal Halogen Noble gas Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal Metal Metalloid Non-metal Non-metal Halogen Noble gas Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal
Chemical element
71
24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe Cs Ba La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 1 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 d d d d d d d p p p p p p s s d d d d d d d d d d p p p p p p s s f f f f f f Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Liquid Gas Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Gas Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Transient Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Transient Primordial Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Metal Metalloid Metalloid Non-metal Halogen Noble gas Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Metal Metal Metalloid Metalloid Halogen Noble gas Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal Lanthanide Lanthanide Lanthanide Lanthanide Lanthanide Lanthanide
Chemical element
72
63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn Fr Ra Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 1 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 f f f f f f f f d d d d d d d d d d p p p p p p s s f f f f f f f f f f f f f Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Liquid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Gas Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Solid Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Primordial Transient Transient Transient Transient Transient Transient Primordial Transient Primordial Transient Primordial Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Lanthanide Lanthanide Lanthanide Lanthanide Lanthanide Lanthanide Lanthanide Lanthanide Lanthanide Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Metal Metal Metal Metalloid Halogen Noble gas Alkali metal Alkaline earth metal Actinide Actinide Actinide Actinide Actinide Actinide Actinide Actinide Actinide Actinide Actinide Actinide Actinide
Chemical element
73
102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium (Ununtrium) No Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 f d d d d d d d d d d p p p p p p Solid Solid Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Transition metal Actinide Actinide Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal Transition metal
(Ununquadium) Uuq (Ununpentium) Uup (Ununhexium) (Ununseptium) (Ununoctium) Uuh Uus Uuo
References
[1] IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006) " chemical element (http:/ / goldbook. iupac. org/ C01022. html)". [2] Oganessian, YT (2007). "Heaviest nuclei from 48Ca-induced reactions" (http:/ / www. icpress. co. uk/ etextbook/ p573/ p573_chap01. pdf). Journal of Physics G: Nuclear and Particle Physics 34 (4): R165R242. Bibcode2007JPhG...34..165O. doi:10.1088/0954-3899/34/4/R01. . Retrieved 2011-05-07. [3] Los Alamos National Laboratory (2011). "Periodic Table of Elements: Oxygen" (http:/ / periodic. lanl. gov/ 8. shtml). Los Alamos, New Mexico: Los Alamos National Security, LLC. . Retrieved 2011-05-07. [4] See the timeline on p.10 of Gaitskell, R.; et al. (2006). "Evidence for Dark Matter" (http:/ / gaitskell. brown. edu/ physics/ talks/ 0408_SLAC_SummerSchool/ Gaitskell_DMEvidence_v16. pdf). Physical Review C 74 (4): 044602. Bibcode2006PhRvC..74d4602O. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.74.044602. . [5] Dum, Belle (2003-04-23). "Bismuth breaks half-life record for alpha decay" (http:/ / physicsweb. org/ articles/ news/ 7/ 4/ 16). Physicsworld.com (Bristol, England: Institute of Physics). . Retrieved 2011-05-07. [6] Marcillac, Pierre de; Nol Coron, Grard Dambier, Jacques Leblanc, and Jean-Pierre Moalic (2003). "Experimental detection of alpha-particles from the radioactive decay of natural bismuth". Nature 422 (6934): 8768. Bibcode2003Natur.422..876D. doi:10.1038/nature01541. PMID12712201. [7] Sanderson, K. (17 October 2006). "Heaviest element made again" (http:/ / www. nature. com/ news/ 2006/ 061016/ full/ 061016-4. html). Nature News. doi:10.1038/news061016-4. . [8] Schewe, P.; Stein, B. (17 October 2006). "Elements 116 and 118 Are Discovered" (http:/ / www. aip. org/ pnu/ 2006/ 797. html). Physics News Update. American Institute of Physics. . Retrieved 2006-10-19. [9] Wilford, J.N. (14 January 1992). "Hubble Observations Bring Some Surprises" (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage. html?res=9E0CE5D91F3AF937A25752C0A964958260). New York Times. . [10] Wright, E.L. (12 September 2004). "Big Bang Nucleosynthesis" (http:/ / www. astro. ucla. edu/ ~wright/ BBNS. html). UCLA, Division of Astronomy. . Retrieved 2007-02-22. [11] Wallerstein, G.; et al. (1999). "Synthesis of the elements in stars: forty years of progress" (http:/ / www. cococubed. com/ papers/ wallerstein97. pdf). Reviews of Modern Physics 69 (4): 9951084. Bibcode1997RvMP...69..995W. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.69.995. . [12] Earnshaw, A; Greenwood, N (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. [13] Croswell, K. (1996). Alchemy of the Heavens (http:/ / kencroswell. com/ alchemy. html). Anchor. ISBN0-385-47214-5. . [14] Plato (2008) [c. 360 BC]. Timaeus (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=xSjvowNydN8C& lpg=PP1& dq=Plato timaeus& pg=PA45#v=onepage& q=cube& f=false). Forgotten Books. p.45. ISBN978-1606200186. .
Chemical element
[15] Hillar, M. (2004). "The Problem of the Soul in Aristotle's De anima" (http:/ / www. socinian. org/ aristotles_de_anima. html). NASA/WMAP. . Retrieved 2006-08-10. [16] Partington, J.R. (1937). A Short History of Chemistry. New York: Dover Publications. ISBN0486659771. [17] Boyle, R. (1661). The Sceptical Chymist. London. ISBN0922802904. [18] Lavoisier, A.L. (1790). Elements of chemistry translated by Robert Kerr (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=4BzAjCpEK4gC& pg=PA175). Edinburgh. pp.175176. ISBN9780415179140. . [19] Transactinide-2 (http:/ / www. kernchemie. de/ Transactinides/ Transactinide-2/ transactinide-2. html). www.kernchemie.de [20] Carey, G.W. (1914). The Chemistry of Human Life. Los Angeles. ISBN0766128407. [21] Glanz, J. (6 April 2010). "Scientists Discover Heavy New Element" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2010/ 04/ 07/ science/ 07element. html?hp). New York Times. . [22] W., Greiner. "Recommendations" (http:/ / www. jinr. ru/ img_sections/ PAC/ NP/ 31/ PAK_NP_31_recom_eng. pdf). 31st meeting, PAC for Nuclear Physics. Joint Institute for Nuclear Research. . [23] "IUPAC Announces Start of the Name Approval Process for the Element of Atomic Number 112" (http:/ / media. iupac. org/ news/ 112_Naming_Process_20090720. pdf). IUPAC. 20 July 2009. . Retrieved 2009-08-27. [24] "IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry): Element 112 is Named Copernicium" (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ web/ nt/ 2010-02-20_112_Copernicium). IUPAC. 20 February 2010. . [25] Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; et al. (2006). "Synthesis of the isotopes of elements 118 and 116 in the 249Cf and 245Cm+48Ca fusion reactions". Physical Review C 74 (4): 044602. Bibcode2006PhRvC..74d4602O. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.74.044602. [26] "Two ultra-heavy elements added to the periodic table" (http:/ / www. wired. co. uk/ news/ archive/ 2011-06/ 06/ new-elements-added). 6 June 2011. .
74
Further reading
Ball, Philip (2004). The Elements: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN0192840991. Emsley, John (2003). Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford University Press. ISBN0198503407. Gray, Theodore (2009). The Elements: A Visual Exploration of Every Known Atom in the Universe. Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers Inc. ISBN1579128149. Scerri, E.R. (2007). The Periodic Table, Its Story and Its Significance. Oxford University Press. Strathern, Paul (2000). Mendeleyev's Dream: The Quest for the Elements. Hamish Hamilton Ltd. ISBN024114065X.
External links
Videos for each element (http://periodicvideos.com/) by the University of Nottingham
Timeline of chemical elements discoveries
75

The discovery of the elements known to exist today is presented here in chronological order. The elements are listed generally in the order in which each was first defined as the pure element, as the exact date of discovery of most elements cannot be accurately defined. Given is each element's name, atomic number, year of first report, name of the discoverer, and some notes related to the discovery.
Table
Group# Period 1 1 H 3 Li 4 Be 5 B 13 Al 21 Sc 39 Y 22 Ti 23 V 24 25 26 Cr Mn Fe 44 Ru 76 Os 27 Co 45 Rh 77 Ir 28 Ni 29 30 31 Cu Zn Ga 49 In 81 Tl 6 C 14 Si 32 Ge 50 Sn 82 Pb 7 N 15 P 33 As 51 Sb 83 Bi 8 O 16 S 34 Se 52 Te 84 Po 9 F 17 Cl 35 Br 53 I 85 At 2 He 10 Ne 18 Ar 36 Kr 54 Xe 86 Rn 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
11 12 Na Mg 19 20 K Ca 37 38 Rb Sr
40 41 42 43 Zr Nb Mo Tc 74 W 75 Re
46 47 48 Pd Ag Cd 78 79 80 Pt Au Hg
55 56 * 72 73 Cs Ba lanthanides Hf Ta 87 88 Fr Ra ** actinides 57 La 89 Ac
104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo 58 59 60 61 62 63 Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu 90 91 Th Pa 92 U 64 65 66 67 Gd Tb Dy Ho 99 Es 68 Er 69 Tm 70 Yb 71 Lu
* Lanthanoids
** Actinoids
93 94 95 96 97 98 Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf
100 101 102 103 Fm Md No Lr
Legend Before 1800 (34 elements): discoveries during and before the age of enlightenment. 1800-1849 (24 elements): scientific and industrial revolutions. 1850-1899 (26 elements): the age of classifying elements; application of spectrum analysis techniques: Boisbaudran, Bunsen, Crookes, Kirchhoff, and others "hunting emission line signatures". 1900-1949 (13 elements): development of old quantum theory and quantum mechanics. 1950-1999 (16 elements): "post atomic bomb" era; synthesis of atomic numbers 98 and above (colliders, bombardment techniques). 2000-present (5 elements): recent synthesis.
76
Unrecorded discoveries
Z Name Earliest use Oldest existing sample 6000 BC Discoverers Place of oldest sample Anatolia Notes
29 Copper
9000 BC
Middle East
[1] Copper was probably the first metal mined and crafted by man. It was originally obtained as a native metal and later from the smelting of ores. Earliest estimates of the discovery of copper suggest around 9000 BC in the Middle East. It was one of the most important materials to humans throughout the copper and bronze ages. Copper beads dating from 6000 [2] BC have been found in atal Hyk, Anatolia. Archaeologists suggest that the first use of gold began with the first civilizations in the Middle East. It may have been the first metal used by humans. The oldest remaining gold jewelry is that in the tomb of [3] [4] Egyptian Queen Zer. It is believed that lead smelting began at least 9000 years ago, and the oldest known artifact of lead is a statuette found at the temple of Osiris on [5] the site of Abydos dated circa 3800 BC. Estimated to have been discovered shortly after copper and gold. [6] [7]
79 Gold
before 6000 BC
5500 BC
Middle East
Egypt
82 Lead
7000 BC
3800 BC
Near East
Abydos, Egypt
47 Silver
before 5000 BC before 5000 BC
~4000 BC 4000 BC
Asia Minor
26 Iron
Egypt
[8] There is evidence that iron was known from before 5000 BC. The oldest known iron objects used by humans are some beads of meteoric iron, made in Egypt in about 4000 BC. The discovery of smelting around 3000 BC led to the start of the iron age around 1200 BC and the [9] prominent use of iron for tools and weapons. The earliest known use of charcoal was for the reduction of copper, zinc, and tin ores in the manufacture of bronze, by the Egyptians and [10] [11] Sumerians. Diamonds were probably known as early as 2500 BC. [12] The first true chemical analyses were made in the 18th century, and in [13] 1789 carbon was listed by Antoine Lavoisier as an element. First smelted in combination with copper around 3500 BC to produce [14] [15] bronze and brass. The oldest artifacts date from around 2000 BC. First used at least 4000 years ago. Antoine Lavoisier in 1777. [16] Recognized as an element by
Carbon
3750 BC
Egyptians and Sumerians
50 Tin
3500 BC
2000 BC ?
16 Sulfur
before 2000 BC before 2000 BC before 1000 BC
Chinese/Indians
80 Mercury
1500 BC 1000 BC
Chinese/Indians
Egypt
Known to ancient Chinese and Indians before 2000 BC, and found in [17] Egyptian tombs dating from 1500 BC. Extracted as a metal since antiquity (before 1000 BC) by Indian metallurgists, but the true nature of this metal was not understood in ancient times. Identified as a unique metal by the metallurgist Rasaratna [18] [19] Samuccaya in 800 and by the alchemist Paracelsus in 1526. Isolated by Andreas Sigismund Marggraf in 1746. In use in the early bronze age; Albertus Magnus was the first European to [20] [21] isolate the element in 1250. In 1649, Johann Schrder published two ways of preparing elemental arsenic. In widespread use in Egypt and the Middle East. Basilius Valentinus was [20] [21] the first European to describe the element around 1450. First description of a procedure for isolating elemental antimony in 1540 was by Vannoccio Biringuccio.
30 Zinc
Indian metallurgists
Indian subcontinent
33 Arsenic
2500 BC/1250 AD
bronze age
A.Magnus
51 Antimony 3000 BC

