Sol Iustitiae: The History of the Motto of Rutgers by Jessica Shao

Senior Honors Thesis Submitted to the Department of Classics in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Bachelor of Arts degree with Honor Rutgers University April 15, 2009 Adviser: Professor Corey Brennan

Rutgers Visual Identity In April of 2008, Rutgers University reformed its visual identity. The goal was to standardize and regulate the use of the Rutgers logotype, seal, and other symbols representing the school. Among the new additions of the reform is an informal seal, which is a simplified version of the official seal. This informal seal contains a bolder rendition of the central sunburst1 with the name of the university and the founding year on its outer ring. However, the Latin motto of Rutgers is absent from this simplified version. It was created so that it might be used more frequently in less restricted mediums, since the official seal may primarily only be used on official university documents. One may wonder upon seeing this informal seal, why Rutgers is represented by a sun. The sun is, in fact, alluding to the content of the Rutgers motto: Sol iustitiae et occidentem illustra, which means, Sun of righteousness, shine also on the West. From where did this motto originate and what is its significance and meaning? To answer this question, I will examine in four sections the use and interpretation of this phrase throughout history, beginning with its biblical origin, then examining its usage by the early Christian church fathers and medieval theologians. Moving forward to the time of the Reformation, I will then proceed to give a survey of the thoughts and teachings of several major theologians. Finally, I will discuss how the motto came to Rutgers and conclude with a discussion of the manifestations of the motto in a broader cultural context.

Rutgers Visual Identity System: http://identity.rutgers.edu/

Biblical Sources The motto of Rutgers and the symbol which represents it actually originate from a biblical context. The motto is taken from Malachi 4:2 and Matthew 13:43 in the Bible. Malachi was a Jewish prophet from the 5th century BC. He was a contemporary of Ezra and Nehemiah, who worked to restore Jerusalem and the Jewish temple after the Israelites were exiled to Babylon and permitted to return under King Cyrus rule. Although the Jewish people were released from captivity by King Cyrus, their homeland was not the way it had used to be. There was a general sense of spiritual depression as they seemed to feel a lack of Gods presence and work after returning from exile. The Jews struggled with drought and crop failure, as well as hostility from neighboring nations. The textual context from which Malachi 4:2 is found starts from Malachi 3:13 and ends at Malachi 4:3. In this section, the prophet Malachi voices the hopelessness of the Jewish people who have lost faith in Gods covenant to them. The people complain in 3:14-15, It is vain to serve God. What is the profit of our keeping his charge or of walking as in mourning before the Lord of hosts? And now we call the arrogant blessed. Evildoers not only prosper but they put God to the test and they escape. The people have become disillusioned with the law of God, that is, the covenant God made with the Jewish people back in Egypt. The covenant that God made with the Jewish people states, If you will indeed obey my voice and keep my covenant, you shall be my treasured possession among all peoples, for all the earth is mine; and you shall be to me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation.2 The terms of the covenant were simple: If the people obeyed Gods commands, they would be blessed and prosper, but if they disobeyed, there would be punishments. Now back home from exile, the Jewish people believe that their obedience does not bring about any results, whereas those who show contempt for Gods law
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Exodus 19:5 (English Standard Version)

seem to lead a prosperous life. They are essentially asking if there is any difference in the way God treats the righteous and the unrighteous. Not that the people have been completely obedient in their observance of the law. Malachi lists in the preceding chapters all the sins that the Jewish people have been committing lack of sincerity in offerings and worship, idolatry, and interracial marriage (i.e., intermarrying with the idolatrous nations around Israel) to name a few. On account of these offenses, the Jewish people were experiencing less of Gods blessings and comparing their standard of living to their neighbors who had moved into their land while they were gone. Consequently, a general depression, hopelessness, and lack of religious fervor pervaded the community. It was in this historical context that Malachi lived and wrote an exhortation to the people to be faithful to the Lord. Malachi 4:2 states, But for you who fear my name, the sun of righteousness shall rise with healing in its wings. You shall go out leaping like calves from the stall. This verse is actually quoting the words of God who is promising his people that he will indeed judge evildoers and reward the righteous on the Day of the Lord. It is a reminder of his covenant to them. The day of the Lord was to be a great day of judgment when God would come to earth and separate the righteous from the wicked. Although many Bible commentaries equate the sun of righteousness to Christ, it may also refer more generally to this Day of the Lord. The evidence can be found in the previous verse where the Lord says, For behold, the day is coming, burning like an oven, when all the arrogant and all evildoers will be stubble. The day that is coming shall set them ablaze Thus the use of the word sun in the following verse may be a descriptive term in reference to the proclamation that the Day of the Lord will set all ablaze. When the sun of righteousness comes on the Day of the Lord, it will set all evildoers ablaze.

In addition to the imagery of the sun setting ablaze the wicked, the sun does double duty, also rising on the righteous with healing in its wings. The sun in this case can be dually interpreted to be a prophecy of Christ who is the Light of the world3 and who would come a few centuries later to live a completely perfect life. He would come as righteousness, making a substitutionary death and thereby, making those righteous that is, healing all those who would accept him. The word righteousness here is used in the genitive in the sense of quality. To the wicked, the sun would essentially be a sun of judgment, whereas to the righteous, it will be a purifying light. There has been some debate over the precise translation of the word righteousness. Malachi was originally written in Hebrew then translated into Greek along with the rest of the Old Testament. This Greek text is called the Septuagint. Finally, Saint Jerome gave us the Latin translation of the Bible called the Vulgate. In Rutgers history, the motto has sometimes been translated as sun of justice. The original Hebrew word for righteousness is tsedaqah which is translated as righteousness 158 times in the Old Testament and translated as justice only 15 times. All the major translations of the Bible (e.g. KJV, NIV, ESV, and NASB) translate this word in Malachi 4:2 as righteousness. The primary definition according to Swansons Hebrew dictionary is: the state of doing what is required according to a standard. Since the word for sun is in the construct form, it is dependent on tsedaqah which, in turn, would make tsedaqah in the genitive case. In the Septuagint, the word used is dikaiosune which is also translated as righteousness or more specifically, the act of doing what God requires (Swanson). Saint Jerome uses the word iustitiae in the Vulgate. This version, undoubtedly, is where the University of Utrecht4 got their Latin sun of righteousness. It is uncertain whether Saint Jerome translated

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John 1:9 This will be discussed in further detail below. Rutgers University adopted its motto from Utrecht.

