INDEX

Index Objective Study Area Soil analysis 1. Soil Sampling Technique 2. Soil Texture Determination 3. Soil Water Content Determination 4. Soil Organic Matter Determination 5. Soil Air Content Determination 6. Soil pH Determination Soil Organism Determination 1. Tullgren Funnel 2. Baermann Funnel Ecological Sampling Methods 1. Quadrat Sampling Technique 2. Line Transect Sampling Technique Overall Summary Work Schedule Attachment Sources

OBJECTIVE The goals intended to be obtained from this task are: 1. Learning the basic principles of ecology through students own effort a. Elements of ecosystem : biosis and abiosis b. Dynamic relationship of elements and flow of energy through ecosystem 2. Using simple apparatus and instruments in ecological studies 3. Learning the methods of collecting and analyzing ecological data 4. Writing an ecological study report 5. Inculcating nature loving attitude 6. Inculcating good moral values-cooperation, independence and selfconfidence

STUDY AREA For the purpose of this ecological project, we have chosen the school field in SMK Bandar Tun Hussein Onn 2 to conduct our fieldwork. Reasons for the selection of this area are: 1. The size of this area is big enough for us to conduct all our fieldwork. 2. The area has a wide diversity of plant species. 3. The natural state of this area is undisturbed.

Map of area under study

SMK Bandar Tun Hussein Onn

SOIL ANALYSIS Soil sampling technique Apparatus: Empty metal can (of volume around 400cm3), a ruler, a hammer, a spade, nails and plastic bags. Procedure: 1. The bottom of the metal can was perforated using a nail and a hammer. 2. Then, the perforated can was gently hammered down into the ground until the bottom of the can was on the same level as the surface of the ground. 3. Using a spade, a hole was dug beside the can. 4. The can and its content were carefully removed (in order to retain the original structure of the soil) from the soil using a spade. 5. Additional soil at the top of the can was levelled off using a ruler. 6. The soil sampled in its can was then placed in a clean plastic bag. 7. The process was repeated thrice to collect more soil samples using similar cans.

Determination of soil texture by sedimentation method Objectives: 1. To learn the methods of obtaining and analyzing the texture of soil. 2. To determine various types of soil particles. 3. To learn to write a report. Apparatus: 1000 cm3 measuring cylinder, 500 cm3 of water and spatula. Materials: Soil sample obtained from study area. Procedure: 1. Gravel and stones on the soil sample was removed manually. 2. The soil sample was then added into the measuring cylinder. 3. 500 cm3 of water was added to the measuring cylinder containing the soil sample. 4. The mouth of the measuring cylinder was covered with a plastic sheet which was then tightly secured using a rubber band. 5. The soil sample and water in the measuring cylinder were then shaken vigorously. 6. The mixture was then allowed to settle out, according to density and surface area of particles, for 48 hours (2 days). 7. The height of each of the various layers of the soil (stone, sand, silt and clay) represented by their volume was measured and recorded. 8. The percentage of each type of particle was calculated and tabulated. 9. Based on the percentage of stone, sand, silt and clay, the texture of the soil sample was determined by referring to the texture triangle. Results Soil Particle Stone / a Clay / b Silt / c Sand(coarse & fine) / d Total Height Layer Height (mm) 6.0 10.0 39.0 82.0 137.0 Content Percentage (%) 4.38 7.30 28.47 59.85 100.00

Formula: Percentage of sand component = Height of soil layer Total height of soil sample x 100%

Discussion: From the results obtained, the soil sample contains sand (both coarse and fine), silt and clay which were mechanically separated. The sand is located on the bottom of the measuring cylinder; silt located immediately above the sand and clay forms the uppermost layer in the measuring cylinder. Sand particles settle first as they are relatively heavier than silt and clay particles. Silt particles settle second to the sand particles as they are relatively lighter than the sand particles but heavier than the clay particles. The clay particles settles last as they are of the least in weight.

By comparing our results with the texture triangle above, the texture of the soil sample under study is sandy loam. Ways to improve accuracy of results:

1. The mixture of water and soil sample must be allowed to settle for a longer period of time, for example, a week. This allows the soil particles to settle completely and accentuate distinctions among types of particles. Conclusion: From the experiment conducted, it can be concluded that the texture of the soil sample under study is sandy loam.