[20]
77
83 Bismuth
1753
C.F.Geoffroy
Described in writings attributed to Basilius Valentinus around 1450. [21] Definitively identified by Claude Franois Geoffroy in 1753.
Recorded discoveries
Z Element name Observed Isolation or (widely predicted known) 1669 1669 Observer First isolator Notes
15
Phosphorus
H.Brand
H.Brand
Prepared from urine, it was the first element to [22] be chemically discovered. Proved that the blue color of glass is due to a new kind of metal and not bismuth as thought [23] previously. First description of a metal found in South American gold was in 1557 by Julius Caesar Scaliger. Ulloa published his findings in 1748, but Sir Charles Wood also investigated the metal in 1741. First reference to it as a new metal was [24] made by William Brownrigg in 1750. Found by attempting to extract copper from the mineral known as "fake copper" (now known as [25] niccolite). Black observed that magnesia alba (MgO) was not quicklime (CaO). Davy isolated the metal [26] electrochemically from magnesia. Cavendish was the first to distinguish H2 from other gases, although Paracelsus around 1500, Robert Boyle, and Joseph Priestley had observed its production by reacting strong acids with [27] [28] metals. Lavoisier named it in 1793. Obtained it by heating mercuric oxide and nitrates in 1771, but did not publish his findings until 1777. Joseph Priestley also prepared this new air by 1774, but only Lavoisier recognized [29] it as a true element; he named it in 1777. [30] He showed that the air in which animals had breathed, even after removal of the exhaled carbon dioxide, was no longer able to burn a candle. Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Henry Cavendish, and Joseph Priestley also studied the element at about the same time, and Lavoisier named it in [31] 1775-6. Obtained it from hydrochloric acid, but thought it was an oxide. Only in 1808 did Humphry Davy [32] recognize it as an element.
27
Cobalt
1732
G.Brandt
78
Platinum
1735
1735
A.de Ulloa
A. de Ulloa
28
Nickel
1751
1751
A.F.Cronstedt
A.F.Cronstedt
12
Magnesium
1755
1808
J.Black
H.Davy
Hydrogen
1766
1500
H.Cavendish
Paracelsus
Oxygen
1771
1771
C.W.Scheele
C.W.Scheele
Nitrogen
1772
1772
D.Rutherford
D.Rutherford
17
Chlorine
1774
1774
C.W.Scheele
C.W.Scheele
78
J.G.Gahn
25
Manganese
1770
1774
T.O.Bergman
Distinguished pyrolusite as the calx of a new metal. Ignatius Gottfred Kaim also discovered the new metal in 1770, as did Scheele in 1774. It was isolated by reduction of manganese dioxide [33] with carbon. Scheele distinguished a new earth (BaO) in pyrolusite and Davy isolated the metal by [34] electrolysis. Scheele recognised the metal as a constituent of [35] molybdena. Muller observed it as an impurity in gold ores [36] from Transylvania. Bergman obtained from scheelite an oxide of a new element. The Elhuyars obtained tungstic acid from wolframite and reduced it with [37] charcoal. Cruikshank and Adair Crawford in 1790 concluded that strontianite contained a new earth. It was eventually isolated electrochemically in 1808 by Humphry [38] Davy. The first modern list of chemical elements containing, among others, 23 elements of those [39] known then. He also redefined the term "element". Until him, all metals except mercury were not considered elements.
56
Barium
1772
1808
C.W.Scheele
H.Davy
42
Molybdenum
1778
1781
C.W.Scheele
P.J.Hjelm
52
Tellurium
1782
1795?
F.-J.M. von Reichenstein T.Bergman
M.H.Klaproth
74
Tungsten
1781
1783
J.J.Elhuyar, &F.Elhuyar
38
Strontium
1787
1808
W.Cruikshank
H.Davy
1789
A.Lavoisier
40
Zirconium
1789
1824
M.H.Klaproth
J.J.Berzelius
Klaproth identified a new element in [40] [41] zirconia. Mistakenly identified a uranium oxide obtained from pitchblende as the element itself and named it after the recently discovered planet [42] [43] Uranus. Gregor found an oxide of a new metal in ilmenite; Martin Heinrich Klaproth independently discovered the element in rutile in 1795 and named it. The pure metallic form was only obtained in 1910 by Matthew A. [44] [45] Hunter. Discovered in gadolinite, but Mosander showed later that its ore, yttria, contained more [46] [47] elements. Discovered and isolated from crocoite. [48]
92
Uranium
1789
1841
M.H.Klaproth
E.-M.Pligot
22
Titanium
1791
1825
W.Gregor
J.J.Berzelius
39
Yttrium
1794
1840
J.Gadolin
C.G.Mosander
24 4
Chromium Beryllium
1797 1798
1798 1828
L.N.Vauquelin L.N.Vauquelin
L.N.Vauquelin F.Whler&A.Bussy
Vauquelin discovered the oxide in beryl and emerald, and Klaproth suggested the present [49] name around 1808.
79
N.G.Sefstrm
23
Vanadium
1801
1830
A.M.del Ro
Ro found the metal in vanadinite but retracted the claim after Hippolyte Victor Collet-Descotils disputed it. Sefstrm isolated and named it, and later it was shown that Ro had been right in the [50] first place. Hatchett found the element in columbite ore and named it columbium. Heinrich Rose proved in 1844 that the element is distinct from tantalum, and renamed it niobium which was officially [51] accepted in 1949. Ekeberg found another element in minerals similar to columbite and in 1844, Heinrich Rose [52] proved that it was distinct from niobium. Wollaston discovered it in samples of platinum from South America, but did not publish his results immediately. He had intended to name it after the newly discovered asteroid, Ceres, but by the time he published his results in 1804, cerium had taken that name. Wollaston named it after [53] the more recently discovered asteroid Pallas. Berzelius and Hisinger discovered the element in ceria and named it after the newly discovered asteroid (then considered a planet), Ceres. Klaproth discovered it simultaneously and independently in some tantalum samples. Mosander proved later that the samples of all three researchers had at least another element in [54] them, lanthanum. Tennant had been working on samples of South American platinum in parallel with Wollaston and discovered two new elements, which he [55] named osmium and iridium. Tennant had been working on samples of South American platinum in parallel with Wollaston and discovered two new elements, which he named osmium and iridium, and published the [56] iridium results in 1804. Wollaston discovered and isolated it from crude [57] platinum samples from South America. Davy discovered it by using electrolysis on [58] potash. Davy discovered it a few days after potassium, [59] by using electrolysis on sodium hydroxide. Davy discovered the metal by electrolysis of [59] quicklime. On June 30, 1808, Lussac and Thnard announced a new element in sedative salt, and nine days later Davy announced the isolation of [60] metallic boron.
41
Niobium
1801
1864
C.Hatchett
C.W.Blomstrand
73
Tantalum
1802
A.G.Ekeberg
46
Palladium
1803
1803
W.H.Wollaston
W.H.Wollaston
58
Cerium
1803
1839
M.H.Klaproth, J.J.Berzelius & W.Hisinger
C.G.Mosander
76
Osmium
1803
1803
S.Tennant
S.Tennant
77
Iridium
1803
1803
S.Tennant
S.Tennant
45
Rhodium
1804
1804
W.H.Wollaston
W.H.Wollaston
19
Potassium
1807
1807
H.Davy
H.Davy
11
Sodium
1807
1807
H.Davy
H.Davy
20
Calcium
1808
1808
H.Davy
H.Davy
Boron
1808
1808
J.L.Gay-Lussac & L.J.Thnard
H.Davy
80
B.Courtois
53
Iodine
1811
1811
B.Courtois
Courtois discovered it in the ashes of sea [61] weed. Arfwedson discovered the alkali in petalite. [62]
3 48
Lithium Cadmium
1817 1817
1817 1817
J.A.Arfwedson K.S.L Hermann, F.Stromeyer& J.C.H. Roloff J.J.Berzelius & J.G.Gahn
J.A.Arfwedson K.S.L Hermann, F. Stromeyer, J.C.H. Roloff J.J.Berzelius & J.G.Gahn
All three found an unknown metal in a sample of zinc oxide from Silesia, but the name that [63] Stromeyer gave became the accepted one. While working with lead they discovered a substance that they thought was tellurium, but realized after more investigation that it is [64] different. Humphry Davy thought in 1800 that silica was an element, not a compound, and in 1808 suggested the present name. In 1811 Louis-Joseph Gay-Lussac and Louis-Jacques Thnard probably prepared impure silicon, but Berzelius is credited with the discovery for [65] obtaining the pure element in 1824. Antoine Lavoisier predicted in 1787 that alumine is the oxide of an undiscovered element, and in 1808 Humphry Davy tried to decompose it. Although he failed, he suggested the present name. Hans Christian rsted was the first to [66] isolate metallic aluminum in 1825. They both discovered the element in the autumn of 1825 and published the results the next [67] year. Berzelius obtained the oxide of a new earth in [68] thorite. Mosander found a new element in samples of ceria and published his results in 1842, but later he showed that this lanthana contained four more [69] elements. Mosander managed to split the old yttria into [70] yttria proper and erbia, and later terbia too. In 1842 Mosander split yttria into two more [71] earths, erbia and terbia Sniadecki isolated the element in 1807, but his work was not ratified. Gottfried Wilhelm Osann thought that he found three new metals in Russian platinum samples, and in 1844 Karl Karlovich Klaus confirmed that there was a new element. Klaus is usually recognized as the [72] discoverer of the element.
34
Selenium
1817
1817
14
Silicon
1824
1824
J.J.Berzelius
J.J.Berzelius
13
Aluminium
1825
1825
H.C.rsted
H.C.rsted
35
Bromine
1825
1825
A.J.Balard, L.Gmelin
A.J.Balard & L.Gmelin
90
Thorium
1829
J.J.Berzelius
57
Lanthanum
1838
C.G.Mosander
68
Erbium
1842
C.G.Mosander
65
Terbium
1842
1842
C.G.Mosander
C.G.Mosander
44
Ruthenium
1807
1844
J.Sniadecki
J.Sniadecki
81
C.Setterberg
55
Caesium
1860
1882
R.W.Bunsen & G.R.Kirchhoff
Bunsen and Kirchhoff were the first to suggest finding new elements by spectrum analysis. They discovered caesium by its two blue emission [73] lines in a sample of Drkheim mineral water. The pure metal was eventually isolated in 1882 [74] by Setterberg. Bunsen and Kirchhoff discovered it just a few months after caesium, by observing new spectral lines in the mineral lepidolite. Bunsen never obtained a pure sample of the metal, which was [75] later obtained by Hervesy. Shortly after the discovery of rubidium, Crookes found a new green line in a selenium sample; later that year, Lamy found the element to be [76] metallic. Reich and Richter First identified it in sphalerite by its bright indigo-blue spectroscopic emission line. Richter isolated the metal several years [77] later. Janssen and Lockyer observed independently a yellow line in the solar spectrum that did not match any other element. Years later, Ramsay, Cleve, and Langlet observed independently the element trapped in cleveite about the same [78] time. Mendeleev arranges the 63 elements known at that time into the first modern periodic table and correctly predicts several others.
37
Rubidium
1861
R.W.Bunsen & G.R.Kirchhoff
Robert Bunsen
81
Thallium
1861
1862
W.Crookes
C.-A.Lamy
49
Indium
1863
1867
F.Reich & H.T.Richter
T.Richter
Helium
1868
1895
P.Janssen & J.N.Lockyer
W.Ramsay, P.T.Cleve& N.Langlet
1869
D.I.Mendeleev
31
Gallium
1875
P.E.L.de Boisbaudran
P.E.L.de Boisbaudran
Boisbaudran observed on a pyrenea blende sample some emission lines corresponding to the eka-aluminum that was predicted by Mendeleev in 1871 and subsequently isolated the element by [79] electrolysis. On October 22, 1878, Marignac reported splitting terbia into two new earths, terbia proper [80] and ytterbia. Delafontaine found it in samarskite and next year, Per Teodor Cleve split Marignac's erbia into erbia proper and two new elements, thulium [81] and holmium. Cleve split Marignac's erbia into erbia proper and [82] two new elements, thulium and holmium. Nilson split Marignac's ytterbia into pure ytterbia and a new element that matched 1871 [83] Mendeleev's predicted eka-boron. Boisbaudran noted a new earth in samarskite and [84] named it samaria after the mineral.
70
Ytterbium
1878
J.C.G. de Marignac
67
Holmium
1878
M.Delafontaine
69
Thulium
1879
1879
P.T.Cleve
P.T.Cleve
21
Scandium
1879
1879
L.F.Nilson
L.F.Nilson
62
Samarium
1879
1879
P.E.L. de Boisbaudran
P.E.L. de Boisbaudran
82
F.L. de Boisbaudran
64
Gadolinium
1880
1886
J.C.G. de Marignac
Marignac initially observed the new earth in terbia, and later Boisbaudran obtained a pure [85] sample from samarskite. Von Welsbach discovered two new distinct elements in ceria: praseodymium and [86] neodymium. Von Welsbach discovered two new distinct elements in ceria: praseodymium and [87] neodymium. De Boisbaudran found a new earth in erbia. [87]
59
Praseodymium 1885
C.A.von Welsbach
60
Neodymium
1885
C.A.von Welsbach
66
Dysprosium
1886
P.E.L. de Boisbaudran C.A.Winkler
32
Germanium
1886
In February 1886 Winkler found in argyrodite the eka-silicon that Mendeleev had predicted in [88] 1871. Lavoisier predicted an element obtained from hydrofluoric acid, and between 1812 and 1886 many researchers tried to obtain this element. It [89] was eventually isolated by Moissan. They discovered the gas by comparing the molecular weights of nitrogen prepared by liquefaction from air and nitrogen prepared by chemical means. It is the first noble gas to be [90] isolated. On May 30, 1898, Ramsay separated a third noble gas from liquid argon by difference in [91] boiling point. In June 1898 Ramsay separated a new noble gas from liquid argon by difference in boiling [91] point. On July 12, 1898 Ramsay separated a third noble gas within three weeks, from liquid argon by [92] difference in boiling point. In an experiment done on July 13, 1898, the Curies noted an increased radioactivity in the uranium obtained from pitchblende, which they [93] ascribed to an unknown element. The Curies reported on December 26, 1898, a new element different from polonium, which [94] Marie later isolated from uraninite. Dorn discovered a radioactive gas resulting from the radioactive decay of radium, isolated later by [95] [96] Ramsay and Gray. Debierne obtained from pitchblende a substance that had properties similar to those of [97] thorium.
Fluorine
1886
1886
H.Moissan
H.Moissan
18
Argon
1894
1894
Lord Rayleigh & W.Ramsay
Lord Rayleigh & W.Ramsay
36
Krypton
1898
1898
W.Ramsay & M.W.Travers
10
Neon
1898
1898
54
Xenon
1898
1898
84
Polonium
1898
1902
P.Curie & M.Curie
W.Marckwald
88
Radium
1898
1902
P.Curie & M.Curie
M. Curie
86
Radon
1898
1910
F.E.Dorn
W.Ramsay & R.Whytlaw-Gray
89
Actinium
1899
1899
A.-L.Debierne
A.-L.Debierne
83
E.Demaray
63
Europium
1896
1901
E.Demarcay
Demaray found spectral lines of a new element in Lecoq's samarium, and separated this element [98] several years later. Urbain and von Welsbach proved independently that the old ytterbium also contained a new [99] element. Ogawa found it in thorianite but assigned it as element 43 instead of 75 and named it [100] nipponium. In 1922 Walter Noddack, Ida Eva Tacke and Otto Berg announced its separation from gadolinite and gave it the present [57] name. Urbain claimed to have found the element in rare-earth residues, while Vernadsky independently found it in orthite. Neither claim was confirmed due to World War I. After the war, Coster and Hevesy found it by X-ray [101] spectroscopic analysis in Norwegian zircon. It is the last stable element to be discovered. The two obtained the first isotope of this element that had been predicted by Mendeleev in 1871 as [102] a member of the natural decay of 238U. Originally isolated in 1900 by William [103] Crookes. The two discovered a new element in a molybdenum sample that was used in a cyclotron, the first synthetic element to be discovered. It had been predicted by Mendeleev [104] [105] in 1871 as eka-manganese. Perey discovered it as a decay product of [106] 227 Ac. Francium is the last element to be discovered in nature, rather than synthesized in the lab, although some of the "synthetic" elements that were discovered later (plutonium, neptunium, astatine) were eventually found in trace amounts in nature as well. Obtained by bombarding bismuth with alpha [107] particles. Later determined to occur naturally in minuscule quantitites (<25grams in earth's crust). Obtained by irradiating uranium with neutrons, it is the first transuranium element [108] discovered. Prepared by bombardment of uranium with [109] deuterons.
71
Lutetium
1906
1906
G.Urbain, C.A. von Welsbach M.Ogawa
G. Urbain & C.A. von Welsbach
75
Rhenium
1908
1908
M.Ogawa
72
Hafnium
1911
1922
G.Urbain, V.I.Vernadsky
D.Coster & G. von Hevesy
91
Protactinium
1913
O.H.Ghring, K.Fajans
43
Technetium
1937
1937
C.Perrier, E.Segr
C.Perrier & E.Segr
87
Francium
1939
1939
M.Perey
M.Perey
85
Astatine
1940
D.R.Corson, K.R.Mackenzie, E.Segr
93
Neptunium
1940
E.M. McMillan, P.H.Abelson
94
Plutonium
1940-1
G.T.Seaborg, Arthur C. Wahl, J.W.Kennedy, E.M.McMillan G.T.Seaborg, R.A.James, L.O.Morgan & A.Ghiorso
95
Americium
1944
Prepared by irradiating plutonium with neutrons [110] during the Manhattan Project.
84
?
96
Curium
1944
G.T.Seaborg, R.A.James, A.Ghiorso C.S.Wu, E.G.Segr, H.A.Bethe
Prepared by bombarding plutonium with alpha [111] particles during the Manhattan Project
61
Promethium
1942
1945
Charles D. Coryell, Jacob A. Marinsky, Lawrence E. Glendenin, Harold G. Richter
It was probably first prepared in 1942 by bombarding neodymium and praseodymium with neutrons, but separation of the element could not be carried out. Isolation was performed under the [86] Manhattan Project in 1945. Created by bombardment of americium with [112] alpha particles.
97
Berkelium
1949
S.G.Thompson, A.Ghiorso, G.T.Seaborg (University of California, Berkeley) S.G.Thompson, K.Street,Jr., A.Ghiorso, G.T.Seaborg (University of California, Berkeley) A.Ghiorso et al. (Argonne Laboratory, Los Alamos Laboratory, and University of California, Berkeley) A.Ghiorso et al. (Argonne Laboratory, Los Alamos Laboratory, and University of California, Berkeley) A.Ghiorso, B.G.Harvey, G.R.Choppin, S.G.Thompson, G.T.Seaborg A.Ghiorso, T.Sikkeland, J.R.Walton, G.T.Seaborg A.Ghiorso, T.Sikkeland, A.E.Larsh, R.M.Latimer A.Ghiorso, M.Nurmia, J.Harris, K.Eskola, P.Eskola
98
Californium
1950
Bombardment of curium with alpha [113] particles.
99
Einsteinium
1952
1952
Formed in the first thermonuclear explosion in November 1952, by irradiation of uranium with [114] neutrons; kept secret for several years.
100 Fermium
1952
Formed in the first thermonuclear explosion in November 1952, by irradiation of uranium with [115] neutrons; kept secret for several years.
101 Mendelevium
1955
Prepared by bombardment of einsteinium with [116] helium.
102 Nobelium
1958
First prepared by bombardment of curium with [117] carbon atoms.
103 Lawrencium
1961
First prepared by bombardment of californium [118] with boron atoms.
104 Rutherfordium 1968
Prepared by bombardment of californium with [119] carbon atoms.
85
?
105 Dubnium
1970
A.Ghiorso, M.Nurmia, K.Eskola, J.Harris, P.Eskola A.Ghiorso, J.Nitschke, J.Alonso, C.Alonso, M.Nurmia, G. Seaborg, K.Hulet, R.W.Lougheed G.Mnzenberg et al. GSI in Darmstadt G.Mnzenberg, P.Armbruster et al. GSI in Darmstadt G.Mnzenberg, P.Armbruster et al. at GSI in Darmstadt S.Hofmann et al. at GSI in Darmstadt S.Hofmann et al. at GSI in Darmstadt S.Hofmann et al. at GSI in Darmstadt Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna
Prepared by bombardment of californium with [120] nitrogen atoms.
106 Seaborgium
1974
Prepared by collisions of californium-249 with [121] oxygen atoms.
107 Bohrium
1981
Obtained by bombarding bismuth with [122] chromium.
109 Meitnerium
1982
Prepared by bombardment of bismuth with iron [123] atoms.
108 Hassium
1984
Prepared by bombardment of lead with iron [124] atoms
110 Darmstadtium
1994
Prepared by bombardment of lead with [125] nickel.
111 Roentgenium
1994
Prepared by bombardment of bismuth with [126] nickel.
112 Copernicium
1996
Prepared by bombardment of lead with [127] [128] zinc.
114 Ununquadium
1999
Prepared by bombardment of plutonium with [129] calcium
116 Ununhexium
2000
Prepared by bombardment of curium with [130] calcium
Recent discoveries
Unconfirmed discoveries
86
Name
Discovery year 2002
Discoverer
Notes
118 Ununoctium
Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
Prepared by bombardment of californium with [131] calcium Decay of ununpentium [132]
113 Ununtrium
2003
115 Ununpentium 2003
Prepared by bombardment of americium with [132] calcium Prepared by bombardment of berkelium with [133] calcium
117 Ununseptium 2010
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"46 Palladium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=pd). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. "58 Cerium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=ce). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. "76 Osmium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=os). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. "77 Iridium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=ir). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. "45 Rhodium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=rh). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. "19 Potassium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=k). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. "11 Sodium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=na). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. "05 Boron" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=b). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. "53 Iodine" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=i). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. "03 Lithium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=li). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. "48 Cadmium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=cd). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. "34 Selenium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=se). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. "14 Silicon" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=si). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. "13 Aluminium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=al). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. "35 Bromine" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=br). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. "90 Thorium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=th). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. "57 Lanthanum" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=la). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. "68 Erbium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=er). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. "65 Terbium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=tb). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. "44 Ruthenium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=ru). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. "55 Caesium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=cs). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. Ceasium (http:/ / www. chem. shef. ac. uk/ chm131-2001/ chb01jms/ caesium. html) "37 Rubidium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=rb). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. "81 Thallium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=tl). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. "49 Indium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=in). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. "02 Helium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=he). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. "31 Gallium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=ga). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. "70 Ytterbium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=yb). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. "67 Holmium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=ho). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. "69 Thulium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=tm). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12.
87
[83] "21 Scandium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=sc). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. [84] "62 Samarium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=sm). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. [85] "64 Gadolinium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=gd). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12.