the Vulgate from the Hebrew or the Greek text, but in either case, the meaning of iustitiae would be the same. Thus, the correct translation of sol iustitiae is sun of righteousness as opposed to sun of justice. Sol iustitiae et occidentem illustra also references Matthew 13:43, not only in regards to the sun, but also to the word illustra which means shine. Matthew 13:43 is another quote, this time of Jesus, who says, Then the righteous will shine like the sun in the kingdom of their Father The context in which Jesus says this is from his explanation to his disciples of the parable of the weeds. In this parable, Jesus tells a story of a wheat field that gets sown with weeds by the owners enemy. The owner tells his servants to wait until harvest time to separate the weeds from the wheat so that the wheat would not be damaged, and afterwards, to burn the weeds. Jesus later explains this parable to his disciples, saying that at the end of the age that is, the Day of the Lord or Day of Judgment all law-breakers and those who cause sin (weeds) will be burned in the fiery furnace. But those found righteous (wheat) will shine like the sun. The book of Matthew was written in Greek and also translated into Latin by Saint Jerome. The word used in the Greek for shine is eklampsousin which is the only occurrence of this word in the NT. Saint Jerome translates this word in the Vulgate as fulgebunt. It is interesting to note, then, that the University of Utrecht deliberately chose to use the word illustra in its motto instead of fulge, which would have been more accurate to the Vulgate. The reason for this deliberate choice of the word will be discussed in further detail below.

Early Church Fathers The concept of the sun of righteousness continued to live on after biblical times. The phrase was used quite regularly among the early church fathers, although each of their

interpretations of it may have differed slightly. Contextual clues from each author help to determine the usage and meaning of the phrase. It was Clement of Alexandria (c.150-215) who first equated the sun of righteousness to Christ. In his Exhortation to the Heathen, Clement makes it very clear that the sun of righteousness is the one who brought light to the world through the cross. For the Sun of Righteousness, who drives His chariot over all, pervades equally all humanity, like His Father, who makes His sun to rise on all men, and distils on them the dew of the truth. He hath changed sunset into sunrise, and through the cross brought death to life5 Here Clement is praising Christ for bringing salvation to the world through his death on the cross. In that paragraph, he rejoices that he has received the light from Christ so that he could find the way to God. Thus, he calls Christ the sun of righteousness. Another early commentary on the sun of righteousness is by Origen (185-254). In his Commentary on Matthew, Origen gives a brief exposition of the parable of the weeds as well as his interpretation of the shining of the righteous. He states that the whole world is the field and that the weeds are evil opinions from the devil. At the end of the world, the angels of the Lord will harvest up all the weeds to purge the kingdom of Christ and remove all stumbling-blocks for the righteous. When Origen reaches verse 43, he gives a rather unique interpretation of the sun of righteousness. Instead of equating the sun to Christ, as is understood by most theologians, Origen equates the sun to the collective body of the righteous ones left after the world has been purged. He interprets Jesus words to mean that the righteous having become one light of the sun [shall] shine in the kingdom of their Father, and in another place, the righteous will shine not differently as formerly, but as one sun. Origen presses his point that at the end of the age,
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Clement of Alexandria, Exhortation to the Heathen, Chapter 11

the righteous will shine as one collective group and not as shining individuals that imitate the sun. He wraps up by making absolutely clear that this collective body of righteous ones will actually be the sun in Gods kingdom, and not just like it. The light of the disciples of Jesus shines before the rest of menand all become one sun. 6 It is not hard to see how Origen arrived at this interpretation, for the verse itself is a little ambiguous as to what the sun is referring to. It simply states that the righteous will shine like the sun. The word for like in Greek is hos which in this context means like or as in the comparative sense or as an adverb of manner. However, this word can easily be mistaken to function as an adverb equating one word to another. In this case, Origen may have interpreted the word hos to be an equating adverb rather than an adverb of comparison or manner, thereby concluding that the shining righteous will actually function collectively as the sun. Another reason why Origens interpretation of the sun is unlikely is because it would not make much sense in the context of Malachi 4:2, the only other verse in the Bible that compares righteousness to the sun. Malachi writes that the sun of righteousness will rise on those who revere [Gods] name. If Origens sun of righteousness is composed of the remaining righteous on earth themselves, it would be unable to shine upon the righteous. St. John Chrysostom (347-407) also mentions the sun of righteousness in his Eight Homilies Against the Jews. Chrysostom was a Greek Christian living in the 4th century who was priest at Antioch and eventually become priest of Constantinople in 387. He had a deep-seated hatred against the Jews, who mingled with the Christians at Antioch probably because of his disapproval of Jewish practices and non-Christian lifestyle, whether past or present.7 The feasts and religious customs that were still being observed by the Jews at Antioch were a disease to
Origen, Commentary on the Gospel of Matthew, Book X. James Parkes, The Conflict of the Church and the Synagogue: A Study in the Origins of Antisemitism (New York: JPS, 1934) 163-166.
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the church, according to Chrysostom, because the Christians were joining the Jews in these practices and he wished to drive this perverse custom from the Church right now.8 In his first Homily, he calls the Jewish people pitiable because they have rejected the light of the Sun of Justice. He says of the Jews: When so many blessings from heaven came into their hands, they thrust them aside and were at great pains to reject them. The morning Sun of Justice arose for them, but they thrust aside its rays and still sit in darkness. We, who were nurtured by darkness, drew the light to ourselves and were freed from the gloom of their error. The Jews were pitiable because they rejected the sun and chose to continue in darkness, that is, in their sinful practices, according to Chrysostom, whereas the Christians to whom Chrysostom was speaking accepted the light and were free from the darkness. Chrysostoms version of the sun of righteousness, therefore, acts as an agent that brings righteousness. The Bible often uses the metaphor of darkness and light to describe the righteous and the unrighteous. Those who accept Jesus as Savior are considered righteous and have entered into the light, whereas those who have not done so are still in darkness. Differing from Origen who equates the sun to the body of righteous ones, Chrysostom seems to interpret the sun as an agent that brings the quality of righteousness to those upon whom it shines. Those who reject the sun of righteousness continue living in darkness, while those who are willing to come into the light become righteous. This understanding of the role of the sun of righteousness, then, means that Chrysostom is referring to Christ as the sun, since in Christianity, Jesus Christ alone holds the power of making people righteous. Chrysostoms sun of righteousness has the property of bringing righteousness to those who accept its rays. Therefore, the sun is figuratively referring to Christ.

Saint John Chrysostom, Eight Homilies Against the Jews, Homily 1.