Determination of water content of soil Objective: To determine the water content of soil Apparatus: Aluminium foil pie dish, weighing balance, oven, desiccators, rags, thermometer, asbestos sheet, and tongs. Materials: 80 gm of soil sample. Procedure: 1. An aluminium foil pie dish was weighed while still empty. The mass (a) was recorded. 2. The broken-up soil sample was added to the pie dish and weighed. The mass (b) was recorded. 3. The pie dish containing the soil sample was placed in the oven at 110 C for 24 hours. 4. The sample was removed from the oven and cooled in a desiccator. 5. The sample was weighed when cooled, and the mass was recorded. 6. The sample was returned to the oven at 110C for a further 24 hours. 7. Stages 4 and 5 were repeated until consistent weighings are recorded (constant mass). The mass (c) was recorded. 8. The percentage water content was calculated as follows: b c x 100% ba 9. The soil sample was retained in the desiccator for experiment 4, which is the determination of organic matter content. Results: Weight / g Dry pie dish Dry pie dish + Dry pie dish + (a) Fresh soil sample (b) Dry soil sample (c) 1.89 81.89 74.80 Weight of dry aluminium foil pie dish (a) = 1.89 g Weight of dry aluminium foil pie dish + fresh soil sample (b) = 81.89 g Weight of dry aluminium foil pie dish + dry soil sample (c) = 74.8 g Percentage water content of soil, % = Weight of water x 100% Weight of soil = b c x 100% ba = 81.89 74.80 x 100% 81.89 1.89 = 8.86%

Formula: Percentage water content of soil, % = Weight of water x 100% Weight of soil Discussion: The water in the soil sample was removed using this methodology: heating the soil sample in an oven to eliminate the water content of the soil. This methodology applies the concept that water vaporizes at 100 C (water has a boiling point of 100 C). The soil sample was placed in a pie dish and then was heated in an oven. After a predetermined period of time, the soil sample was taken out of the oven, cooled and weighed. To ensure that all the water content in the soil sample were removed (that is to ensure that the soil sample is dry), the soil sample is reheated, re-cooled, and re-weighed until a constant weight was obtained. The temperature of the oven was set to 105 C for this experiment. The temperature must be controlled within the range of 105 to 110 C to ensure that the organic matter in the soil does not oxidize. Methods to improve accuracy of results obtained: 1. Soil sample used must be fresh as to ensure that unnecessary vaporization of the water content does not take place before the experiment is carried out. 2. The pie dish containing the soil sample must be placed in a desiccator for cooling to prevent condensation and hence affect the results of the experiment. 3. The weighing balance must be clean and the fans must be switched off to ensure a more accurate reading. 4. Heating, cooling and weighing of the soil sample must be carried out until a constant weight is obtained. Conclusion: From the experiment conducted, the soil sample is found to contain 8.86% of water.

Determination of organic matter content of soil Objective: To determine the organic matter content of soil. Apparatus: Crucible and lid, weighing balance, Bunsen burner, tripod stand, wire gauze, fireclay triangle, desiccator, tongs, matches Material: Dried soil sample. Procedure: 1. The crucible and lid were heated strongly in the Bunsen Flame to remove all traces of moisture, and then placed in a desiccator to cool. The mass (a) was weighed and recorded. 2. The dried soil sample (kept from the previous experiment) from the desiccator was added and weighed. The mass (b) was recorded. 3. The soil sample was heated in the crucible, covered with lid, to red-heat for 1 hour to burn off all the organic matter, and then allowed to cool for 10 minutes and removed to the desiccator. 4. The crucible and sample was weighed when cooled. 5. Stages 4 and 5 were repeated until constant mass is recorded. 6. The percentage of organic content was calculated as follows: b c x 100% ba 7. The experiment was repeated on soil samples taken from different areas to demonstrate variation of organic content. Results: Weight / g Crucible + Lid (a) Crucible + Lid + Dried Crucible + Lid + Dried soil before strong heating soil after strong heating (b) (c) 54.00 91.80 89.40 Weight of crucible + lid, a = 54.00 g Weight of crucible + lid + dried soil before strong heating, b = 91.80 g Weight of crucible + lid + dried soil after strong heating, c = 89.40 g Percentage of organic component, % = Weight of organic matter x 100% Weight of dry soil sample = b c x 100% ba = 2.40 x 100% 37.80 = 6.35%