[86] "59 Praseodymium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=pr). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. [87] "60 Neodymium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=nd). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. [88] "32 Germanium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=ge). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. [89] "09 Fluorine" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=f). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. [90] "18 Argon" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=ar). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. [91] "10 Neon" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=ne). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. [92] "54 Xenon" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=xe). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. [93] "84 Polonium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=po). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. [94] "88 Radium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=ra). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. [95] Partington, J. R. (May 1957). "Discovery of Radon". Nature 179 (4566): 912. Bibcode1957Natur.179..912P. doi:10.1038/179912a0. [96] Ramsay, W.; Gray, R. W. (1910). "La densit de l'emanation du radium" (http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k31042/ f126. table). Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des seances de l'Academie des sciences 151: 126128. . [97] "89 Actinium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=ac). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. [98] "63 Europium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=eu). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. [99] "71 Lutetium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=lu). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. [100] http:/ / www. maik. ru/ abstract/ radchem/ 0/ radchem0535_abstract. pdf [101] "72 Hafnium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=hf). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. [102] "91 Protactinium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=pa). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. [103] Emsley, John (2001). Nature's Building Blocks ((Hardcover, First Edition) ed.). Oxford University Press. pp.347. ISBN0-19-850340-7. [104] "43 Technetium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=tc). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. [105] History of the Origin of the Chemical Elements and Their Discoverers, Individual Element Names and History, "Technetium" [106] "87 Francium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=fr). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. [107] "85 Astatine" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=at). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. [108] "93 Neptunium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=np). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. [109] "94 Plutonium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=pu). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. [110] "95 Americium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=am). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. [111] "96 Curium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=cm). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. [112] "97 Berkelium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=bk). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. [113] "98 Californium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=cf). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. [114] "99 Einsteinium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=es). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. [115] "100 Fermium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=fm). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. [116] "101 Mendelevium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=md). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. [117] "102 Nobelium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=no). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. [118] "103 Lawrencium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=lr). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. [119] "104 Rutherfordium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=rf). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. [120] "105 Dubnium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=db). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. [121] "106 Seaborgium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=sg). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. [122] "107 Bohrium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=bh). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. [123] "109 Meitnerium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=mt). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. [124] "108 Hassium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=hs). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. [125] "110 Darmstadtium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=ds). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. [126] "111 Roentgenium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=rg). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12. [127] "112 Copernicium" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=cn). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2009-07-17. [128] "Discovery of the Element with Atomic Number 112" (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ web/ nt/ 2009-06-26_Uub). www.iupac.org. 2009-06-26. . Retrieved 2009-07-17. [129] Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Utyonkov, V. K.; Lobanov, Yu. V.; Abdullin, F. Sh.; Polyakov, A. N.; Shirokovsky, I. V.; Tsyganov, Yu. S.; Gulbekian, G. G. et al. (October 1999). "Synthesis of Superheavy Nuclei in the 48Ca + 244Pu Reaction". Physical Review Letters 83 (16): 3154. Bibcode1999PhRvL..83.3154O. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.83.3154. [130] Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Utyonkov, V. K.; Lobanov, Yu. V.; Abdullin, F. Sh.; Polyakov, A. N.; Shirokovsky, I. V.; Tsyganov, Yu. S.; Gulbekian, G. G. et al. (2000). "Observation of the decay of 292116". Physical Review C 63: 011301. Bibcode2001PhRvC..63a1301O. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.63.011301. [131] Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Utyonkov, V. K.; Lobanov, Yu. V.; Abdullin, F. Sh.; Polyakov, A. N.; Sagaidak, R. N.; Shirokovsky, I. V.; Tsyganov, Yu. S. et al. (2006). "Synthesis of the isotopes of elements 118 and 116 in the 249Cf and 245Cm+48Ca fusion reactions". Physical Review C 74 (4): 044602. Bibcode2006PhRvC..74d4602O. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.74.044602. [132] Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Utyonkov, V. K.; Dmitriev, S. N.; Lobanov, Yu. V.; Itkis, M. G.; Polyakov, A. N.; Tsyganov, Yu. S.; Mezentsev, A. N. et al. (2005). "Synthesis of elements 115 and 113 in the reaction 243Am + 48Ca". Physical Review C 72 (3): 034611. Bibcode2005PhRvC..72c4611O. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.72.034611. [133] Oganessian, Yu. Ts.; Abdullin, F. Sh.; Bailey, P. D.; Benker, D. E.; Bennett, M. E.; Dmitriev, S. N.; Ezold, J. G.; Hamilton, J. H. et al. (April 2010). "Synthesis of a New Element with Atomic Number Z=117". Physical Review Letters 104 (14): 142502.
88