Perhaps one of the most important and widely published church fathers who has also written several comments concerning the sun of righteousness is Saint Augustine of Hippo (354430). Augustine seems to use the phrase with familiarity throughout his works, especially in the City of God. In Chapter 35, Augustine writes a commentary on the last three books of the Old Testament. However, he only mentions one sentence about the passage in Malachi 4: This day is the Day of Judgment, of which, if God will, we shall speak more fully in its own place. He clearly states that the day that is coming is the Day of Judgment. In Chapter 27, Augustine writes of the separation of the good and evil on the Day of Judgment. When this diversity between the rewards and punishments which distinguish the righteous from the wicked shall appear under that Sun of righteousness in the brightness of life eternal,a diversity which is not discerned under this sun which shines on the vanity of this life,there shall then be such a judgment as has never before been. In this context, the sun of righteousness works to differentiate the righteous from the unrighteous on the last day since the present sun does not distinguish between the two. The differentiation that Augustine describes probably comes about as a result of the sun of righteousness shining only on the righteous and not on the wicked. Augustine writes in chapter 16, There rises not the sun on the good and the evil, but the Sun of Righteousness protects the good alone. This takes place in the city of God which Augustine describes is for those saints who long to reach it. In Against the Epistle of Manichaeus, Called Fundamental, Augustine writes about the Manicheans, a religious group that started around the 3rd century and constructed their worldview on the duality of light and darkness. Augustine instructs Christians to deal with them gently, mainly stating reasons of ignorance on the part of the Manichaens. One piece of ignorance concerns the way Christians wish to gaze upon the sun.

Then Augustine qualifies the sun by explaining that it is not the physical sun but the sun of righteousness, which is equivalent to the true light the Apostle John mentions in his gospel. One last church father who worked and wrote in the 8th century is St. Bede the Venerable (672-735) who is best known for his Ecclesiastical History of England. In it, he mentions the sun of righteousness once, actually quoting the passage from Malachi 4:2. He explains that the sun of righteousness signifies Christ and that the Holy Spirit signifies the moon. the Sun of Righteousness, with healing in His wings, that is, our Lord Jesus, by the triumph of His Resurrection, dispelled all the darkness of death, and so ascending into Heaven, filled His Church, which is often signified by the name of the moon, with the light of inward grace, by sending down upon her His Spirit. Which order of our salvation the prophet had in his mind, when he said The sun was exalted and the moon stood in her order.9 The prophet whom St. Bede quotes is Isaiah, who writes: the light of the moon will be as the light of the sun, and the light of the sun will be sevenfold.10 Thus, St. Bede understood the sun of righteousness to be the exalted Son of God. This fact is significant to point out because Bede thus interprets Malachis day of the Lord to mean the time when Jesus died and ascended to heaven rather than the end of the world as it is often interpreted. The Son of God was exalted at the right hand of God when he ascended to heaven. The concept of the sun of righteousness was important and often mentioned in the teachings of the early church fathers. Although the interpretations and its application to Christians varied slightly from one church father to another, it was still regarded with importance and honor. This treatment of the metaphor continues on in medieval thought although it appears sparsely.

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St. Bede, Ecclesiastical History of England Book V, Chapter 21 Isaiah 30:26

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Medieval period Walter of Chatillon, a poet from the 12th century who is best known for his epic Alexandreid, uses the phrase in his Carmen III as a recurring chorus line. The exact line is De tenebris historiae processit sol justitiae, which translates as, The sun of righteousness advances from the darkness of history. The song itself is composed of some thirty-seven stanzas, all with varying meter and length. Hildegard of Bingen (1098-1179), a German abbess and prophetess, mentions the sun of righteousness in a letter to Elizabeth of Schnau. The topic of correspondence concerns the progress of mankinds relationship with God. She gives a brief history, stating that mankind was created by God, but was deceived by the devil and became proud and disobedient. However, God preserved mankind by giving strength to some to be resistant to deceit. This was the state of mankind until that time came in which the word of God was manifest as it is said: Beautiful in form beyond the sons of men.11 The word of God manifest refers to Christ whom John the apostle says is the Word. She then writes, Then the sun of righteousness appeared and illuminated men with good works in faith and in actThe original Latin for with good works includes the preposition cum which means that this phrase would be an ablative of quality or characteristic as opposed to means. Thus, Hildegard of Bingens sun of righteousness shines on those who are already righteous, that is, the men who have done good works both inwardly and outwardly, in faith and deeds. There does not seem to be as much teaching on the sun of righteousness in the medieval period. Although the sun of righteousness appears very scarcely in the medieval period, the writings of major theologians beginning with the Reformation more than make up for it.

Hildegard of Bingen, Epistolarium, ed. L. Van Acker, Corpus Christianorum, Continuatio Mediaevalis, vol.91A (Turnholt: Brepols, 1993), 456-57

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Theologians of the Reformation and Beyond When Martin Luther (1483-1546) emerged onto the Christian scene with his Ninety-Five Theses and caused the protestant movement to explode, there began a great shift in Christian theologys emphasis from works to grace. Up until the Protestant Reformation which began in 1517, the Catholic Church was becoming increasingly focused on ritualistic practices and established rules for absolving sins. Luther was one of the first men to speak out against these practices and thus became the main leader of Protestantism. In his Treatise on Good Works, Luther teaches on the topic of good works versus faith. He begins his treatise by explaining that good works done without faith, that is, without good conscience toward God, is nothing. He rebukes the attitude of some believers who continually carry out the traditional good works of their religion without faith, such as praying and fasting, and yet still considering them to be good works. Luther states that every one can note and tell for himself when he does what is good or what is not good; for if he finds his heart confident that it pleases God, the work is good, even if it were so small a thing as picking up a straw. In other words, a good work is one that is done in confidence of Gods pleasure, and not by rote practice. After he makes this point, Luther mentions the sun of righteousness in a quote from the Wisdom of Solomon: "We have wearied ourselves in the wrong way; and have gone through deserts, where there lay no way; but as for the way of the Lord, we have not known it, and the sun of righteousness rose not upon us.12 By quoting this verse in this context, Luther is saying that those who labor to observe all the outward symbols of Christianity still fail to receive the light of the sun of righteousness, since they have labored in the wrong way, that is, without faith. Luthers sun of righteousness, then, is a symbol of justification. It shines on the righteous

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The Catholic Bible, Wisdom of Solomon 5:6