Formula: Percentage of organic component, % = Weight of organic matter x 100% Weight of dry soil sample Discussions: The organic matter in the soil was removed by heating it strongly. The soil sample is heated to about 600C. This is because organic matter is burned off at very high temperature. The soil sample is heated, cooled and weighed until a constant mass is obtained to ensure that all organic matter were burned off. Methods to improve accuracy of results obtained 1. Ensure that all organic matter is burnt off. The soil sample must be burnt, cooled, weighed until a constant mass is obtained. This ensures the total decomposition of organic matter. 2. The lid of the crucible was opened once in a while to ventilate the air inside the crucible. This allows entry of oxygen which helps in decomposition of organic matter by heat. Conclusion The soil sample was found to contain 6.35% of organic matter.

Determination of air content of soil Objective: To determine the air content of soil Apparatus: Empty tin can of volume about 200 cm3, 500 cm3 beaker, metal seeker, spatula, 100cm3 measuring cylinder, hammer and nail Materials: Soil sample, water Procedure: 1. The empty can was placed open end uppermost into the 500cm3 beaker and the beaker was filled with water above the level of the can. The water level in the beaker was marked. 2. The can containing the water was carefully removed and this volume of water was measured in a measuring cylinder. The volume (a) was recorded. The water level of the beaker fell by an amount corresponding to the volume of water in the can. 3. The base of the can was perforated using a hammer and a nail till about eight small holes were made. 4. The open end of the can was pushed into soil from which the surface vegetation has been removed until soil begins to come through the perforations. The can was gently dug out, turned over and soil was removed from the surface until it is level with the top of can. 5. The can of soil was placed, with open end uppermost, gently back into the beaker of water and soil in the can was loosened with seeker to allow air to escape. 6. The water level in the beaker was lower than the original level because water was used to replace the air which was present in the soil. 7. Water was added to the beaker from a full 100cm3 measuring cylinder until original level is restored. Volume of water added (b) was recorded. 8. The percentage air content of the soil sample can be determined as follows: b x 100% a 9. The experiment was repeated on soil samples from different areas. Results: Volume of empty tin can, a = Volume of soil sample = 225 cm3 Volume of water added, b = Initial volume Final volume = 100 cm3 25 cm3 = 75 cm3

Percentage volume of air in soil sample = Volume of soil sample volume of soil particles (air free soil) x 100% Volume of soil sample = Volume of air in soil x 100% Volume of soil sample = 75 x 100% 225 = 33.33% Discussion: The empty sardine can was pushed into the soil to obtain a tin full of undisturbed soil. This is to ensure the accuracy of the results obtained. The soil mixture must be shaken vigorously to break the soil structure so that its contents are in equilibrium. Methods to improve accuracy of results obtained 1. Soil samples must be collected from undisturbed soil 2. The soil must be gently removed from the tin into the measuring cylinder. Conclusion From the results obtained, the soil sample contains 33.33% air. This shows that the soil provides a suitable condition for the growth of plants in the area under study.

Determination of soil pH Objective: To determine the pH of the soil. Apparatus: boiling tube, test tube rack, spatula, 10 cm3 measuring cylinder, 10cm3 pipette and cork for boiling tube. Materials: universal indicator, distilled water Procedure: 1. About 1 cm3 of soil sample was added to the boiling tube. 2. Then about 1 cm3 barium sulphate solution was added to the soil sample in the boiling tube to flocculate the colloidal clay particles. 3. About 10 cm3of distilled water followed by 5 cm3 BDH universal indicator were added to the soil sample solution in the boiling tube. 4. The boiling tube was then stoppered by using a cork and is shaken vigorously. 5. It was then left in the test tube rack for 5 minutes. 6. The colour of the liquid in the boiling tube was compared with the colours on the BDH indicator reference colour chart and the pH of the soil was determined. 7. The experiment was repeated for the different soil samples. Results: The pH of the soil was 5.0 Discussion: Most plants can still survive in an environment with a pH of 5.0. Conclusion: From the results obtained, it can be concluded that the soil from the area is slightly acidic.