Bibcode2010PhRvL.104n2502O. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.104.142502. PMID20481935.
89
External links
http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/content/elements.html History of Elements of the Periodic Table (http://www.ausetute.com.au/elemhist.html) Timeline of Element Discoveries (http://chemistry.about.com/library/weekly/aa030303a.htm)
Conversion of units
Conversion of units refers to conversion factors between different units of measurement for the same quantity.
Techniques
Process
The process of conversion depends on the specific situation and the intended purpose. This may be governed by regulation, contract, Technical specifications or other published standards. Engineering judgment may include such factors as: The precision and accuracy of measurement and the associated uncertainty of measurement The statistical confidence interval or tolerance interval of the initial measurement The number of significant figures of the measurement The intended use of the measurement including the engineering tolerances
Some conversions from one system of units to another need to be exact, without increasing or decreasing the precision of the first measurement. This is sometimes called soft conversion. It does not involve changing the physical configuration of the item being measured. By contrast, a hard conversion or an adaptive conversion may not be exactly equivalent. It changes the measurement to convenient and workable numbers and units in the new system. It sometimes involves a slightly different configuration, or size substitution, of the item. Nominal values are sometimes allowed and used.
Multiplication factors
Conversion between units in the metric system can be discerned by their prefixes (for example, 1 kilogram = 1000grams, 1 milligram = 0.001grams) and are thus not listed in this article. Exceptions are made if the unit is commonly known by another name (for example, 1 micron = 106 metre).
Table ordering
Within each table, the units are listed alphabetically, and the SI units (base or derived) are highlighted.
Tables of conversion factors

This article gives lists of conversion factors for each of a number of physical quantities, which are listed in the index. For each physical quantity, a number of different units (some only of historical interest) are shown and expressed in terms of the corresponding SI unit.
Conversion of units
90
Legend
Symbol exactly equal to approximately equal to Definition
digits indicates that digits repeat infinitely (e.g. 8.294369 corresponds to 8.294369369369369) (H) of chiefly historical interest
Length Length
Name of unit angstrom astronomical unit barleycorn (H) bohr, atomic unit of length cable length (imperial) cable length (International) cable length (US) chain (Gunter's; Surveyor's) cubit (H) ell (H) fathom fermi finger finger (cloth) foot (Benot) (H) foot (Clarke's; Cape) (H) foot (Indian) (H) foot (International) foot (Sear's) (H) foot (US Survey) french; charriere furlong hand ft (Ben) ft (Cla) ft Ind ft ft (Sear) ft (US) F fur 12003937 m 13 mm 10 chains = 660ft = 220 yd 4 in [4] [4] [5] 1/3 yd 0.3048 m 12inches ell fm fm ch a0 AU Symbol 11010m Distance from Earth to Sun = in (see note above about rounding) Bohr radius of hydrogen Definition 0.1nm 149597871464m 8.46103 m 5.291772085910113.61020m [2] 185.3184 m 185.2 m [1] Relation to SI units
608 ft 1/10 nmi
720 ft 66 ft(US) 4 rods [3]
= 219.456 m 20.11684m
Distance from fingers to elbow 18 in 45 in 6ft [4] (In England usually)
0.5 m = 1.143 m = 1.8288 m
[4] [4]
11015m 7/8 in 4 in
11015m = 0.022225m = 0.1143 m 0.304799735m 0.3047972654m 0.304799514m 0.3048 m 0.30479947m 0.304800610m = 0.3 103 m = 201.168 m 0.1016 m
Conversion of units
91
in lea 1/36 yd 1/12ft 3 US Statute miles 24 light-hours 60 light-minutes 60 light-seconds Distance light travels in one second in vacuum ly ln Distance light travels in vacuum in 365.25 days 1/12 in [7] [4] 0.66ft 7.92in [6] [3] 0.0254 m = 4828.032 m 2.590206837121013m 1.07925284881012m 1.7987547481010m 299792458 m = 9.46073047258101015m = 0.002116 m = 0.201168m = 0.3048 m
inch (International) league (land) light-day light-hour light-minute light-second light-year line
link (Gunter's; Surveyor's) lnk link (Ramsden's; Engineer's) metre (SI base unit) lnk
1/100 ch 1ft [4]
Distance light travels in 1299792458 of a second in [8] vacuum. 110000000 of the distance from equator to pole. 1200 in
1m
mickey micron mil; thou mil
= 1.27104m 1106m
1103in 10km 6082 ft
2.54105m = 10000 m = 1853.7936 m 1609.344 m 1828.8m = 1855.3176 m 1609.347219 m = 0.057 15 m 1109m = 5556 m = 1853.184 m
mil (Sweden and Norway) mil mile (geographical) (H) mile (international) mile (tactical or data) mile (telegraph) (H) mile (US Survey) nail (cloth) nanometer nautical league nautical mile (Admiralty) nm NL; nl mi mi mi
80 chains 5280 ft 1760 yd 6000ft 6087 ft 5280 US Survey feet (5280 12003937) m 2 in [4]
1109m 3 nmi [4]
NM (Adm); nmi = 6080 ft (Adm) NM; nmi 1852 m [9]
nautical mile (international) nautical mile (US pre 1954) pace palm parsec
1852 m
1853.248 m
1853.248 m
2.5ft 3 in pc
[4]
= 0.762 m = 0.0762 m 3.085 677 821016 6106 m Dependent on point measures. [10]
[4]
Distance of star with parallax shift of one arc second from a base of one astronomical unit 12 points
pica
Conversion of units
92
1/72.272 in 0.000 351 450 m
point (American, English) pt [11] [12] point (Didot; European) [12] [13] pt
1/12 1/72 of pied du roi; After 1878: 5/133cm 1/72 in 1/72.27 in yd
0.000 375 97 m; After 1878: 0.000 375 939 85 m = 0.000 352 7 m = 0.000 351 4598 m = 0.2286 m = 5.0292 m = 6.096 m = 0.2286 m 11012 m
point (PostScript) point (TeX) quarter [11]
[11]
pt pt
rod; pole; perch (H) rope (H) span (H) spat [14]
rd rope
16 ft 20ft 9 in [4]
[4]
stick (H) stigma; bicron (picometre) twip x unit; siegbahn yard (International) pm
2 in
= 0.0508 m 11012 m
twp xu yd
1/1440 in
= 1.7638105 m 1.00211013 m [4]
0.9144 m
[5]
3ft 36 in
0.9144 m
Area Area
Name of unit acre (international) acre (U. S. survey) are barn barony board bd Symbol ac ac a b Definition 1ch 10ch = 4840 sq yd 10 sq ch = 4840 sq yd, also 43560 sq ft. 100 m2 1028 m2 4000 ac 1 in 1ft Relation to SI units 4 046.856 4224 m2 4 046.873 m2 = 100 m2 = 1028 m2 1.618 742107 m2 = 7.741 92103 m2 12.958 174 m2 5.067 075104 m2 5.067 0751010 m2 = 1.486 448 64 m2 = 1 000 m2 101.17 m2 10 000 m2 [15]
boiler horsepower equivalent direct radiation bhp EDR (1ft2) (1bhp) / (240 BTU /h) IT circular inch circular mil; circular thou cord dunam guntha hectare ha circ in circ mil /4 sq in /4 mil2 192 bd 1 000 m2 121 sq yd 10 000 m2
Conversion of units
93
120 ac (variable) ro ac 1mi 1mi 1052 m2 10ft 10ft sq ch sq ch sq ft sq ft sq in km2 sq lnk sq lnk sq lnk m2 sq mil sq mi sq mi sq rd sq yd 66ft 66ft = 1/10 ac 66ft(US) 66ft(US) = 1/10 ac 1ft 1ft 1ft (US) 1ft (US) 1 in 1 in 1km 1km 1 lnk 1 lnk 0.66ft 0.66ft
hide rood section shed square (roofing) square chain (international) square chain (US Survey) square foot square foot (US Survey) square inch square kilometre square link (Gunter's)(International) square link (Gunter's)(US Survey) square link (Ramsden's) square metre (SI unit) square mil; square thou square mile square mile (US Survey) square rod/pole/perch square yard (International) stremma township yardland
5105 m2 = 1 011.714 1056 m2 = 2.589 988 110 336106 m2 = 1052 m2 = 9.290 304 m2 404.685 642 24 m2 404.687 3 m2 9.290 304102 m2 9.290 341 161 327 49102 m2 6.4516104 m2 = 106 m2 = 4.046 856 4224102 m2
1 lnk 1 lnk 0.66ft(US) 0.66ft(US) 4.046 872102 m2 1 lnk 1 lnk 1ft 1ft 1m1m 1 mil 1 mil 1mi 1mi 1mi (US) 1mi (US) 1 rd 1 rd 1 yd 1 yd 1 000 m2 36 sq mi (US) 30 ac = 0.09290304 m2 = 1 m2 = 6.45161010 m2 = 2.589 988 110 336106 m2 2.589 998 47106 m2 = 25.292 852 64 m2 0.836 127 36 m2 = 1 000 m2 9.323 994107 m2 1.2105 m2
Volume
Conversion of units
94
Volume
Name of unit acre-foot acre-inch barrel (imperial) barrel (petroleum) barrel (US dry) barrel (US fluid) board-foot bucket (imperial) bushel (imperial) bushel (US dry heaped) bushel (US dry level) butt, pipe coomb cord (firewood) cord-foot cubic fathom cubic foot cubic inch cubic metre (SI unit) cubic mile cubic yard cup (breakfast) cup (Canadian) cup (metric) cup (US customary) cup (US food nutrition labeling) dash (imperial) dash (US) dessertspoon (imperial) drop (imperial) gtt c (CA) c c (US) c (US) cu fm cu ft cu in m3 cu mi cu yd bl (imp) bl; bbl bl (US) fl bl (US) fbm bkt bu (imp) bu (US) bu (US lvl) Symbol ac ft Definition 1 ac x 1ft = 43 560 ft3 1 ac 1 in 36 gal (imp) 42 gal (US) 105 qt (US) = 105/32 bu (US lvl) 31 gal (US) 144 cu in 4 gal (imp) 8 gal (imp) 1 bu (US lvl) 2 150.42 cu in 126 gal (wine) 4 bu (imp) 8ft 4ft 4ft 16 cu ft 1 fm 1 fm 1 fm 1ft 1ft 1ft 1 in 1 in 1 in 1m1m1m 1mi 1mi 1mi 27 cu ft 10 fl oz (imp) 8 fl oz (imp) 250.0106 m3 8 US fl oz 1/16 gal (US) 240mL [16] Relation to SI units = 1 233.481 837 547 52 m3 = 102.790 153 128 96 m3 = 0.163 659 24 m3 = 0.158 987 294 928 m3 = 0.115 628 198 985 075 m3 = 0.119 240 471 196 m3 2.359 737 216103 m3 = 0.018 184 36 m3 = 0.036 368 72 m3 = 0.044 048 837 7086 m3 = 0.035 239 070 166 88 m3 = 0.476 961 884 784 m3 = 0.145 474 88 m3 = 3.624 556 363 776 m3 = 0.453 069 545 472 m3 = 6.116 438 863 872 m3 0.028 316 846 592 m3 16.387 064106 m3 1 m3 4 168 181 825.440 579 584 m3 0.764 554 857 984 m3 = 284.130 625106 m3 = 227.3045106 m3 = 250.0106 m3 = 236.588 2365106 m3 = 2.4104m3 = 369.961 751 302 08 3109 m3 = 308.057 599 609 375109 m3 = 11.838 776 0416106 m3 = 98.656 467 013 8109 m3
1/384 gi (imp) = pinch (imp) 1/96 US fl oz = US pinch 1/12 gi (imp) 1/288 fl oz (imp)
Conversion of units
95
gtt 1/1 824 gi (imp) 1/12 ml 1/20 mL gtt gtt 1/360 US fl oz 1/456 US fl oz 1/5 US gal 9 gal (US) fl dr fl dr fl s beer gal gal (imp) gal (US) gal (US) fl oz (imp) US fl oz 1/24 fl oz (imp) 282 cu in 4.546 09 L bu (US lvl) 231 cu in
drop (imperial) (alt) drop (medical) drop (metric) drop (US) drop (US) (alt) fifth firkin fluid drachm (imperial) fluid dram (US); US fluidram fluid scruple (imperial) gallon (beer) gallon (imperial) gallon (US dry) gallon (US fluid; Wine) gill (imperial); Noggin gill (US) hogshead (imperial) hogshead (US) jigger (bartending) kilderkin lambda last litre load minim (imperial) minim (US) ounce (fluid imperial) ounce (fluid US customary)
77.886 684109 m3 = 83.03109 m3 = 50.0109 m3 = 82.148 693 22916109 m3 64.854 231109 m3 = 757.082 3568106 m3 = 0.034 068 706 056 m3 = 3.551 632 8125106 m3 = 3.696 691 195 3125106 m3 = 1.183 877 60416106 m3 = 4.621 152 048103 m3 4.546 09103 m3 = 4.404 883 770 86103 m3 3.785 411 784103 m3 = 142.065 3125106 m3 = 118.294 118 25106 m3 = 0.327 318 48 m3 = 0.238 480 942 392 m3 44.36106 m3 = 0.081 829 62 m3 = 1109 m3 = 2.909 4976 m3 0.001 m3 = 1.415 842 3296 m3
gi (imp); nog 5 fl oz (imp) gi (US) hhd (imp) hhd (US) 4 US fl oz 2 bl (imp) 2 fl bl (US) 1 US fl oz 18 gal (imp) 1mm3 80 bu (imp) L 1 dm3 [17]
50 cu ft min min fl oz (imp) US fl oz
1/480 fl oz (imp) = 1/60 fl dr (imp) = 59.193 880 208 3109 m3 1/480 US fl oz = 1/60 US fl dr 1/160 gal (imp) 1/128 gal (US) 30mL [16] = 61.611 519 921 875109 m3 28.413 0625106 m3 29.573 529 5625106 m3 3105m3 = 9.092 18103 m3 = 8.809 767 541 72103 m3 = 0.700 841 953 152 m3
ounce (fluid US food nutrition labeling) US fl oz peck (imperial) peck (US dry) perch pk pk per
2 gal (imp) US lvl bu 16 ft 1 ft 1ft
Conversion of units
96
1/192 gi (imp) = tsp (imp) 1/48 US fl oz = US tsp pt (imp) pt (US dry) pt (US fl) gal (imp) 1/64 bu (US lvl) gal (US dry) gal (US) 3/4 US fl oz gal (imp) = 80 fl oz (imp) qt (imp) qt (US) qt (US) gal (imp) 1/32 bu (US lvl) = gal (US dry) gal (US fl) 8 bu (imp) 100 cu ft 3 bu (imp) 3 bu (US lvl) 8 bu (US lvl) 1 US fl oz 2 bu (imp) 2 bu (US lvl)
pinch (imperial) pinch (US) pint (imperial) pint (US dry) pint (US fluid) pony pottle; quartern quart (imperial) quart (US dry) quart (US fluid) quarter; pail register ton sack (imperial); bag sack (US) seam shot strike (imperial) strike (US) tablespoon (Australian metric) tablespoon (Canadian) tablespoon (imperial) tablespoon (metric) tablespoon (US customary) tbsp tbsp tbsp
= 739.923 502 60416109 m3 = 616.115 199 218 75109 m3 = 568.261 25106 m3 = 550.610 471 3575106 m3 = 473.176 473106 m3 = 22.180 147 171 875106 m3 = 2.273 045103 m3 = 1.136 5225103 m3 = 1.101 220 942 715103 m3 = 946.352 946106 m3 = 0.290 949 76 m3 = 2.831 684 6592 m3 = 0.109 106 16 m3 = 0.105 717 210 500 64 m3 = 0.281 912 561 335 04 m3 29.57106 m3 = 0.072 737 44 m3 = 0.070 478 140 333 76 m3 20.0106 m3 [18]
fl oz (imp) 5/8 fl oz (imp)
= 14.206 531 25106 m3 = 17.758 164 0625106 m3 15.0106 m3
US fl oz 15mL [16]
= 14.786 764 7825106 m3 = 1.5105m3 = 4.735 510 416106 m3 = 5.919 388 02083106 m3 = 5.0106 m3 = 4.928 921 595106 m3 = 5106m3 = 0.028 316 846 592 m3 = 0.991 089 630 72 m3 = 1.132 673 863 68 m3
tablespoon (US food nutrition labeling) tbsp teaspoon (Canadian) teaspoon (imperial) teaspoon (metric) teaspoon (US customary) teaspoon (US food nutrition labeling) timber foot ton (displacement) ton (freight) tsp tsp tsp tsp
1/6 fl oz (imp) 1/24 gi (imp) 5.0106 m3 1/6 US fl oz 5mL [16]
1 cu ft 35 cu ft 40 cu ft
Conversion of units
97
28 bu (imp) 252 gal (wine) 40 bu (US lvl)
ton (water) tun wey (US)
= 1.018 324 16 m3 = 0.953 923 769 568 m3 = 1.409 562 806 6752 m3
Plane angle Plane angle