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only. And justification, according to Luther, does not come solely from the outward observances of traditional good works, but requires a sincere faith. Among those who were influenced by Luthers teachings and leadership in the Protestant movement is John Calvin (1509-1564), another major leader in the Reformation. He writes a commentary on Malachi 4:2 and clearly states that the sun of righteousness refers to Christ. There is indeed no doubt but that Malachi calls Christ the Sun of righteousness.13 He qualifies this claim by quoting from the prophet Isaiah. The entire chapter of Isaiah 60 is composed of Gods words about Christ. In it, he says that Christ would shine as a light on the world to display Gods glory, and that the physical sun would no longer be needed, because the light of Christ would be the light for the world.14 Therefore, since this light metaphor is used consistently throughout the Old Testament to refer to Christ, Calvin continues this metaphor by interpreting the sun of righteousness as Christ, the light of the world. The interpretation of this verse can actually be taken in two ways: the light that Isaiah mentions could either metaphorically refer to Jesus first appearance on earth, or it could refer literally to Jesus shining glory when he returns on the Day of Judgment. Since Jesus was proclaimed by John the Baptist as the Light of the world, he was essentially proclaiming that the Old Testament prophecies pertaining to light had been fulfilled in Jesus presence on earth. Therefore, any biblical mention of light or the sun would refer to Jesus first appearance on earth. The second interpretation is related to the fact that many of the passages referring to light also refer to the Day of Judgment, such as the one in Malachi 4. Jesus himself says to his disciples that when he returns, the sun will be darkened, and the moon will not give its light, and the stars will fall from heaven, and the powers of the heavens will be shaken they will see the Son of

13 14

John Calvin, Commentary on Malachi, Chapter 4 See Isaiah 60:19-20

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Man coming on the clouds of heaven with power and great glory.15 Glory in scripture is often symbolized with light, as the pillar of fire was a symbol of Gods glory in Egypt.16 Thus, the Day of Judgment will occur when Jesus returns to earth and becomes the light of the world. Calvin evidently takes the former interpretation since he states that God has always given light to his Church, but Christ brought the full light, and, when therefore the heavens became at length opened and clear by means of the gospel, it was through the rising of the Sun Calvin not only speaks in the past tense, indicating that the light has already come, but he also connects the rising of the Sun to Jesus work in clearing the way to heaven. This isnt the only indication that Calvin believes the sun of righteousness to have risen when Jesus first arrived. Calvin continues his commentary by expounding on each key word. The sun is a metaphor of Jesus guidance for those who follow him. Christ performs towards us the office of a sun, not to guide our feet and hands as to what is earthly, but that he brings light to us, to show the way to heaven. Just as the physical sun gives guidance by lighting up the world, Jesus gives spiritual guidance through the gospel. In this statement, Calvin makes a clear contrast between the light as a metaphor and actual physical light, further emphasizing the fact that Jesus is the metaphorical sun of righteousness who provided the way to heaven when he lived on earth. Calvin further emphasizes the fact that this spiritual light cannot be separated from righteousness because Christ only becomes the sun to those who have been made righteous through him. Here Calvin agrees with Luther that the sun of righteousness shines only on the righteous. In one of Calvins prayer lectures, Calvin also implies that the sun of righteousness has the ability to make a distinction between the righteous and the unrighteous. He prays that

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Matthew 24:21 (English Standard Version) See Exodus 13:21-22 and Exodus 24:17

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God would set before our eyes thine only begotten Son as a Sun of righteousness to rule us and hast deigned to separate us from the whole world.17 The role of the sun of righteousness is twofold: to act as a ruling authority and to distinguish the righteous from the rest of the world. In the second half of the seventeenth century, William Beveridge lived and served as a respected preacher in England. At the age of twenty-three, Beveridge wrote a list of practical Christian resolutions for his own benefit now published as Private Thoughts Upon a Christian Life. In it, he dedicates a section to his thoughts on Christ as the sun of righteousness. He asserts that the sun of righteousness is a metaphor of Christ, explaining why human beings need metaphors for spiritual matters we learn primarily through our senses, and since spiritual matters cannot be felt through the senses, metaphors are useful in conveying these spiritual ideas. Right from the outset then, Beveridge makes it clear that the Sun is a metaphor and does not describe Christs literal shining. However, Beveridge takes a rather novel view of the role of the sun of righteousness. Differing from Luther and Calvin, Beveridge considers the sun to have double duty. The sun of righteousness heals those who are righteous, but it holds dire consequences for those who are not. He writes, It will be a terrible Day to those that shall obstinately refuse to walk in the light of it He shall arise to all, but to the other with such a scorching Heat as shall burn them up. The passage in Malachi does not specifically state how the evil are burned up, but Beveridge links the sun of righteousness to judgment, to the burning up of those who refuse to walk in the light of it. Not only does this Sun carry out judgment on the unrighteous, but its light is also invisible to them according to Beveridge. This invisibility would have to be in the spiritual sense since Beveridge has already established that the sun cannot be experienced with human senses
17

John Calvin, Commentaries on the Book of the Prophet Daniel, Prayer Lecture 40

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but is something spiritual. It is only logical to conclude that the sun of righteousness would then be invisible to those who reject Christ. Perhaps one of the most prolific writers and influential theologians of America was Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758), who lived and preached in the 18th century during the first Great Awakening. He was a firm believer of the teachings of Calvin, teaching that one cannot earn salvation through works. He taught that God was sovereign and extended his grace to whomever he chose, so that good works was not a cause but an effect, that is, that salvation is given and not earned. His theological perspective can be clearly illustrated in his teachings on the sun of righteousness. Throughout his voluminous works, Jonathan Edwards refers to the sun of righteousness quite often. There are several prevailing thoughts concerning the sun of righteousness. First, that it makes those it shines on to become righteous and purified; second, that those who receive the light become little suns themselves; Edwards also gives his opinion that the sun of righteousness will rise from the west and not from the east like the natural sun. The first and most significant concept from Edwards is that the sun of righteousness brings justification on those upon whom it shines, rather than the more common idea of the sun of righteousness shining only on those already righteous. In his notes on the Bible, Edwards writes that the soul, the more it is fitted for Christ, is more and more emptied of itself that it may be filled with Christ so the soul sees more and more of its own sinfulness, and vileness, and misery, that it may be swallowed up in the rays of the Sun of righteousness.18 Edwards is describing here the concept of unmerited grace, namely, that no one can, by any amount of goodness, earn the right to have the sun of righteousness shine on them. In fact, Edwards compares a Christians conversion to a lunar eclipse. The moon gets darker the closer it gets to
18

Jonathan Edwards, Notes on the Bible, Leviticus to Deuteronomy

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the sun and eventually, its light becomes swallowed up or hidden by the sun. In the same way, Edwards states, we must come to Christ as wholly sinful and miserable, dark and devoid of any light. This teaching keeps to his theological view of grace over works. Edwards also presents the unique idea that those who receive the light of the sun of righteousness become little suns themselves. The soul of a saint receives light from the Sun of righteousness, in such a manner, that its nature is changed, and it becomes properly a luminous thing; not only does the sun shine in the saints, but they also become little suns, partaking of the nature of the fountain of their light.19 These must be figurative little suns since Edwards says this transformation takes place at conversion. It is a transformation of ones nature, becoming a little replica of the original sun of righteousness with a like divine power and energy in them. This is a unique interpretation since the major theologians previous to Edwards only taught that the sun of righteousness alone provides the light. Edwards, however, takes it a step further to show that those who receive the light do not simply reflect it but are transformed to become like the sun of righteousness itself. Edwards makes one other small though significant point concerning the sun of righteousness. He believes that it will rise from the West that is, America, -- contrary to the normal order of the natural sun. By this, Edwards is talking about the end times when Christ returns and becomes the sun for the new heaven and new earth. The sun after it is risen ascends up to the midst of heaven, and then at that end of its race descends again to the earth; so Christ when he rose from the grave ascended up to the height of heaven, and far above all heavens, but at the end of the gospel-day will descend again to the earth.20 The sun of righteousness, now in heaven, arose when Christ first walked the earth, and will descend upon the earth again during