Determination of types of terrestrial organisms Objective: To determine the types of terrestrial organisms using a Tullgren funnel Apparatus: Tullgren funnel, retort stand, beaker (100ml), magnifying glass, microscope, glass slide, cover slips, forceps. Materials: 20cm3 of 4% formalin solution, soil sample

Procedure: 1. An appreciable amount of soil from the collected soil sample was placed on the sieve of the Tullgren funnel which was clamped to a retort stand. 2. Then, a lamp was fixed above the soil sample. The apparatus was left under the light for 24 hours.

3. After that, the 4% formalin solution was poured into the beaker and was placed under the Tullgren funnel to collect whatever terrestrial organism that has escaped from the soil sample. 4. The organisms were then observed with a magnifying glass or a microscope. 5. The organisms were identified and drawn. Results: Organism Information Local Name: Centipede Phylum: Arthropoda Class: Chilopoda

Organism Drawing

Organism Information Local Name: Millipede Phylum: Arthropoda Class: Diplopoda

Organism Drawing

Local Name: Ant Phylum: Arthropoda Class: Insecta

Organism Information Local Name: Earthworm Phylum: Annelida Class: Oligochaeta

Organism Drawing

Local Name: Earwig Phylum: Arthropoda Class: Insecta

Discussion: The method was non-specific in its collection of species and numbers. A very large number of organisms can be obtained from even medium quantities of soil sample. This experiment uses the application of the response of organisms towards bright light, high temperatures and low moisture. The heat of the light bulb will force the organisms to migrate to the bottom of the Tullgren funnel. When they reach the bottom of the funnel, the organisms will fall into the 4% formalin solution which acts as a preservative to preserve the organisms. Methods to improve accuracy of results obtained: 1. Ensure an air space between sample and collecting funnel, to avoid condensation in the funnel. 2. The position of the lamp is adjustable to enable the temperature of the soil to be risen gradually thus preventing the slower moving species from being trapped in the soil. 3. The experiment is carried out for a few days to ensure that all of the organisms have been removed from the soil sample. Conclusion: From the observation made during the experiment, many organisms such as centipedes, millipedes, ants, earthworms, and earwigs are found to live in the soil sample.

Determination of types of aquatic organisms Objective: To determine the types of aquatic or semi-aquatic organisms by using Baerman funnel. Apparatus: Baermann funnel, retort stand, 100cm3 beaker, magnifying glass, microscope, glass slide, cover slip, forceps, glass rod. Materials: 4% formalin solution, soil sample

Procedure: 1. An appreciable amount of soil sample was placed inside a muslin bag and was tied up using a piece of thread. 2. The bag was then suspended with the help of a glass rod in the middle of the Baerman funnel which was clamped on a retort stand and left aside for 24 hours. The bulb was lit up. 3. A small beaker (100 cm3) containing 4% formalin solution was placed under the Baerman funnel. 4. Periodically, the clip was loosened to allow the aquatic organisms collected at the base of the Baerman funnel to drain into the beaker sample.

5. The organisms in the formalin solution were examined under a microscope. They were then identified and were then drawn.

Results: Organism Information Genus: Amoeba Phylum: Rhizopoda

Organism Drawing

Organism Information Genus: Euglena Phylum: Zoomastigina

Organism Drawing

Genus: Paramecium Phylum: Ciliophora

Discussion: This technique was based on the fact that aquatic soil organisms such as Amoeba, Paramecium and Euglena are denser than water. The higher temperature and light intensity in the upper layer causes these organisms to gather at the stem of the funnel. When the organisms fall into the formalin solution, it will act as a preservative to preserve the organisms. Methods to improve accuracy of results obtained: 1. Ensure that the lamp is not placed too close to the funnel as extreme temperatures may kill the organisms. 2. The experiment is carried out for a few days to ensure that all the organisms are removed from the soil sample. Conclusion: From this experiment, soil organisms such as Amoeba, Paramecium and Euglena are found in the soil sample. This proves that the soil sample is a suitable habitat for aquatic soil organisms.

Determination of the density of plant species in a habitat The density of plant species in a habitat can be determined using quadrats and transects. 1. Quadrat sampling technique Apparatus: Quadrats measuring 1m2 Procedure: 1. Systematic sampling procedure quadrats are placed at the same time intervals along transects which runs across the investigated area at the same intervals. 2. Random sampling procedure using random number table.