Name of unit Symbol Definition Relation to SI units 0.981 748103 rad 0.290 888103 rad 4.848 137106 rad 0.157 080103 rad 1.570 796106 rad 17.453 293103 rad 15.707 963103 rad 0.785 398 rad 1.570 796 rad = 1 rad
angular mil
2/6400 rad
arcminute; MOA
'
1/60
arcsecond
"
1/3600
centesimal minute of arc centesimal second of arc degree (of arc)
'
1 grad/100
"
1 grad/(10 000)
1/360 of a revolution /180 rad
grad; gradian; gon
grad
1/400 of a revolution 2/400 rad 0.9
octant quadrant radian (SI unit) rad
45 90 The angle subtended at the center of a circle by an arc whose length is equal to the circle's radius. One full revolution encompasses 2 radians. 60 30
sextant sign
1.047 198 rad 0.523 599 rad
Conversion of units
98
Solid angle Solid angle

Name of unit Symbol Definition Relation to SI units = 1 sr
steradian (SI unit)
sr
The solid angle subtended at the center of a sphere of radius r by a portion of the surface of the sphere [14] having an area r2. A sphere encompasses 4 sr.
Mass
Notes: See Weight for detail of mass/weight distinction and conversion. In this table, the unit gee is used to denote standard gravity in order to avoid confusion with the "g" symbol for grams. In physics, the pound of mass is sometimes written lbm to distinguish it from the pound-force (lbf). It should not be read as the mongrel unit "pound metre".
Mass
Name of unit atomic mass unit, unified atomic unit of mass, electron rest mass bag (coffee) bag (Portland cement) barge carat carat (metric) clove crith dalton dram (apothecary; troy) dram (avoirdupois) electronvolt gamma grain grave hundredweight (long) Da dr t dr av eV gr G long cwt or cwt sh cwt kg 60 gr 27 11/32 gr 1 eV (energy unit) / c2 1 g 1/7000lb av grave was the original name of the kilogram 112lb av kt ct Symbol u; AMU me Definition Relation to SI units 1.660 538 731027 1.31036 kg 9.109 382 151031 451039 kg [19] 60kg 94lb av 22 sh tn 3 1/6 gr 200mg 8lb av = 60kg = 42.637 682 78 kg = 20 411.656 65 kg 205.196 548 333 mg = 200mg = 3.628 738 96 kg 89.9349mg 1.660 902 101027 1.31036 kg = 3.887 9346 g = 1.771 845 195 3125 g = 1.78261036 kg = 1 g 64.798 91 mg 1kg = 50.802 345 44 kg
hundredweight (short); cental kilogram
100lb av mass of the prototype near Paris ( mass of 1L of water)
= 45.359 237 kg 1kg (SI base unit) [8]
Conversion of units
99
kip 1000 lb av 8 oz t 1/20 gr 1/20 g oz t oz av oz dwt; pwt 1/12lb t 1/16lb 28g [16] = 453.592 37 kg = 248.827 8144 g = 3.239 9455 mg = 50mg = 31.103 4768 g = 28.349 523 125 g = 28g = 1.555 173 84 g = 2mg = 0.45359237 kg 0.453 592 37 kg = 500 g = 0.373 241 7216 kg = 12.700 586 36 kg = 226.796 185 kg = 254.011 7272 kg = 100kg = 1.295 9782 g = 647.9891mg 14.593 903 kg = 6.350 293 18 kg 32.666 667 g 29.166 667 g = 1 016.046 9088 kg = 907.184 74 kg = 1 000 kg = 114.305 277 24 kg (variants exist) [20] and. [14]
kip mark mite mite (metric) ounce (apothecary; troy) ounce (avoirdupois) ounce (US food nutrition labeling) pennyweight point pound pound (avoirdupois) pound (metric) pound (troy) quarter (imperial) quarter (informal) quarter, long (informal) quintal (metric) scruple (apothecary) sheet slug; geepound; hyl stone ton, assay (long) ton, assay (short) ton, long ton, short tonne (mts unit) wey Zentner
1/20 oz t 1/100 ct
lb lb av
slugft/s2 0.453 592 37 kg = 7000 grains 500 g
lb t
5 760 grains 1/4 long cwt = 2 st = 28lb av short tn long tn
q s ap
100kg 20 gr 1/700lb av
slug st AT AT long tn or ton sh tn t
1 gee 1lb av 1 s2/ft 14lb av 1mg 1 long tn 1 oz t 1mg 1 sh tn 1 oz t 2 240 lb 2 000 lb 1 000 kg 252lb = 18 st
Ztr.
Definitions vary; see
Density
Conversion of units
100
Density
Name of unit gram per millilitre kilogram per cubic metre (SI unit) kilogram per litre ounce (avoirdupois) per cubic foot ounce (avoirdupois) per cubic inch Symbol g/mL kg/m3 kg/L oz/ft3 oz/in3 Definition g/mL kg/m3 kg/L oz/ft3 oz/in3 oz/gal oz/gal lb/ft3 lb/in3 lb/gal lb/gal slug/ft3 Relation to SI units = 1000kg/m3 = 1kg/m3 = 1000kg/m3 1.001153961kg/m3 1.729994044103kg/m3 6.236023291kg/m3 7.489151707kg/m3 16.01846337kg/m3 2.767990471104kg/m3 99.77637266kg/m3 119.8264273kg/m3 515.3788184kg/m3
ounce (avoirdupois) per gallon (imperial) oz/gal ounce (avoirdupois) per gallon (US fluid) oz/gal pound (avoirdupois) per cubic foot pound (avoirdupois) per cubic inch lb/ft3 lb/in3
pound (avoirdupois) per gallon (imperial) lb/gal pound (avoirdupois) per gallon (US fluid) lb/gal slug per cubic foot slug/ft3
Time Time, t
Name of unit Symbol Definition Relation to SI units
atomic unit of time Callippic cycle century day day (sidereal)
au
a0/(c) 441 mo (hollow) + 499 mo (full) = 76 a of 365.25 d
2.418 884 2541017 s = 2.398 3776109 s = 100 years = 1440 min = 86400 s 86 164.1 s
c d d
100 a (see below for definition of year length) = 24 h Time needed for the Earth to rotate once around its axis, determined from successive transits of a very distant astronomical object across an observer's meridian (International Celestial Reference Frame) 10 a (see below for definition of year length) 2 wk 1/1 080 h 4 Callippic cycles - 1 d
decade fortnight helek Hipparchic cycle hour jiffy jiffy (alternate) ke (quarter of an hour)
dec fn
= 10 years = 1 209 600 s = 3.3 s = 9.593 424109 s = 3 600 s = .016 s = 10 ms = 60 60 / 4 s = 900 s = 60 / 4 min = 15 min
h j ja
60 min 1/60 s 1/100 s h = 1/96 d
Conversion of units
101
1/100 d = 24 60 60 / 100 s = 864 s = 24 * 60 / 100 min = 14.4 min = 1.5768108 s = 5.996 16108 s = 1000 years = 24 60 60 / 1 000 s = 86.4 s = 60 s = 90 s [21] = 2 592 000 s 2.6297106 s = 2 505 600 s 2.551106 s = 2.524 608108 s 1.351 211 8681043 s (SI base unit)
ke (traditional)
lustre; lustrum Metonic cycle; enneadecaeteris millennium milliday md
5 a of 365 d 110 mo (hollow) + 125 mo (full) = 6940 d 19 a
1 000 a (see below for definition of year length) 1/1 000 d
minute moment month (full) month (Greg. av.) month (hollow) month (synodic) octaeteris Planck time second
min
60 s, due to leap seconds sometimes 59 s or 61 s, 90 s
mo mo mo mo
30 d
Average Gregorian month = 365.2425/12 d = 30.436875 d 29 d [21]
Cycle time of moon phases 29.530589 days (Average) = 48 mo (full) + 48 mo (hollow) + 3 mo (full) (G/c5) [22] [23] = 8 a of 365.25 d = 2922 d
time of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the 2 hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium 133 atom at 0 [8] K (but other seconds are sometimes used in astronomy) 108 s 106 s 1 461 a of 365 d
shake sigma Sothic cycle svedberg week S wk
= 10 ns = 1 s = 4.607 40961010 s = 100 fs = 168 h = 10 080 min = 604 800 s = 31 556 952 s
1013 s 7d
year (Gregorian)
a, y, or yr a, y, or yr a, y, or yr a, y, or yr
= 365.2425 d average, calculated from common years (365 d) plus leap years (366 d) on most years divisible by 4. See leap year for details. = 365.25 d average, calculated from common years (365 d) plus one leap year (366 d) every four years time taken for Sun to return to the same position with respect to the stars of the celestial sphere Length of time it takes for the Sun to return to the same position in the cycle of seasons
year (Julian)
= 31 557 600 s
year (sidereal)
365.256 363 d 31 558 149.7632 s 365.242 190 d 31 556 925 s
year (tropical)
Where UTC is observed, the length of time units longer than 1 s may increase or decrease by 1 s if a leap second occurs during the time interval of interest.
Conversion of units
102
Frequency Frequency
Name of unit hertz (SI unit) Symbol Hz Number of cycles per second Definition Relation to SI units = 1Hz = 1/s
revolutions per minute rpm
One unit rpm equals one rotation completed around a fixed axis in one minute of time. 0.104719755rad/s
Speed or velocity Speed

foot per hour foot per minute foot per second furlong per fortnight inch per hour inch per minute inch per second kilometre per hour knot knot (Admiralty) mach number
fph fpm fps
1ft/h 1ft/min 1ft/s furlong/fortnight
8.466 667105 m/s = 5.08103 m/s = 3.048101 m/s 1.663 095104 m/s 7.05 556106 m/s 4.23 333104 m/s = 2.54102 m/s 2.777 778101 m/s 0.514 444 m/s = 0.514 773 m/s 340 to 295m/s for aircraft
iph ipm ips km/h
1 in/hr 1 in/min 1 in/s 1km/h
kn, kt kn M
1 NM/h = 1.852km/h 1 NM (Adm)/h = 1.853 184 km/h Ratio of the speed to the speed of sound in the medium. Varies especially with temperature. About 1225km/h (761mph) in air at sea level to about 1062km/h (660mph) at jet altitudes. Unitless 1m/s
metre per second (SI unit) mile per hour mile per minute mile per second speed of light in vacuum
m/s
= 1m/s
mph mpm mps c
1mi/h 1mi/min 1mi/s 299 792 458 m/s
= 0.447 04 m/s = 26.8224m/s = 1 609.344 m/s = 299 792 458 m/s
speed of sound in s air
Varies especially with temperature. About 1225km/h (761mph) in air at sea level to about 1062km/h (660mph) at jet altitudes.
340 to 295m/s at aircraft altitudes
A velocity consists of a speed combined with a direction; the speed part of the velocity takes units of speed.
Conversion of units
103
Flow (volume) Flow