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Jonathan Edwards, Religious Affections, Part 3 Chapter 7 Jonathan Edwards, Notes on the Bible, Psalms

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the end times. And this sun will descend on the West first. He comes to this conclusion from Isaiah 9:9, drawing parallels between the ships from Tarshish, a major Mediterranean trade port, and the Western continents of Europe and America. Adding to this belief that the sun of righteousness would descend on the West first is the fact that the First Great Awakening was occurring in the New England colonies and such a major revival in the church may have helped to convince Edwards of the possibly imminent return of Christ. The last of the major theologians after the Reformation that I will examine is Charles Spurgeon (1834-1892). Spurgeon delivered a sermon on November 12th, 1871 on the topic of the sun of righteousness. He equates Jesus as the Sun, using Psalm 19:4-6 as his main argument. Spurgeon explains that the Lord has set up a tent for the Sun, that is, Jesus, where he sits after resurrecting and ascending to heaven. Thus, according to Spurgeon, the sun of righteousness arose on the day of Christs resurrection and has been shining ever since in heaven. It will then descend on the earth again on the last day. Spurgeon explains that, like the natural sun, the influence of the sun of righteousness reaches the entire world. He rules in providence over all people, whether they believe in him or not, and if men do not accept the gospel, yet they are affected by it, in some way or other.21 In other words, this sun of righteousness shines equally on believers and unbelievers alike without distinction. Its effects, however, are different depending on each individuals reception. Christ is Master, and if you bring the gospel before his enemy, he will be made to feel its power, either so as to yield to it a willing submission, or else to be condemned by it. The idea of judgment and condemnation is once again brought up here. Although the influence of Christ the Sun reaches everyone, Spurgeon clarifies that each individual has the right to choose whether to accept or reject him, reaping the consequences of the choice he makes.
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Charles Spurgeon, The Sun of Righteousness, Sermon on Nov. 12th, 1871

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This last point makes the ultimate difference between Spurgeons exposition and those of the theologians preceding him. Both Luther and Calvin believed that the sun of righteousness only shines on the righteous and that only the righteous can see it and feel its warmth. Edwards taught that the sun of righteousness brings justification to those upon whom it shines. Spurgeon, however, based on his interpretation of Psalm 19:6 and the phrase nothing is hidden from its heat, taught that the Sun shines on all equally, but that its effects would be in consequence to each individuals reactions to it. Having looked at the various interpretations and usages of the phrase sun of righteousness throughout church history, one common thread is evident throughout the nineteen centuries in which this phrase has survived the agreement that Christ is the Sun of righteousness. This interpretation, then, can be applied in understanding the meaning and origin of the motto of Rutgers.

Utrechts Motto In order to thoroughly discuss the history of the Rutgers motto, it is necessary to start with the University of Utrecht. But first, an explanation of the Dutch education system with regard to illustrious schools is in order. Illustrious schools flourished in the Netherlands in the late sixteenth to early seventeenth centuries. They were designed to be a type of preparatory school for the university, bridging the gap between the Latin schools and a full-fledged university and offering instruction in all the traditional subjects of a university, but without the ability to grant degrees. The purpose of these illustrious schools was to provide a more affordable and accessible opportunity for higher education in local towns.

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The city of Utrecht turned Protestant in the 16th century, when many churches were being established throughout Europe out of the Reformation. The churches based in the Netherlands were called the Dutch Reformed Church and followed the teachings of John Calvin. The Dutch Reformed Church wished to establish schools and seminaries for the purpose of educating their children in the theology and values of the Dutch Church and to train future ministers in the Netherlands. Since Utrecht was unable at first to obtain a university charter, an illustrious school was founded there in 1634, and it became a full university two years later on the 20th of March, 1636. The motto of the University of Utrecht is Sol iustitiae illustra nos Sun of righteousness, shine upon us. The motto dates all the way back to 1634, when the illustrious school at Utrecht was founded. Evidence comes from the fact that the schools first professor of classical studies, Justus Liraeus, used the motto in his inaugural speech, and the phrase comes up again in the schools opening ceremony. The motto addresses the sun of righteousness, who according to John Calvin, is Christ. Since the Dutch Reformed Church adhered to the teachings of Calvin, they would have understood whom they were addressing. The word illustra is also in the imperative mood. Thus, this motto would be a prayer addressed to Christ. Roelof van den Broek, the first professor of classical studies at Utrecht University, suggests that the motto is actually addressing God the Father and not Christ.22 He gives Psalm 84:11 as the verse from which Utrechts motto was derived: For the Lord God is a sun and shield... Since the university seal contains the shield of the town of Utrecht inside the sun, Van den Broek believes that this verse is the one Utrecht used in creating their motto. The verse from the Psalm specifically states that

Roelof van den Broek, Hy leeret ende beschuttet. Over het wapen en de zinspreuk van de Universiteit Utrecht (1995)

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the Lord is the sun, and not Christ specifically. However, the fact that the motto contains sol iustitiae is evidence that Malachi 4:2 is equally a source. Since Calvin firmly taught that Christ was the sun of righteousness, the church in the Netherlands would follow suit in equating the sun to Christ. William Elliot Griffis, an 1869 Rutgers graduate, wrote an article in The Christian Intelligencer, explaining how Utrechts motto is used as a prayer. The Eighty Years war with Spain was just about to come to an end when the illustrious school in Utrecht was established. The motto, then, was firstly a prayer for vindication from their past revolution against Spain, and that Christ would look favorably upon this new republic. Secondly, it was a prayer for guidance in the future. The Republic of the United Netherlands knew that a republic cannot endure without both elementary and advance education.23 Thus, Utrechts motto is a suitable prayer for future success in a time of revolution and new beginnings. The use of the word illustra for shine is a rather curious choice. As noted above, St. Jerome translates the word shine in Matthew 13:43 of the Vulgate as fulgebunt. Utrechts deliberate use of the word illustra instead of the word found in the Vulgate seems to be a play on the universitys origin as an illustrious school. It not only makes for a more pleasant-sounding motto, but the motto certainly would also carry more history. Another possible though less credible reason for using the word illustra could stem from a desire to avoid association with the context of judgment found in Malachi and Matthew. The word itself can be translated not only as shine but also as illuminate, the latter of which can also mean to be intellectually enlightened. Since this motto was created for a school and was meant to be a prayer, using the word illustra would make a more suitable prayer for a school:

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William Elliot Griffis, The Motto of Rutgers College a Prayer, The Christian Intelligencer, 8 Nov. 1916

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Sun of Righteousness, illuminate us. It is a prayer addressed to Christ for truth in their pursuit of knowledge.

