Neural Crest. The neural tube is formed when the lips of the neural groove (ectoderm) fuse.

The brain and

spinal cord develop from the walls of the tube, the ventricular system from the hollow ependyma-lined cavity.
Some cells from the crest of the neural groove do not participate in the fusion and end up lying alongside the
neural tube: these neural crest cells migrate away from the tube and eventually form most of the neurons
and glia of the peripheral nervous system. Neural crest cells give rise to the cells of the dorsal root (spinal)
ganglia and the primary sensory ganglia of the cranial nerves, as well as the cells of autonomic ganglia, for
example, the sympathetic chain ganglia. In each lateral wall of the tube, a groove called the sulcus limitans
(not labeled) divides the walls into an alar plate dorsally and a basal plate ventrally. In both the brainstem
and spinal cord, the alar plate gives rise to sensory nuclei and the basal plate to motor nuclei.
Brainstem Nuclei. The development of the fourth ventricle causes the displacement of the alar plate from a
dorsal position to a more lateral position, but the general rule still holds: the alar plate gives rise to sensory
structures (for example: section A, the gracile and cuneate nuclei; section B*, the solitary and cochlear
nuclei) and the basal plate to motor structures (for example: section B* the hypoglossal and vagal motor
nuclei). In addition, the alar plate gives rise to the cerebellum, the inferior olivary nucleus, the substantia
nigra and the nucleus of the superior colliculus. Section B* is at the same level as B, but at a later stage of
development.
Differentiation of early neurons in the developing spinal cord. (Image courtesy of Dr. H. Roelink, Dept. of
Biological Structure, University of Washington). These photographs show cross-sections of the developing
spinal cord in chick embryo. The canal centrally is all that remains of the lumen of the neural tube; cells in
the walls of the tube proliferate to give rise to the gray matter of the spinal cord. Immediately below the
developing cord is the circular profile of the notochord; it releases the signaling molecule Sonic Hedgehog
(stained red in panels A, B, and C) which induces the formation of the floor plate. The floor plate (the
triangular region in the ventral midline of the spinal cord in panels A, B, and C - see schematic in Frame 5
also) in turn becomes a source of Sonic Hedgehog and is therefore also labeled red. The green fluorescent
cells are cells whose distribution in the developing spinal cord is dependent on Sonic Hedgehog. Green cells
in Panel A will differentiate into several types of interneurons, which are excluded from the ventral spinal
cord by Sonic Hedgehog released from the notochord and floor plate. Green cells in panels B and C are
motor neurons induced in the ventral neural tube by Sonic Hedgehog. Panel D shows motor neurons in red
and motor neuron precursor cells destined for the anterior (ventral) horn in green.
Cerebral Lobes, Computer Graphic. Lateral (top left), dorsal (top right), antero-medial (bottom left) and
ventral (bottom right) views of a human brain reconstructed from 1mm-thick serial coronal sections through a
fixed but unstained cadaver brain. The frontal (aqua), parietal (green), occipital (yellow) and temporal
(magenta) lobes each underlie the cranial bone of the same name. The most prominent structures visible on
the medial surface are the cingulate gyrus (red), corpus callosum (the large bundle of fibers interconnecting
the two hemispheres), the diencephalon (thalamus and hypothalamus) and parts of the brainstem (midbrain,
pons and medulla). In the ventral view, the olfactory and optic nerves, the optic chiasm and the cerebellum
are visible in the intact brain.
De mediane doorsnede van de hersenen (vlg fig 8-22 in Dyce);
Ventral View of the Cerebral Hemispheres. Anterior (rostral) is at the top. Frontal and temporal lobes are
well-displayed in this view. The floor of the hypothalamus (tuber cinereum) is located between the
mammillary bodies (nuclei) and the optic chiasm. A small portion of the infundibulum is present, attached to
the tuber cinereum. Many of the cranial nerves are easy to identify: each olfactory tract lying adjacent to the
gyrus rectus, the optic nerve and chiasm rostral to the hypothalamus, the oculomotor nerves emerging from
the interpeduncular fossa, the trigeminal nerves emerging from the pons, and the abducens, facial and
vestibulocochlear nerves arising at the junction of the pons and medulla. Rootlets of the glossopharyngeal
and vagus nerves arise lateral to the olive, and the hypoglossal nerve arises medial to the olive, but none of
these can be easily distinguished here.