Name of unit cubic foot per minute cubic foot per second cubic inch per minute cubic inch per second Symbol CFM ft3/s in3/min in3/s Definition Relation to SI units
1ft3/min = 4.719474432104m3/s 1ft3/s = 0.028316846592m3/s
1 in3/min = 2.7311773107m3/s 1 in3/s 1 m3/s 1 gal/d 1 gal/h = 1.6387064105m3/s = 1 m3/s = 4.381263638108m3/s = 1.051503273106m3/s
cubic metre per second (SI unit) m3/s gallon (US fluid) per day gallon (US fluid) per hour gallon (US fluid) per minute litre per minute GPD GPH GPM LPM
1 gal/min = 6.30901964105m3/s 1 L/min = 1.6105 m3/s
Acceleration Acceleration
Name of unit foot per hour per second foot per minute per second foot per second squared gal; galileo inch per minute per second inch per second squared knot per second Symbol fph/s fpm/s fps2 Gal ipm/s ips2 kn/s Definition 1ft/(hs) 1ft/(mins) 1ft/s2 1cm/s2 1 in/(mins) 1 in/s2 1 kn/s 1m/s2 1mi/(hs) 1mi/(mins) 1mi/s2 Relation to SI units 8.466 667105 m/s2 = 5.08103 m/s2 = 3.048101 m/s2 = 102 m/s2 4.233 333104 m/s2 = 2.54102 m/s2 5.144 444101 m/s2 = 1m/s2 = 4.4704101 m/s2 = 26.8224m/s2 = 1.609 344103 m/s2
metre per second squared (SI unit) m/s2 mile per hour per second mile per minute per second mile per second squared standard gravity mph/s mpm/s mps2 g
9.806 65 m/s2 = 9.806 65 m/s2
Conversion of units
104
Force Force
Name of unit atomic unit of force Symbol me2c2/a0 dyn kgf; kp; Gf gcm/s2 g 1kg Definition Relation to SI units 8.238 722 06108 N [24] = 105 N = 9.806 65 N
dyne (cgs unit) kilogram-force; kilopond; grave-force kip; kip-force
kip; kipf; klbf mGf; gf N
g 1 000lb
= 4.448 221 615 2605103 N = 9.806 65 mN = 1N = 1kgm/s2
milligrave-force, gravet-force newton (SI unit)
g1g A force capable of giving a mass of one kg an acceleration of one metre [25] per second, per second. g 1 oz
ounce-force
ozf
= 0.278 013 850 953 7812 N = 4.448 221 615 2605 N = 0.138 254 954 376 N = 1103 N = 8.896 443 230 521103 N
pound-force
lbf
g 1lb
poundal sthene (mts unit) ton-force
pdl sn tnf
1lbft/s2 1 tm/s2 g 1 sh tn
See also: Conversion between weight (force) and mass
Pressure or mechanical stress Pressure

Name of unit atmosphere (standard) atmosphere (technical) bar barye (cgs unit) centimetre of mercury centimetre of water (4 C) foot of mercury (conventional) foot of water (39.2 F) inch of mercury (conventional) inch of water (39.2 F) cmHg cmH2O ftHg ftH2O inHg inH2O Symbol atm at bar 1 dyn/cm2 13 595.1kg/m3 1cm g 999.972kg/m3 1cm g 13 595.1 kg/m3 1ft g 999.972kg/m3 1ft g 13 595.1 kg/m3 1 in g 999.972kg/m3 1 in g 1 kgf/cm2 Definition Relation to SI units 101 325 Pa [26] [26]
= 9.806 65104 Pa 105 Pa = 0.1 Pa 1.333 22103 Pa 98.063 8 Pa [26]
[26]
40.636 66103 Pa 2.988 98103 Pa
[26]
[26] [26]
3.386 389103 Pa 249.082 Pa [26]
Conversion of units
[26] [26]
105
kilogram-force per square millimetre kgf/mm2 1 kgf/mm2 kip per square inch micron (micrometre) of mercury millimetre of mercury millimetre of water (3.98 C) pascal (SI unit) pize (mts unit) pound per square foot pound per square inch poundal per square foot short ton per square foot torr torr ksi mHg mmHg 1 kipf/sq in 13 595.1 kg/m3 1 m g 0.001 torr
= 9.806 65106 Pa
6.894 757106 Pa 0.133 322 4 Pa 133.3224 Pa
[26]
13 595.1 kg/m3 1mm g 1 torr
[26]
mmH2O 999.972kg/m3 1mm g = 0.999 972 kgf/m2 = 9.806 38 Pa Pa pz psf psi N/m2 = kg/(ms2) 1 000 kg/ms2 1lbf/ft2 1lbf/in2 = 1 Pa [27]
= 1103 Pa = 1 kPa 47.880 26 Pa [26] [26]
6.894 757103 Pa 1.488 164 Pa [26]
pdl/sq ft 1 pdl/sq ft 1 sh tn g / 1 sq ft 101 325/760 Pa
95.760 518103 Pa 133.322 4 Pa [26]
Torque or moment of force Torque

Name of unit foot-pound force foot-poundal inch-pound force metre kilogram Symbol ft lbf ft pdl in lbf m kg Definition g 1lb 1ft 1lbft2/s2 g 1lb 1 in Nm/g Relation to SI units = 1.355 817 948 331 4004 Nm = 4.214 011 009 380 48102 Nm = 0.112 984 829 027 6167 Nm 0.101 971 621 Nm
Newton metre (SI unit) Nm
N m = kgm2/s2 = 1 Nm
Energy Energy
Name of unit barrel of oil equivalent British thermal unit (ISO) British thermal unit (International Table) British thermal unit (mean) British thermal unit (thermochemical) British thermal unit (39 F) Symbol bboe BTUISO BTUIT BTUmean BTUth BTU39 F 5.8106 BTU59 F 1.0545103 J Definition Relation to SI units 6.12109 J = 1.0545103 J = 1.055 055 852 62103 J 1.055 87103 J 1.054 350103 J 1.059 67103 J
Conversion of units
106
BTU59 F BTU60 F BTU63 F calIT calmean 4.1868 J
1
British thermal unit (59 F) British thermal unit (60 F) British thermal unit (63 F) calorie (International Table) calorie (mean)
1.054 804103 J
= 1.054 804103 J 1.054 68103 J 1.0546103 J = 4.1868 J 4.190 02 J
100 of the energy required to warm one gram of air-free water from 0C to 100C @ 1atm 4.184 J
calorie (thermochemical) calorie (3.98 C) calorie (15 C) calorie (20 C) Celsius heat unit (International Table) cubic centimetre of atmosphere; standard cubic centimetre cubic foot of atmosphere; standard cubic foot cubic foot of natural gas cubic yard of atmosphere; standard cubic yard electronvolt
calth cal3.98 C cal15 C cal20 C CHUIT cc atm; scc
= 4.184 J 4.2045 J
4.1855 J
= 4.1855 J 4.1819 J
1 BTUIT 1 K/R 1 atm 1cm3 1 atm 1ft3
= 1.899 100 534 716103 J = 0.101 325 J
cu ft atm; scf
= 2.869 204 480 9344103 J = 1.055 055 852 62106 J = 77.468 520 985 2288103 J 1.602 177 331019 4.91026 J = 107 J = 1.355 817 948 331 4004 J = 4.214 011 009 380 48102 J = 460.632 569 25 J = 383.556 849 0138 J 4.359 7441018 J = 2.684 519 537 696 172 792106 J = 0.112 984 829 027 6167 J = 1J = 1mN = 1kgm2/s2 = 1CV = 1Ws
1 000 BTUIT cu yd atm; scy eV 1 atm 1 yd3
e1V
erg (cgs unit) foot-pound force
erg ft lbf
1 gcm2/s2 g 1lb 1ft
foot-poundal
ft pdl
1lbft2/s2
gallon-atmosphere (imperial) gallon-atmosphere (US) hartree, atomic unit of energy horsepower-hour
imp gal atm 1 atm 1 gal (imp) US gal atm Eh hph 1 atm 1 gal (US) me2c2 (= 2 Ry) 1hp 1 h
inch-pound force
in lbf
g 1lb 1 in
joule (SI unit)
The work done when a force of one newton moves the point of its application a distance of one metre in the direction of the [25] force. 1 000 calIT 1kW 1 h
kilocalorie; large calorie kilowatt-hour; Board of Trade Unit
kcal; Cal kWh; B.O.T.U. l atm; sl
= 4.1868103 J = 3.6106 J = 101.325 J
litre-atmosphere
1 atm 1 L
Conversion of units
107
quad rydberg therm (E.C.) therm (US) thermie ton of coal equivalent ton of oil equivalent ton of TNT th TCE TOE tTNT Ry
1015 BTUIT Rc 100 000 BTUIT 100 000 BTU59 F 1 McalIT 7 Gcalth 10 Gcalth 1 Gcalth
= 1.055 055 852 621018 J 2.179 8721018 J = 105.505 585 262106 J = 105.4804106 J = 4.1868106 J = 29.3076109 J = 41.868109 J = 4.184109 J
Power or heat flow rate Power

Name of unit atmosphere-cubic centimetre per minute atmosphere-cubic centimetre per second atmosphere-cubic foot per hour atmosphere-cubic foot per minute atmosphere-cubic foot per second Symbol atm ccm 1 atm 1cm3/min 1 atm 1cm3/s 1 atm 1 cu ft/h 1 atm 1 cu ft/min 1 atm 1 cu ft/s 1 BTUIT/h Definition Relation to SI units = 1.688 75103 W = 0.101 325 W
atm ccs
atm cfh atmcfm atm cfs
= 0.797 001 244 704 W = 47.820 074 682 24 W = 2.869 204 480 9344103 W 0.293 071 W 17.584 264 W
BTU (International Table) per hour BTUIT/h BTU (International Table) per minute BTU (International Table) per second calorie (International Table) per second erg per second foot-pound-force per hour foot-pound-force per minute
BTUIT/min 1 BTUIT/min BTUIT/s calIT/s erg/s ft lbf/h ft lbf/min 1 BTUIT/s 1 calIT/s 1 erg/s 1ft lbf/h 1ft lbf/min
= 1.055 055 852 62103 W = 4.1868 W
= 107 W 3.766 161104 W = 2.259 696 580 552 334102 W = 1.355 817 948 331 4004 W 9.810 657103 W = 736 W = 746 W = 745.699 871 582 270 22 W = 735.498 75 W = 1.688 75 W
foot-pound-force per second horsepower (boiler) horsepower (European electrical) horsepower (imperial electrical) horsepower (imperial mechanical) horsepower (metric) litre-atmosphere per minute
ft lbf/s bhp hp hp hp hp Latm/min
1ft lbf/s 34.5lb/h 970.3 BTUIT/lb 75 kpm/s 746 W 550ft lbf/s 75 m kgf/s 1 atm 1 L/min
Conversion of units
108
Latm/s lusec p sq ft EDR 1 atm 1 L/s 1 LmHg/s 100 m kgf/s 240 BTUIT/h 1 t ice melted / 24 h 1 BTUIT 1 lng tn/lb 10 min/s 1 BTUIT 1 sh tn/lb 10 min/s W The power which in one second of time gives rise to one joule [25] of energy. [14] = 101.325 W 1.333104 W = 980.665 W 70.337 057 W
litre-atmosphere per second lusec poncelet square foot equivalent direct radiation ton of air conditioning ton of refrigeration (imperial) ton of refrigeration (IT) watt (SI unit)
3 504 W 3.938 875103 W 3.516 853103 W = 1W = 1J/s = 1Nm/s = 1kgm2/s3
Action Action
atomic unit of action au
/2 1.054 571 681034 Js[28]
Dynamic viscosity Dynamic viscosity