Rutgers Motto In about another century and a half, the Dutch Reformed Church in America would begin the same process of establishing a university for the education of ministers. After obtaining a charter, the school was first called Queens College. The motto of Queens College, now Rutgers University, is Sol iustitiae et occidentem illustra which translates as, Sun of righteousness, shine also on the West. It was adopted by Rev. John H. Livingston from the motto of the University of Utrecht. Evidence for this fact comes from the letter which Utrecht University sent to Rutgers for its one hundred fiftieth anniversary celebration. It states, It was he, too, who gave you your motto a motto derived with but a slight alteration from that of our own university.24 Since Rutgers originated as a college of the Dutch Reformed Church, this motto is consistent with the values of the church as well as the University of Utrecht from which Rev. Livingston graduated and which Rutgers looked to for guidance.

Rev. John H. Livingston and the Dutch Reformed Church Rev. John H. Livingstons ministry in the Dutch Reformed Church served as a catalyst in the establishment of Queens College. Rev. John H. Livingston was born in the year 1746 in Poughkeepsie, NY. He received a bachelors degree from Yale University and had originally intended to study law. However, the divisions and factions that

Joseph Volney Lewis, ed. The Celebration of the One Hundred and Fiftieth Anniversary of Its Founding as Queens College, 1766-1916 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University, 1917) 334.

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were happening in the Dutch Church at the time laid an impression on his heart and urged him to turn towards ministry. Since there were no seminaries in America where he might study to become a Dutch minister, he went to Holland from 1766-1770 to study theology at the University of Utrecht. Livingston earned his degree of Doctor of Divinity, and then accepted a call to be the pastor of the Dutch Church in NY. Back in NY, Rev. Livingston played an important role in unifying the two factions of the Dutch Church in America the Coetus and the Conferentie. The conflict of interests between these two groups was a major cause of the slow progress in establishing a university for the education of Dutch ministers in America. The Coetus wished to gain independent authority to confer degrees and ordain ministers in America. They wished to establish a western version of the University of Utrecht in order to provide a Christian education for their children and to train ministers for the church without sending them all the way to Holland. After much effort, they had managed to obtain a second charter for Queens College in 1770, the first one not being completely satisfactory to the Board of Trustees. The opposing party, the Conferentie, wished to remain dependent on and loyal to the authority of the Dutch Church in Holland. However, in 1771, Rev. Livingston called together an assembly of the key leaders from both factions and presented to them a new Constitution of the Dutch Reformed Church, which was unanimously agreed upon and approved of in Holland as well. Thus, he succeeded in healing the division of the church, the goal which had induced him to enter into ministry in the first place, and an American Dutch Church was formed. After this unification, progress on the establishment of Queens College was able to proceed. The motto of Rutgers University may have played a role in the negotiations between the two parties. According to Sig Scheier, Livingstons use of et occidentem helped to end the

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conflict between the Coetus and Conferentie parties. This slight variation to the motto would have provided a connection with the University of Utrecht and helped to convince the Conferentie party of their continued submission or indebtedness to the church in Holland. This would explain the slight variation in the college motto, Sun of righteousness, shine also on the West. When compared to the Utrecht motto, the motto of Rutgers seems most appropriately chosen, as the circumstances surrounding its founding are remarkably similar to those of Utrechts founding. Rev. Livingston had just returned from Holland and managed to reconcile the two factions of the Dutch Church, creating a classis in America and becoming independent from the Old World Church. It is another revolution in a sense, a declaration of independence. It seems most appropriate then, to follow Utrechts example in adopting a motto for the new university that is also a prayer for justification and future success. One of the conditions of the Classis of Amsterdam for approving the American classis was that an educational institution be founded. Thus, Rev. Livingston not only reconciled the division in the church, but he also helped to facilitate the progress towards establishing Queens College. The Board of Trustees sought Rev. Livingston for position of president as early as 1772, but he declined, choosing to stay at the Dutch church in NY. Although he declined the presidency, it is evident that Livingston had dealings with Rutgers as early as 1771, when he presented the new constitution of the Dutch Church. This fact is an important asset to the dating of the Rutgers motto.

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When the Motto Was Adopted Since the adoption of the motto for Queens College is attributed to Livingston, even by Utrecht herself, the earliest that the motto could have been adopted is 1771. Although the first university charter was received in 1766, there is no permanent record of this first charter, and the motto is not contained in the second charter. It would have been impossible for the motto to be in the first charter, since Livingston did not return from Utrecht until 1770. On the other hand, the latest the motto could have been adopted is 1776. There is an original copy of the diploma of a student named Simeon DeWitt who graduated in that year, complete with the Queens College Seal bearing the Latin motto on it. Thus, we have physical evidence of the motto appearing as early as 1776. However, the earliest record of a graduate from Queens College is Matthew Leydt in 1774, and the following year, a much larger class of twelve graduated. Therefore, it would be very likely that the motto could already have been in use in 1774, and certainly much more necessary for the diplomas of the large graduating class in 1775. Therefore, the motto is almost certainly to date from between 1771 and 1776, with a very likely chance of its being in use as early as 1774. Within the history of Rutgers alone, the motto has taken a life of its own in heated debates concerning its Latin construction and correct translation. Much of the content of these debates have fortunately been preserved in the Targum, the Rutgers student newpaper. In 1870, Gustavus Fischer claimed that the Latin motto would have made no sense in Ancient Rome. He wrote a satirical dialogue between Cicero and Sartor (nickname for a Latin professor named John Taylor at Rutgers) which poked fun at the poor use of Latin. He argues that justice is not an