Het corpus callosum (van boven) dat je zelf in het werkcollege 1.5.2.b. bloot legt bij
de preparatie van de kattenhersenen.
Corpus Callosum, Dorsal View. The corpus callosum has been exposed from above. The occipital lobe is to
the right. The splenium has an arrow through it to show the course of the crossing fibers between the
occipital lobes on each side. This U-shaped bundle is sometimes called the forceps major -- not labeled
here. A similar, smaller bundle (forceps minor) is in the region of the genu where fibers interconnect the
rostral parts of the frontal lobes. The dissection reveals the lower bank of the calcarine fissure in the occipital
lobe: this is the location of the part of the primary visual cortex that represents the upper contralateral visual
field.
Spinal Cord Meninges. (Image modified from H.D. Patton et al., Introduction to Basic Neurology, with
permission of W.B. Saunders Co., 1976). The meninges in this schematic are color-coded: dura (green),
arachnoid (violet), and pia (yellow). The dura and arachnoid have been partially reflected to show underlying
structures. The pia is closely applied to the cord itself and cannot be easily removed. Extensions of the pia
form the denticulate ligament, which anchors the cord to the dural sheath laterally. At the caudal end of the
cord (the conus medullaris), the filum terminale (another pial structure-not shown) anchors the cord to the
caudal end of the dural sheath. The 3 meningeal layers extend out to the dorsal root ganglia, where they
fuse imperceptibly with the connective tissue layers associated with the spinal nerves (epineurium,
perineurium and endoneurium). The dorsal root (spinal) ganglia are located in the intervertebral foramen
(not shown).
Spinal Cord In Situ. (Image modified from H.D. Patton et al., Introduction to Basic Neurology, with
permission of Saunders, 1976). The spinal cord is in the vertebral canal. Note as in the previous frame the
presence of an epidural space between the dura and bone, filled with fat and vessels. The vessels
communicate with the segmental circulation, and the epidural space forms a warm, moist predilection site for
metastases. The dura and epineurium (both green) are continuous at the dorsal root (or spinal) ganglion.
The arachnoid layer is represented here by a somewhat obscured dotted line; it surrounds the subarachnoid
space (violet). The pia (yellow) covers the posterior (dorsal) and anterior (ventral) roots of the spinal nerve.
Trace through the formation of the spinal nerve, its posterior (dorsal) and anterior (ventral) rami (not
labeled), and the structures associated with the sympathetic nervous system (rami communicantes, the
sympathetic chain and the sympathetic collateral ganglion).
Spinal Cord Segments. (Image modified from H.D. Patton et al., Introduction to Basic Neurology, with
permission of W.B. Saunders Co., 1976). The spinal cord develops as a segmental structure, as do the
myotomes. From the left and right sides of each cord segment emerges an anterior (ventral) and posterior
(dorsal) root; these combine to form a single spinal nerve at each segmental level (one on each side). The
roots are in the subarachnoid space. The nerves arise in the intervertebral foramina. Early in development
the spinal cord segments and corresponding vertebrae are side-by-side, but the vertebrae grow at a faster
rate, with the result that the cord ends at approximately lumbar vertebra L2 (or the disc above or below). For
this reason spinal taps are done well below this level, to avoid puncturing the cord. The lumbar and sacral
roots that are present caudally are pushed aside by the entering needle and not injured. Note that the roots,
from rostral to caudal, progressively travel longer distances caudally before exiting the vertebral canal. This
is due to the cord ending at vertebral level L2. It accounts for the fact that a patient may present with
symptoms of root damage that are caudal to the level of the injured vertebra, especially in the lumbar
vertebral region, where, for example, a slipped disc can injure sacral roots causing pain referred to the
sacral distribution in the leg.
Posterior (=dorsal) View of Brainstem. The forebrain in this specimen is cut just off the horizontal plane
through the frontal lobe at the top, and then in the coronal plane through the temporal lobe (see Frame 8 in
the Cerebellum chapter for orientation). The cerebellum has been removed to reveal the paired superior and
inferior colliculi (roof of midbrain), the cut surface of the three cerebellar peduncles (superior, middle, and
inferior), the floor of the fourth ventricle, and the vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII). The brachium of the inferior
colliculus leads to the medial geniculate nucleus of the thalamus. The thalamus itself is also cut in both the
horizontal and coronal planes because of the cut indicated above.