Name of unit pascal second (SI unit) poise (cgs unit) pound per foot hour pound per foot second Symbol Pas P lb/(fth) lb/(fts) Definition Relation to SI units
Ns/m2, kg/(ms) = 1 Pas 1 baryes 1lb/(fth) 1lb/(fts) 1lbfs/ft2 1lbfs/in2 = 0.1 Pas 4.133 789104 Pas 1.488164Pas 47.88026Pas 6894.757Pas
pound-force second per square foot lbfs/ft2 pound-force second per square inch lbfs/in2
Kinematic viscosity
Conversion of units
109
Kinematic viscosity
Name of unit square foot per second Symbol ft2/s Definition 1ft2/s 1m2/s Relation to SI units = 0.09290304m2/s = 1m2/s
square metre per second (SI unit) m2/s stokes (cgs unit) St
104m2/s = 104m2/s
Electric current Electric current

ampere (SI base unit)
The constant current needed to produce a force of 2 107 newton per metre between two straight parallel conductors of infinite length and negligible circular cross-section [8] placed one metre apart in a vacuum. 10 A
=1A
electromagnetic unit; abampere (cgs unit) esu per second; statampere (cgs unit)
abamp
= 10 A
esu/s
(0.1 Am/s) / c
3.3356411010A
Electric charge Electric charge

Name of unit abcoulomb; electromagnetic unit (cgs unit) atomic unit of charge Symbol abC; emu 10 C Definition Relation to SI units = 10 C
au
1.602 176 4621019 C = 1 C = 1 As
coulomb (SI unit)
The amount of electricity carried in one second of time by one [25] ampere of current. 1mol NAe (0.1 Am) / c
faraday statcoulomb; franklin; electrostatic unit (cgs unit)
F statC; Fr; esu
96 485.3383 C 3.335 6411010 C
Electric dipole
Conversion of units
110
Electric dipole
Name of unit Symbol Definition Relation to SI units 8.478 352 811030 Cm =1C1m = 1010 esu = 3.335640951030 Cm [30] [29]
atomic unit of electric dipole moment ea0 coulomb meter debye Cm D
Electromotive force, electric potential difference Voltage, electromotive force

Name of unit abvolt (cgs unit) Symbol Definition Relation to SI units
abV
1108 V c (1 J/Am)
= 1108 V = 299.792 458 V
statvolt (cgs statV unit) volt (SI unit) V
The difference in electric potential across two points along a conducting wire carrying one ampere [25] of constant current when the power dissipated between the points equals one watt.
= 1 V = 1 W/A = 1 kgm2/(As3)
Electrical resistance Electrical resistance

Name of unit ohm (SI unit) Symbol Definition Relation to SI units
The resistance between two points in a conductor when one volt of electric potential difference, [25] applied to these points, produces one ampere of current in the conductor.
= 1 = 1 V/A = 1 kgm2/(A2s3)
Capacitance Capacitor's ability to store charge

Name of unit farad (SI unit) Symbol Definition Relation to SI units
The capacitance between two parallel plates that results in one volt of potential difference when [25] charged by one coulomb of electricity.
= 1 F = 1 C/V = 1 A2s4/(kgm2)
Conversion of units
111
Magnetic flux magnetic flux

maxwell (CGS Mx unit) weber (SI unit) Wb
108 Wb
[31]
= 1108 Wb
Magnetic flux which, linking a circuit of one turn, would produce in it an electromotive force [25] of 1 volt if it were reduced to zero at a uniform rate in 1 second.
= 1 Wb = 1 Vs = 1 kgm2/(As2)
Magnetic flux density What physicists call Magnetic field is called Magnetic flux density by electrical engineers and magnetic induction by applied mathematicians and electrical engineers.
Name of unit Symbol Definition Relation to SI units [32]
gauss (CGS unit) G tesla (SI unit) T
Mx/cm2 = 104 T = 1104 T Wb/m2
= 1 T = 1 Wb/m2 = 1 kg/(As2)
Inductance Inductance
Name of unit henry (SI unit) Symbol Definition Relation to SI units
The inductance of a closed circuit that produces one volt of electromotive force when the current [25] in the circuit varies at a uniform rate of one ampere per second.
= 1 H = 1 Wb/A = 1 kgm2/(As)2
Temperature Temperature
Name of unit degree Celsius degree Delisle degree Fahrenheit degree Newton degree Rankine degree Raumur degree Rmer Symbol C De F N R; R R 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water. R K 9/5 F C 9/5 + 32 C K 273.15 Definition Conversion to kelvin [K] [C] + 273.15 [K] = 373.15 [De] 2/3 [K] ([F] + 459.67) 5/9 [K] = [N] 100/33 + 273.15 [K] [R] 5/9 [K] = [R] 5/4 + 273.15 [K] = ([R] 7.5) 40/21 + 273.15 [8] 1 K
kelvin (SI base unit) K
Conversion of units
112
Information entropy Information entropy

Name of unit SI unit nat; nip; nepit bit; shannon ban; hartley nibble byte B Symbol J/K nat Definition J/K kB Relation to SI units = 1 J/K = 1.380 650 5(23)1023 J/K = 9.569 940 (16)1024 J/K = 1 bit Relation to bits
bit; b; Sh ln(2) kB
ban; Hart ln(10) kB = 3.179 065 3(53)1023 J/K 4 bits 8 bits 1 000 B = 3.827 976 0(64)1023 J/K = 22 bit = 7.655 952 (13)1023 J/K = 7.655 952 (13)1020 J/K = 7.839 695 (13)1020 J/K = 23 bit = 8103 bit = 8000 bit = 213 bit = 8192 bit
kilobyte (decimal) kB
kilobyte (kibibyte) KB; KiB 1 024 B
Often, information entropy is measured in shannons, whereas the (discrete) storage space of digital devices is measured in bits. Thus, uncompressed redundant data occupy more than one bit of storage per shannon of information entropy. The multiples of a bit listed above are usually used with this meaning. Other times the bit is used as a measure of information entropy and is thus a synonym of shannon.
Luminous intensity
The candela is the preferred nomenclature for the SI unit.
Luminous intensity
Name of unit Symbol Definition Relation to SI units = 1cd
candela (SI base unit); candle
cd
The luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 5401012 hertz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per [8] steradian. cd The use of candlepower as a unit is discouraged due to its ambiguity. Varies and is poorly reproducible. [33] Approximately 0.981cd. [14]
candlepower (new) candlepower (old, pre-1948)
cp cp
= 1cd 0.981cd
Luminance
Conversion of units
113
Luminance
Name of unit candela per square foot candela per square inch candela per square metre (SI unit); nit (deprecated footlambert lambert stilb (CGS unit) [14] Symbol cd/ft2 cd/in2 ) cd/m2 fL L sb Definition cd/ft2 cd/in2 cd/m2 (1/) cd/ft2 Relation to SI units 10.763910417cd/m2 1550.0031cd/m2 = 1cd/m2 3.4262590996cd/m2
(104/) cd/m2 3183.0988618cd/m2 104 cd/m2 1104cd/m2
Luminous flux Luminous flux

Name of unit Symbol Definition cdsr Relation to SI units = 1lm = 1cdsr
lumen (SI unit) lm
Illuminance Illuminance
Name of unit Symbol Definition lm/ft2 lm/in2 lm/m2 lm/cm2 Relation to SI units = 10.763910417lx 1550.0031lx = 1lx = 1lm/m2 = 1104 lx
footcandle; lumen per square foot fc lumen per square inch lux (SI unit) phot (CGS unit) lm/in2 lx ph
Radiation - source activity Radioactivity

becquerel (SI unit) Bq curie rutherford (H) Ci rd
Number of disintegrations per second = 1 Bq = 1/s 3.71010 Bq 1 MBq = 3.71010 Bq = 1106 Bq [34]
Please note that although becquerel (Bq) and hertz (Hz) both ultimately refer to the same SI base unit (s1), Hz is used only for periodic phenomena, and Bq is only used for stochastic processes associated with radioactivity.[35]
Conversion of units
114
Radiation - exposure Radiation - exposure

Name of unit roentgen Symbol R Definition 1 R 2.58104 C/kg [31] Relation to SI units = 2.58104 C/kg
The roentgen is not a SI unit and the NIST strongly discourages its continued use.[36]
Radiation - absorbed dose Radiation - absorbed dose

Name of unit gray (SI unit) rad Symbol Gy rad Definition 1 J/kg = 1 m2/s2 0.01 Gy [31] Relation to SI units [37] = 1 Gy = 0.01 Gy
Radiation - equivalent dose Radiation - equivalent dose

Name of unit Symbol Definition 0.01 Sv 1 J/kg Relation to SI units = 0.01 Sv
Rntgen equivalent man rem sievert (SI unit) Sv
[35] = 1 Sv
Although the definitions for sievert (Sv) and gray (Gy) would seem to indicate that they measure the same quantities, this is not the case. The effect of receiving a certain dose of radiation (given as Gy) is variable and depends on many factors, thus a new unit was needed to denote the biological effectiveness of that dose on the body; this is known as the equivalent dose and is shown in Sv. The general relationship between absorbed dose and equivalent dose can be represented as H=QD where H is the equivalent dose, D is the absorbed dose, and Q is a dimensionless quality factor. Thus, for any quantity of D measured in Gy, the numerical value for H measured in Sv may be different.[38]
Software tools
Home and office computers come with converters in bundled spreadsheet applications or can access free converters via the Internet. Units and measurements can be easily converted using these tools, but only if the units are explicitly defined and the conversion is compatible (e.g., cmHg to kPa).
General commercial sources of converters