Systematic distribution of quadrats

Random distribution of quadrats

Conclusion: From the quadrat sampling technique, there are 10 species of plants that were studied in the area chosen. They are Axonopus compressus, Commenlina elegans, Cyperus kyllingia, Cyperus polystachyos, Eleusine indica, Imperata cylinderica, Lindernia crustacea, Mimosa pudica, Vernomia cinerea, Ischaemum muticum.

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLING Plan of area under study showing placement of quadrats

Drawing of quadrats

Calculation formula DENSITY = Number of individuals of a species per unit area (or volume) of a specific area Density = Total number of individuals of a species in all quadrats x 100% Total number of quadrats x Area per quadrat RELATIVE DENSITY = Density of a species compared to the total density of all species living in the same area Relative density = Density of a species x 100% Total density of all species COVERAGE = Ratio of land area occupied by the vertical projection into space for each individual of a species Coverage = Aerial coverage of all quadrats x 100% Total number of quadrats x Area per quadrat RELATIVE COVERAGE = Coverage of a species compared to the total coverage of the of the entire quadrat by all species (expressed in percentage) Relative coverage = Coverage of a species x 100% Total coverage by all species FREQUENCY = Degree of dispersion of each species in a specific area Frequency = Number of quadrats containing the species x 100% Total number of quadrats RELATIVE FREQUENCY = Frequency value of a species compared to the total frequency value of all species (expressed in percentage) Relative frequency = Frequency value of a species x 100% Total frequency of all species

ECOLOGICAL SAMPLING Sampling Technique using Line Transect Objective: To determine the percentage surface coverage, relative species coverage and frequency of 10 species of plants in a terrestrial habitat Apparatus: Rope or raffia (length about 15m) Materials: 10 Species of plants Procedure: 1. A base line along the border of the area under study was determined. 2. A series of points was chosen along this base line either randomly or systematically. (These points were used as starting points for the line transects to run across the area being studied.) 3. Next, all plants that touched the line as seen vertically above the transect line were recorded. 4. The length of the line transect that was intersected by the maximum width of the plants perpendicular to the line transect were recorded. 5. Step 3 and 4 were repeated for 9 other transect lines to provide enough sample to study the particular community. 6. The length of the segment for the line transect that was above a barren part of the ground (did not cut across any plants) was measured and recorded in the table. 7. For plants communities that have two or more different levels which were obvious such as herbaceous plants, shrubs ad tree levels in a forest, therefore each of those levels had to be sample separately. 8. Total aerial coverage, relative coverage and frequency for each species of plants that were studied were calculated. Discussion Transect refers to a line that cuts across a community in a habitat. A lot of information about the composition and arrangement of the plants can be found by the total, width, extrapolation, frequency and surface cover data of the different species that were cut across by a transect series in an area under study. Ways to improve 1. The state that holds the line transect made of raffia should be hammered inside the field deeply so that it will not come out and influence the actual value 2. The line transect should be straight so that the actual value can be achieved.

Conclusion From the line transect technique, we have discovered 10 species of plants, they are Axonopus compressus, Commenlina elegans, Cyperus kyllingia, Cyperus polystachyos, Eleusine indica, Imperata cylinderica, Lindernia crustacea, Mimosa pudica, Vernomia cinerea, Ischaemum muticum.