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attribute of the sun, the light of the sun cannot be invoked according to pleasure, and in classic Latin, knowledge is not associated with enlightenment, but with the night owl of Minerva. Fischers boldness evidently caused an uproar among faculty members, but no effort was made to defend the motto until 1917 when William E. Griffis wrote an article in the Alumni Monthly. He agrees that such a grouping of Latin words would not be heard of in Ancient Rome, but he pointed out the fact that the writers of the motto would not have consulted Ciceronian Latin but rather, the Latin Vulgate which was the Bible read in Europe at that time. Griffis makes the point that the phrase sun of righteousness comes straight from the Hebrew Bible, and that St. Jerome translated the Hebrew literally. Despite Griffis excellent article exploring the historical context of the motto, confusion still arose more than thirty years later over the precise translation of the motto. A heated debate raged in the Letters to the Editors column of the Targum in 1951. Finally, two attempts were made to offer the official translation of the motto. The first was by Charles Barker in the April 1951 edition, who offered, Sun of Justice, shine on the West. However, it turns out to have been an inaccurate translation of sol iustitiae and there was no attempt at translating the added word et. The following month, Richard P. McCormick, the University historian, gave a brief word study of the original Hebrew and ended up with Sun of Righteousness, shine also on the West. Even a phrase as tiny as this and with such an obscure origin has managed to not only survive through numerous centuries, but also to remain a lively topic of discussion and analysis even in the twenty-first century. However, the concept of the sun of righteousness has not only appeared in literary and academic circles, but has manifested itself in many forms of artistic expression as well.

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Artistic expressions One of the oldest artistic expressions of the sun of righteousness with healing in its wings is the ancient symbol of the winged sun-disk. This symbol apparently originated from Assyria and ancient Egypt, thus existing even before Malachi. The Assyrians used it as a symbol of their chief god, Ashur, who is depicted in a relief as carrying an arrow with the winged sun disk behind him. The ancient Egyptians used it as a symbol of their sun god. It is often found above the entrances to the temples of the sun god. The Phoenicians also used this symbol to represent their own version of the sun-god, Baal. The Hebrews themselves adopted this winged sun-disk imagery for their own use as seen in King Hezekiahs seal.25 In Greek mythology, the god Hermes is often depicted carrying a messenger stick with a version of the winged sun at the tip. Thus, the winged sun disk was used by many Near Eastern civilizations as a symbol of power and divinity. The fact that this symbol of a winged sun existed in the Near East before Malachis time and spread to several different cultures makes it most likely that Malachi was evoking this image of the sun disk in his prophecy. Although there is no sun god in Christianity, the Christian God is often compared with light and the sun. Since the winged sun disk symbolized both divinity and power, and since many cultures surrounding the Jewish people at the time were using this symbol for their own gods, Malachis description would have probably evoked this symbol in the minds of its readers at the time. There also exists a famous piece of artwork directly depicting Malachis sun of righteousness Albrecht Drers wood-block painting, Sol Justitiae. Drer was a German

See Frank Moore Cross, King Hezekiahs Seal Bears Phoenician Imagery, Biblical Archaeology Review March-April, 1999

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painter born in the late 15th century. Drer spent the early years of his career working in the German art tradition but was open to Renaissance ideas and techniques. He worked mainly with woodblock engravings in Germany. Later he would travel to Italy to study and become greatly influenced by Italian and classical art. Sol Justitiae was created in 1499, before he went on his travels to Italy, so its style looks similar to his earlier wood-block paintings, such as the Apocalypse series. In Sol Justitiae, also called The Judge, Drer depicts a man holding a sword in his right hand and a set of scales in his left. He is sitting on the back of a fierce-looking lion, and a halo of light shines behind his head. There are several clues that help to confirm that the man depicted is Christ, albeit in an untraditional representation. First, the halo of light beaming from behind his head is not only typical of Renaissance religious art but emphasizes the title of the work. Second, Drer paints eyes that are blazing like fire. This phrase is used to describe the Son of God in Revelation 2:18: These are the words of the Son of God, whose eyes are like blazing fire and whose feet are like burnished bronze. Drer also paints the same blazing eyes on Christ in his Apocalypse series. Third, the lion on which the man is sitting most likely refers to the Lion of Judah, another name for Christ found in Revelations 5:5: Do not weep! See, the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the Root of David, has triumphed. All three of these symbols help to confirm the identity of the man in the painting. The addition of the sword and scale illustrate the meaning of Sol Justitiae, which, in Drers interpretation, carries a spirit of judgment. Both items are common symbols of judgment throughout the Bible. The symbol of the scale, in specific, can be traced back to Daniel 5:27 when the prophet Daniel is interpreting the

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supernatural writing on Belshazzars wall. One of the words meant: You have been weighed on the scales and found wanting a warning of impending judgment. The collection of symbols that Drer used in this piece communicates his interpretation of sol justitiae which focuses on judgment. One of the most amazing representations of the sun of righteousness is found on a gold coin, a half-noble, from the Spanish Netherlands. It dates from ca. 1600-1602 and has images on both the front and back. The front depicts a king standing on a ship and holding a sword and shield. The sun of righteousness is engraved on the back. This coin is significant because not only is it from the Spanish Netherlands around the time when Utrecht University was born, but it also contains similar subject material to the university. Both contain a shield and a sun. Perhaps the gold coin also contributed to the creative idea of Utrechts seal. Not only have there been visual representations of the sun of righteousness, but there have also been attempts on this subject in musical compositions, of which Rutgers contributed two. The first attempt to set the Rutgers motto to music was by an 1856 Rutgers graduate named William Rankin Duryee. Fortunately, the original manuscript of the song has been preserved. The song was written for the very first Charter Day Celebration at Rutgers. It is entitled Charter Day Hymn and sung to the tune of Meribah. The lyrics of the verse are very telling of Duryees understanding of the history and meaning behind the motto. Duryee used the motto in his song as a prayer for guidance and truth. The first and fourth stanzas are as follows: O God, to Whom our fathers came, When here they lit the glowing flame To guide the path of youth

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They wrought with Thee to give success. Today their children praise and bless Thy faithfulness and truth. . O Sun of Righteousness, still glow Upon our West, to make us know More of Thy truth divine; Here lead Thy children as of yore, Enriched with Wisdoms noblest lore To own their treasures Thine. In more recent years, Robert Moevs, a Rutgers music professor beginning 1964, wrote a work entitled Et Occidentem Illustra. This work was written in celebration of the two hundredth anniversary of Rutgers and first performed on Feb. 24, 1967 by the Boston Symphony and the Rutgers University Choir. Robert Moevs grew up right around the time when avant-garde compositional techniques such as serialism took center stage in the musical scene. Moevs did not completely use serialism in his compositions, since he did not believe in atonality. Rather, he combined the use of a tonal center with serialism to create a new style which he termed systematic chromaticism. It was in this style that Et Occidentem Illustra was composed. The piece is written for mixed chorus and orchestra, and contains an arrhythmic speaking part and the liberal use of harmonics in the strings section. The actual lyrics do not consist solely of the motto. Moevs includes texts from the commission of Theodore Frelinghuysen in1755 and from Dantes The Divine Comedy. Since this work was written for Rutgers two hundredth anniversary, the lyrics take on an exhortational tone. For example, the last line the chorus sings