Advanced electronic calculators have unit-conversion functionality. Spreadsheet programs usually provide conversion functions or formulas or the user can write their own. Commercial mathematical, scientific and technical applications often include converters.
Conversion of units
115
References
[1] United States Naval Observatory. (2009). Selected Astronomical Constants, 2009 (http:/ / asa. usno. navy. mil/ SecK/ 2009/ Astronomical_Constants_2009. txt). Accessed May 10, 2009 [2] " NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty." (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ cgi-bin/ cuu/ Value?bohrrada0|search_for=Bohr+ radius)(2006). National Institute of Standards and Technology. Retrieved February 22, 2008. [3] National Institute of Standards and Technology General Tables of Units of Measurement (http:/ / ts. nist. gov/ WeightsAndMeasures/ Publications/ appxc. cfm) [4] Lide, D. (Ed.). (1990). Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (71st ed). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. Section 1. [5] National Bureau of Standards. (June 30, 1959). Refinement of values for the yard and the pound. Federal Register, viewed September 20, 2006 at National Geodetic Survey web site (http:/ / www. ngs. noaa. gov/ PUBS_LIB/ FedRegister/ FRdoc59-5442. pdf). [6] The International Astronomical Union and Astronomical Units (http:/ / www. iau. org/ public_press/ themes/ measuring/ ) [7] Klein, Herbert Arthur. (1988). The Science of Measurement: a Historical Survey. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications 0-4862-5839-4. [8] The International System of Units, Section 2.1 (http:/ / www. bipm. org/ en/ si/ si_brochure/ chapter2/ 2-1/ ) (8 ed.), Bureau International des Poids et Mesures, 2006, , retrieved August 26, 2009 [9] International System of Units, (http:/ / www. bipm. org/ en/ si/ si_brochure/ chapter4/ table8. html) 8th ed. (2006), Bureau International des Poids et Mesures, Section 4.1 Table 8. [10] P. Kenneth Seidelmann, Ed. (1992). Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac. Sausalito, CA: University Science Books. p. 716 and s.v. parsec in Glossary. [11] Whitelaw, Ian. (2007). A Measure of All Things: The Story of Man and Measurement (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=3zgGEWM5-iAC). New York: Macmillan 0-312-37026-1. p. 152. [12] De Vinne, Theodore Low (1900). The practice of typography: a treatise on the processes of type-making, the point system, the names, sizes, styles and prices of plain printing types (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=R4-DjphIpLMC) 2nd ed. New York: The Century Co. p. 142150. [13] Pasko, Wesley Washington (1894). American dictionary of printing and bookmaking (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Z_QUAAAAIAAJ). (1894). New York: Howard Lockwood. p. 521. [14] Rowlett, Russ (2005), How Many? A Dictionary of Units of Measurement (http:/ / www. unc. edu/ ~rowlett/ units/ index. html), [15] Thompson, A. and Taylor, B.N. (2008). Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI). National Institute of Standards and Technology Special Publication 811. p. 57. [16] US Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21, Section 101.9, Paragraph (b)(5)(viii) (http:/ / ecfr. gpoaccess. gov/ cgi/ t/ text/ text-idx?c=ecfr& rgn=div8& view=text& node=21:2. 0. 1. 1. 2. 1. 1. 6& idno=21), , retrieved August 29, 2009 [17] Barry N. Taylor, Ed., NIST Special Publication 330: The International System of Units (SI) (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ Pubs/ SP330/ sp330. pdf) (2001 Edition), Washington: US Government Printing Office, 43,"The 12th Conference Generale des Poids et Mesures (CGPM)declares that the word litre may be employed as a special name for the cubic decimetre". [18] "Unit Converter / Unit Conversions 101" (http:/ / www. macworld. com/ appguide/ app. html?id=556483& expand=false). Program. Keisarian Applications. . Retrieved 24 May 2011. [19] CODATA Value: atomic uint of mass. (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ cgi-bin/ cuu/ Value?ttme|search_for=atomic+ unit+ of+ mass) (2006). National Institute of Standards and Technology. Retrieved 16 September 2008. [20] The Swiss Federal Office for Metrology gives Zentner on a German language web page (http:/ / www. metas. ch/ de/ scales/ systemch. html) and quintal on the English translation of that page (http:/ / www. metas. ch/ en/ scales/ systemch. html); the unit is marked "spcifiquement suisse !" [21] Pedersen O. (1983). "Glossary" in Coyne, G., Hoskin, M., and Pedersen, O. Gregorian Reform of the Calendar: Proceedings of the Vatican Conference to Commemorate its 400th Anniversary. Vatican Observatory. Available from Astrophysics Data System. [22] Richards, E.G. (1998), Mapping Time, Oxford University Press, pp.9495, ISBN0-19-850413-6 [23] Steel, Duncan (2000), Marking Time, John Wiley & Sons, p.46, ISBN0-471-29827-1 [24] CODATA Value: atomic unit of force (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ cuu/ Constants/ ). (2006). National Institute of Standards and Technology. Retrieved September 14, 2008. [25] [[Comit International des Poids et Mesures (http:/ / www. bipm. org/ en/ CIPM/ db/ 1946/ 2/ )], Resolution 2], 1946, , retrieved August 26, 2009 [26] Barry N. Taylor, (April 1 995), Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI) (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ cuu/ pdf/ sp811. pdf) (NIST Special Publication 811), Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, pp. 5768. [27] Barry N. Taylor, (April 1995), Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI) (NIST Special Publication 811), Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, p. 5. [28] International System of Units, (http:/ / www. bipm. org/ en/ si/ si_brochure/ chapter4/ table7. html) 8th ed. (2006), Bureau International des Poids et Mesures, Section 4.1 Table 7. [29] The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ cgi-bin/ cuu/ Value?auedm), 2006, , retrieved August 26, 2009 [30] Robert G. Mortimer Physical chemistry,Academic Press, 2000 ISBN 0125083459, page 677 [31] NIST Guide to SI Units, Appendix B.9 (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ Pubs/ SP811/ appenB9. html), , retrieved August 27, 2009
Conversion of units
[32] Standard for the Use of the International System of Units (SI): The Modern Metric System IEEE/ASTM SI 10-1997. (1997). New York and West Conshohocken, PA: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers and American Society for Testing and Materials. Tables A.1 through A.5. [33] The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ cuu/ Units/ candela. html), , retrieved August 28, 2009 [34] Ambler Thompson & Barry N. Taylor. (2008). Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI). (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ cuu/ pdf/ sp811. pdf) Special Publication 811. Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology. p. 10. [35] The International System of Units, Section 2.2.2., Table 3 (http:/ / www. bipm. org/ en/ si/ si_brochure/ chapter2/ 2-2/ table3. html) (8 ed.), Bureau International des Poids et Mesures, 2006, , retrieved August 27, 2009 [36] The NIST Guide to the SI (Special Publication 811), section 5.2 (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ Pubs/ SP811/ sec05. html#5. 2), 2008, , retrieved August 27, 2009 [37] Ambler Thompson & Barry N. Taylor. (2008). Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI). (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ cuu/ pdf/ sp811. pdf) Special Publication 811. Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology. p. 5. [38] [[Comit international des poids et mesures (http:/ / www. bipm. org/ en/ CIPM/ db/ 2002/ 2/ )], 2002, Recommendation 2], , retrieved August 27, 2009
116
External links
Official text of the Units of measurement regulations 1995 (http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1995/1804/ contents/made) as created/made within the United Kingdom, from the UK Statute Law Database How Many? A dictionary of units of measurement (http://www.unc.edu/~rowlett/units/) NIST: Fundamental physical constants Non-SI units (http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Document/ nonsi_in_1998.pdf)PDF(35.7KB) NIST Guide to SI Units (http://physics.nist.gov/Pubs/SP811/appenB9.html) Many conversion factors listed. The Unified Code for Units of Measure (http://aurora.rg.iupui.edu/~schadow/units/UCUM/ucum.html) Units, Symbols, and Conversions XML Dictionary (http://www.posc.org/refs/poscUnits20.xml) Units of Measurement Software (http://www.dmoz.org/Science/Reference/Units_of_Measurement/Software/ /) at the Open Directory Project Units of Measurement Online Conversion (http://www.dmoz.org/Science/Reference/Units_of_Measurement/ Online_Conversion//) at the Open Directory Project
Article Sources and Contributors
117

History of chemical engineering Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=449832152 Contributors: Appraiser, Bender235, Biscuittin, Bob, Can't sleep, drank too much coffee, Cbdorsett, CheMechanical, Chemical Engineer, EdChem, Gershwinrb, Ghosts&empties, GregRM, JanVerstraete, Journeyman, Mbeychok, Michael Hardy, NormanEinstein, Pinkkeith, Riana, Rjwilmsi, Scrah, Sunilshamnur, Tanvir Ahmmed, Voyaging, Willgomes, 20 anonymous edits Chemical engineering Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=454538440 Contributors: 21655, Abb615, Abhi2008, Academic Challenger, Aeonx, Agogino, Ahmaddani, Ahoerstemeier, Aiken drum, Aitias, Alai, Alexandrov, Allmoney13, Ameliorate!, AndreniW, Angr, Antandrus, Anterior1, Antonrojo, Antrax, Anupamsr, Apers0n, Aratarin, Arthur Smart, Ayucat, Az1568, Babbler, Bact, Baiji, BananaFiend, Barneca, Basar, Beetstra, Betterusername, Bibinboi, BigFatBuddha, Biscuittin, Bitjungle, Bjs1234, Bob, Bobbo, Bobo192, BokicaK, Booknotes, Brien Clark, CALR, 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Image:Colonne distillazione.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Colonne_distillazione.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: User:Luigi Chiesa File:Davis GE.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Davis_GE.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: File:MIT Industrial Chemistry Lab.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MIT_Industrial_Chemistry_Lab.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: File:Bhopal-Union Carbide 2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bhopal-Union_Carbide_2.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Original uploader was Simone.lippi at it.wikipedia File:Chemengg.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chemengg.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Sunilshamnur File:FEMA - 37677 - Aerial of a Louisiana oil refinary repaired since Katrina.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FEMA_-_37677_-_Aerial_of_a_Louisiana_oil_refinary_repaired_since_Katrina.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: File:Futurewarandgermanchemicalindustry1928.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Futurewarandgermanchemicalindustry1928.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Y. 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Guminer; uploaded by Nickpo File:Turbine generator systems1.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Turbine_generator_systems1.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Dore chakravarty, User:H Padleckas File:reactor.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Reactor.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Fribbi File:Flag of Germany.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Germany.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: File:Flag of the United States.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: File:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: File:Flag of the Republic of China.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: File:Flag of Saudi Arabia.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Unknown File:Flag of Japan.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Japan.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: File:Flag of the Netherlands.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Zscout370 File:Flag of France.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_France.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Image:Inorganic-montage.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Inorganic-montage.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Image:Potassium-oxide-3D-vdW.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Potassium-oxide-3D-vdW.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Image:CoEDTA-anion-3D-balls.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CoEDTA-anion-3D-balls.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Image:Tetrasulfur-tetranitride-3D-vdW.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tetrasulfur-tetranitride-3D-vdW.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Image:N-butyllithium-tetramer-3D-balls.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:N-butyllithium-tetramer-3D-balls.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Image:Decaborane-3D-balls.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Decaborane-3D-balls.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Image:Fe4S4-3D-vdW.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fe4S4-3D-vdW.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Image:Vitamin-B12-Co-centre-3D-balls.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vitamin-B12-Co-centre-3D-balls.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Image:YBa2Cu3O7.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:YBa2Cu3O7.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Gadolinist Image:Ferricyanide-3D.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ferricyanide-3D.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Image:Nitrogen-dioxide-3D-vdW.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nitrogen-dioxide-3D-vdW.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Image:LOC MI0086 QuincyMine TIF 00027aS.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LOC_MI0086_QuincyMine_TIF_00027aS.png License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Lar File:Simple distillation apparatus.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Simple_distillation_apparatus.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original PNG by User:Quantockgoblin, SVG adaptation by User:Slashme File:Zosimosapparat.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Zosimosapparat.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Adragoor at sv.wikipedia File:My retort.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:My_retort.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: File:UkrainianVodkaStill.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:UkrainianVodkaStill.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Arne Hckelheim File:BatchDistill.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BatchDistill.svg License: unknown Contributors: Original uploader was User A1 at en.wikipedia. 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File:Vacuum distillation of DMSO at 70C.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vacuum_distillation_of_DMSO_at_70C.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Rifleman 82 at en.wikipedia File:perkin triangle distillation apparatus.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Perkin_triangle_distillation_apparatus.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike Contributors: Original PNG by User:Quantockgoblin, SVG adaptation by User:Slashme File:short path distillation apparatus.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Short_path_distillation_apparatus.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original PNG by User:Quantockgoblin, SVG adaptation by User:Slashme File:Colonne distillazione.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Colonne_distillazione.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: User:Luigi Chiesa File:Distillation Column.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Distillation_Column.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:mbeychok File:Bubble Cap Trays.PNG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bubble_Cap_Trays.PNG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: H Padleckas created this image file in the middle of November 2006 for use in the article "Fractionating column" in Wikimedia. File:Vacuum Column.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vacuum_Column.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: I do not know the name of the individual who actually took the photograph. File:Retort-in-operation-early-chemistry.PNG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Retort-in-operation-early-chemistry.PNG License: Public Domain Contributors: File:Distillation of dry and oxygen-free toluene.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Distillation_of_dry_and_oxygen-free_toluene.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Rifleman 82 at en.wikipedia File:Vacuum Column.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vacuum_Column.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Mbeychok File:Rotavapor.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rotavapor.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Geni File:Semi-microscale distillation.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Semi-microscale_distillation.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: user:Rifleman_82 File:Agitator.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Agitator.gif License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Backonceagain File:Magnetic Stirrer.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Magnetic_Stirrer.JPG License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Ruhrfisch File:Agitated vessel.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Agitated_vessel.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Aushulz Image:Ball mill.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ball_mill.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Lu Ly File:Ballmill.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ballmill.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was Atra at en.wikipedia Image:8000M Mixer Mill (open) incl accessories.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:8000M_Mixer_Mill_(open)_incl_accessories.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Madmozza Image:High-energy ball milling.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:High-energy_ball_milling.gif License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Lu Ly Image:GrindingmediaForBillMill.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GrindingmediaForBillMill.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was Atra at en.wikipedia

Image:Ball Mill.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ball_Mill.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Ry Blaisdell/Rylincoln File:FilterDiagram.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FilterDiagram.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Wikiwayman (talk). Original uploader was Wikiwayman at en.wikipedia File:FilterFunnelApparatus.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FilterFunnelApparatus.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Smokefoot Image:Periodic table.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Periodic_table.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Cepheus File:080998 Universe Content 240.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:080998_Universe_Content_240.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Credit: NASA / WMAP Science Team Image:SolarSystemAbundances.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SolarSystemAbundances.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: 28bytes, Sfan00 IMG Image:Mendeleev's 1869 periodic table.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mendeleev's_1869_periodic_table.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Sadi Carnot at en.wikipedia
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History of chemical engineering

History of chemical engineering

New concepts and innovations

Lag and environmental awareness

Chemical reaction engineering

Applications and practice

Related fields and topics

Textile engineering Thermodynamics Transport phenomena Unit operations Water technology

Computational fluid dynamics

Chemical engineers design, construct and operate plants

Employment and Salaries

Product category breakdown

fragrances and flavors benzyl benzoate, coumarin, vanillin

Companies in the 21st century

Unit processing in chemical engineering

Alkaline fusion Alkylation Dealkylation

Chemical process Esterification Polymerization Polycondensation Catalysis

Industrial inorganic chemistry

Descriptive inorganic chemistry

EDTA chelates an octahedrally coordinated Co3+ ion in [Co(EDTA)]

Main group compounds

Transition metal compounds

Decaborane is a powerfully toxic cluster compound of boron

Examples: Fe3(CO)12, B10H14, [Mo6Cl14]2, 4Fe-4S

Solid state compounds

Theoretical inorganic chemistry

Molecular symmetry group theory

Thermodynamics and inorganic chemistry

Mechanistic inorganic chemistry

Main group elements and lanthanides

Transition metal complexes

Characterization of inorganic compounds

Synthetic inorganic chemistry

Old Ukrainian vodka still

Idealized distillation model

Laboratory scale distillation

Air-sensitive vacuum distillation

Short path distillation

Breaking an azeotrope with unidirectional pressure manipulation

Typical industrial distillation towers

Diagram of a typical industrial distillation tower

Distillation in food processing

A simple set-up to distill dry and oxygen-free toluene.

Diagram of an industrial-scale vacuum distillation column as commonly used in oil refineries

Mixing (process engineering)

Mixing (process engineering)

Mixing (process engineering)

Mixing (process engineering)

Schematics of an agitated vessel

Bench top ball mill

Laboratory scale ball mill

High-energy ball milling

Lead antimony grinding media with aluminum powder.

Achieving flow through the filter

Chemical element stable than the other allotropes.

The periodic table

Nomenclature and symbols

Origin of the elements

Hydrogen Helium Oxygen Carbon Neon Iron Nitrogen Silicon

Magnesium 580 Sulfur Potassium Nickel 440 210 100

Mendeleev's 1869 periodic table

Discovery and recognition of various elements