OVERALL DISCUSSION The soil obtained from the study is found to be made up of different components; they are sand (both coarse and fine sand), silt and clay. These components were mechanically separated using the principles of sedimentation. This principle calls that the components of the soil can be separated according to their weight. The soil sample collected was mixed with adequate amount of water and was left to settle. At the bottommost section of the measuring cylinder in which the soil was mixed with water, is the settlement of sand (both coarse and fine) because this component is the heaviest among all the components of soil. Silt particles settle on top of the layer of sand and clay settles on top of the layer of silt. The clay particles settles last as they are of the least in weight. The content percentages of the components in the soil were calculated and by referring to a texture triangle, the texture of soil was determined. To obtain a sample of soil, an empty can of predetermined volume was used. The metal can (which is perforated at its closed end) was pushed into the ground until the perforated base of the metal can levels with the surface of the ground. A hammer was used to aid penetration of the can. The metal can was carefully knocked using the hammer in order not to distort the can which will then change the predetermined volume of the can. This also ensures that the content of the soil is undisturbed. The content of the soil were then emptied into a measuring cylinder with water. The total volume is recorded. Then, the mixture was stirred thoroughly to ensure all soil particles are broken up. Then, the total volume of the stirred mixture was then recorded. The difference between the first total volume and the second total volume is the amount of air trapped in the soil. The percentage of air in the soil was then determined. To determine the water content of soil, we used a technique of elimination. Here, water is eliminated from the soil and the difference in weight before and after elimination of water would be the amount of water present in the soil. Evaporation eliminates water. A relatively small amount of soil was placed into an empty Petri dish whereby the weight of the Petri dish was already determined. The weight of the soil and the Petri dish was recorded. The Petri dish containing the soil was placed in an oven which was preheated at 105C. This particular temperature chosen is higher than the boiling point of water . This will ensure that enough energy is provided to the water molecules to enable evaporation but not enough to oxidize the organic matter contained in the soil. To foolproof this method, the Petri dish was taken out of the oven in a predetermined period of time and left to cool in a dessicator. Then, it is weighed again. Then, it is placed back into the oven for further drying. This sequence of action is repeated until a constant weight is obtained. The dried soil sample from the experiment to determine the water content of soil was used in the subsequent experiment to determine the organic matter in the soil. This time, the soil sample was placed in a closed crucible and was

heated strongly with a Bunsen burner. From time to time, the lid of the crucible was opened briefly and its contents agitated to allow entry of oxygen for combustion. The soil was burned until red hot. The heating, cooling, weighing and reheating process as done in the previous experiment was used in this experiment as well until a constant weight is obtained. The pH of soil was determined by mixing the same volume of soil and barium sulphate into a test tube. Barium sulphate flocculates the colloidal particles of soil. Then, water is added followed by BDH universal indicator. Then, the test tube was stoppered and shaken vigorously. The test tube is then left on the rack for 5 minutes. The colour of the liquid in the boiling tube was compared with the colours on the BDH indicator reference colour chart and the pH of the soil was determined. The Tullgren funnel is used to collect soil organisms. The portion of soil used was broken up before being placed on the wire mesh in the funnel to ensure that the light from the bulb is able to reach all parts of the soil. The experiment uses the application of the response of organisms towards bright light, high temperatures and low moisture. Organisms dislike bright, dry and hot conditions. Hence, they are forced to migrate to the lower part of the soil which is less bright, less warm and more humid. As they move downwards, they eventually fall into the 4% formalin solution. The Baermann funnel is used to collect aquatic organisms. The experiment applies the same concept as used by the Tullgren funnel. In fact, the Baermann funnel is a modified version of the Tullgren funnel. A portion of soil was placed in a muslin cloth, tied up and suspended in the middle of the Baermann funnel. A tube with clip was placed on the outlet of the funnel into a small beaker containing 4% formalin solution. The organisms will migrate downwards and gather there at the mouth of the tube because these organisms are denser than water. The clip of the small tubing was opened periodically to allow flow of organisms into the formalin solution.

OVERALL SUMMARY The area under study selected was the school field in SMK Bandar Tun Hussein Onn 2. From the experiments conducted on the soil sample, we found that (in order of experiment conducted) 1. The soil from the study area is of the sandy loam variety. 2. The air content of the soil is 33.33%. 3. The water content is 8.86%. 4. The percentage of organic matter in the soil is 6.35%. 5. The pH of the soil is around pH 5.0. BDH indicator was used. The colour of the solution was compared to a BDH colour reference chart. The soil has an adequate amount of air, relatively high percentage of water and relatively high percentage of organic matter. These optimum conditions will help the plants to grow healthily. We have also conducted two types of quantitative analysis in the study area, one to determine the types of organisms living in the soil and another to analyze the plant communities in the study are using quadrat sampling and line transect sampling technique. From the Tullgren funnel experiment, we found that the soil is home to organisms such as centipedes, millipedes, ants, earthworms, earwigs and ground beetles. From the Baermann funnel, we found that Amoeba, Paramecium, and Euglena live in the soil sample. From the qualitative analysis of plant communities in the study area using the quadrat sampling technique, we found 10 species of plants inhabiting the study area. They are Axonopus compressus, Commenlina elegans, Cyperus kyllingia, Cyperus polystachyos, Eleusine indica, Imperata cylinderica, Lindernia crustacea, Mimosa pudica, Vernomia cinerea, Ischaemum muticum.

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