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is, You were not formed to live like unto brutes but to press on toward virtue and knowledge. It is a relatively large work lasting about twenty minutes and a great tribute to Rutgers. These are only a few examples of the vast amount of artwork that bears testimony to the extensive influence the sun of righteousness has had on the artistic world. The image appears in all time periods and in all sorts of contexts from ancient temples to the Vatican ceiling to organization logotypes. In most cases, its usage is kept in a religious context and thus, continues to extend its religious heritage. It can be said without a doubt that the motto of Rutgers is full of history. There is at least twenty centuries of history behind Sol iustitiae et occidentem illustra not counting the winged sun-disks of ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt. Malachi probably did not realize how far reaching his prophecy would become after his lifetime. The image of Christ as the sun of righteousness seems to have been a rather important metaphor throughout church history beginning with the early church fathers and continuing through the centuries to Charles Spurgeon and beyond. Even today, the metaphor is still being preached on. John Piper, a prominent pastor who ministers in Minnesota has dedicated an entire sermon to this metaphor. The image has become so farreaching that it has even had a life in the artistic world. Although the motto itself consists of only five words, it bears direct reference all at once to the Bible, to the University of Utrecht, and to the history of Western civilization on account of its Latin heritage. If ever a motto fulfilled its purpose, the Rutgers motto certainly does so with distinction. Unfortunately, not all mottos are as eloquent or as flawless as the Rutgers motto. The Greek motto of Douglass College (founded 1918) that is inscribed on the campus welcome sign, for instance, has two distinct mistakes in it. The accent marks in Sophia kai Sophrosune seem to have gone awry. The grave accent mark over sophia should be an acute, and the accent mark

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over sophrosune is missing altogether. While it is a well-meant motto, perhaps the mistakes will stand as an indicator of the deplorable condition of the study of the classics in our time and will provide an impetus to rediscover the lost art of classical language.

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Bibliography: Augustine. City of God. New York: The Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890 Augustine. The Writings Against the Manichaeans and Against the Donatists. New York: The Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1890. Barker, Charles. Academic Confusion Prevails In Controversy Over Motto. The Targum. 20 April, 1961. Bede. Ecclesiastical History of England. Book V, Chapter 21. Beveridge, William. Private Thoughts Upon a Christian Life. London: John Smith,1712 Boxer, Charles Ralph. The Dutch seaborne empire, 1600-1800. Taylor & Francis, 1977. 155160. Breasted, James Henry. Ancient Times, a History of the Early World: An Introduction to the Study of Ancient History and the Career of Early Man. Ginn and Co., 1916. 49-50. Cahill, M. Europe Gold. M. Cahill & Company. 29 Oct. 2004. 14 Apr. 2009 <http://cahillcompany.com/_wsn/page8.html> Calvin, John. Commentary on Daniel. Chapter 8. Calvin, John. Commentary on Malachi. Chapter 4. The Catholic Bible. Wisdom of Solomon. Chapter 5. Chrysostom, Eight Homilies Against the Jews. Homily 1, Clement of Alexandria. Exhortation to the Heathen. Chapter 11. Cross, Frank Moore. King Hezekiahs Seal Bears Phoenician Imagery. Biblical Archaeology Review. March-April, 1999. Demarest, William H.S. A History of Rutgers College. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers College, 1924.

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Edwards, Jonathan. Religious Affections. Part 3, Chapter 7. Edwards, Jonathan. The Works of Jonathan Edwards Vol. 1. Thoughts on the Revival of Religion in New England. Carlisle, PA: 1995. Edwards, Jonathan. The Works of Jonathan Edwards Vol. 2. Notes on the Bible, Psalms. Carlisle, PA: 1995. Edwards, Jonathan. The Works of Jonathan Edwards Vol. 2. Notes on the Bible, Leviticus to Deuteronomy. Carlisle, PA: 1995. English Standard Version Bible. Wheaton, IL: Crossway Bibles, 2001. Frijhoff, Willem, Marijke Spies, Wiep van Bunge. Dutch Culture in a European Perspective: 1650, hard-won unity. Assen : Royal Van Gorcum ; New York : Palgrave Macmillan, 2004. 243-255. Griffis, William Elliot. The Motto of Rutgers College a Prayer. The Christian Intelligencer. 8 Nov. 1916 Griffis, William Elliot. The Origin, Meaning and History of Our Motto. Rutgers Alumni Quarterly. January, 1917: 57-63. Hildegard of Bingen, Epistolarium, ed. L. Van Acker, Corpus Christianorum, Continuatio Mediaevalis, vol.91A (Turnholt: Brepols, 1993), 456-57, ep.201r King, James. Recent Discoveries on the Temple Hill at Jerusalem. 4th ed. London: Religious Tract Society, 1891. 58-65. Lewis, Joseph Volney, ed. The Celebration of the One Hundred and Fiftieth Anniversary of Its Founding as Queens College, 1766-1916. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University, 1917. Loree, L.F. John H. Livingston, D.D., S.T.P., President of Queens College, 1810-1825.

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Rutgers Alumni Monthly. Feb. 1923. Luther, Martin. Treatise on Good Works. Chapter VI. McCormick, Richard P. Letter. The Targum. 1 May 1951 Moevs, Robert. Et Occidentem Illustra. New York: Piedmont Music Company, Inc., 1967. New American Bible. World Catholic Press: 1990. Origen. Commentary on Matthew. Book X. Parkes, James. The Conflict of the Church and the Synagogue: A Study in the Origins of Antisemitism. New York: JPS, 1934. Rutgers Visual Identity System. 10 Nov. 2008. Rutgers University. 14 Apr. 2009 <http://identity.rutgers.edu/index.php> Sig Scheier. Sol Justitiae Is Poor Latin But Fine Motto. The Targum. 20 May 1949. Spurgeon, Charles. The Sun of Righteousness. 12 Nov. 1871. Van den Broek, Roelof. Hy leeret ende beschuttet: Over het wapen en de zinspreuk van de Universiteit Utrecht. University of Utrecht: 1995. Van Miert, Dirk. The Long Life of the Humanist Tradition: The Amsterdam Athenaeum Illustre in the Golden Age. History of Universities Vol. XXI/2. Ed. Mordechai Feingold. Oxford University Press: 2005. 1-76. Wall, John Patrick, Harold E. Pickersgill. History of Middlesex County, New Jersey, 1664-1920. New York: Lewis Publishing Company Inc.,1921. 185-187. Walter of Chatillon. Carmen III.

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