Terminology Notebook-Ch.

22-24
Chapter 22 Reproductive systems Understanding words p830 AndrContraCrurMan Against, counter Lower part Androgens-male sex hormones Contraception-prevention of fertilization Crura-diverging parts at the base of the penis by which it attaches to the pelvis Ejaculation-expulsion of semen from the male reproductive tract Fimbriae- irregular extensions on the margin of the infundibulum of the uterine tube Follicle-ovarian structure that contains an egg Spermatogenesis-formation of sperm cells Germinal epithelium-tissue that gives rise to sex cells by special cell division Gubernaculum-fibromascular cord that guides the descent of a testis Labia minora-flattened, longitudinal folds that extend along the margins of the female vestibule Mammary gland-female accessory gland that secretes milk Mastitis-inflammation of the mammary gland Menses-monthly flow of blood from the female reproductive tract Mons pubis-rounded elevation of fatty tissue overlying the symphysis pubis in a female Oogenesis-formation of an egg Primordial follicle-ovarian follicle composed of an oocyte surrounded by a single layer of cells Puberty-time when a person becomes able to reproduce Zona pellucida-transparent layer

EjaculFimb-

To shoot forth Fringe

Folic-genesis Germ-

Small bag Origin To bud, to sprout

Gubern-

To steer, to guide

Labi-

Lip

Mamm-

Breast

MastMens-

Breast Month

Mons-

An eminence

ooPrim-

Egg First

PuberZon-

Adult Belt 1

Terminology Notebook-Ch. 22-24

surrounding an oocyte. Table 22A medical treatments for an enlarged prostate gland p841 Surgical removal of prostate Radiation Drug (proscar, or finasteride) to block testosterones growth stimulating effect on the prostate Alpha blocker drugs, which relax muscles near the prostate, relieving pressure Microwave energy delivered through a probe inserted into the urethra or rectum Balloon inserted into the urethra and inflated with liquid Tumor frozen with liquid nitrogen delivered by a probe through the skin Device (stent) inserted between lobes of prostate to relieve pressure on the urethra

Table 22.1 functions of the male reproductive organs p845 Organ Testis Seminiferous tubules Interstitial cells Epididymis Ductus deferens Seminal vesicle Function Produce sperm cells Produce and secrete male sex hormones Promotes sperm cell maturation; stores sperm cells; conveys sperm cells to ductus deferens Conveys sperm cells to ejaculatory duct Secretes am alkaline fluid containing nutrients and prostaglandins that helps neutralize the acidic components of semen Secretes an alkaline fluid that helps neutralize the acidic components of semen and enhances sperm cell motility Secretes fluid that lubricates end of the penis Encloses, protects, and regulates temperature of testes Conveys urine and semen to outside of body; inserted into the vagina during sexual intercourse; the glans penis is richly supplied with sensory nerve endings associated with feelings of pleasure during sexual stimulation

Prostate gland

Bulbourethral gland Scrotum Penis

Terminology Notebook-Ch. 22-24

Figure 22.18 the hypothalamus controls maturation of sperm cells and development of male secondary characteristics. Negative feedback among the hypothalamus, the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, and the testes controls the concentration of testosterone in the male body.

Terminology Notebook-Ch. 22-24

Figure 22.21 During oogenesis, a) a single egg cell (secondary oocyte) results from meiosis of a primary oocyte. If the egg cell is fertilized, it generates a second polar body and becomes a zygote. (the second meiotic division occur in the egg cell if it is not fertilized) Table 22.2 p857 functions of the female reproductive organs Organ Ovary Uterine tube Uterus Vagina Function Produces oocytes and female sex hormones Conveys secondary oocyte toward uterus; site of fertilization; conveys developing embryo to uterus Protects and sustains embryo during pregnancy Conveys uterine secretions to outside of body; receives erect penis during sexual intercourse; provides open channel for offspring during birth process Enclose and protect other external reproductive organs Form margins of vestibule; protect openings of vagina and urethra Produces feelings of pleasure during sexual stimulation due to abundant sensory nerve 4

Labia majora Labia minora Clitoris

Terminology Notebook-Ch. 22-24

endings in glans Space between labia minora that contains vaginal and urethral openings Vestibular glands Secrete fluid that moistens and lubricates the vestibule Table 22.3 Hormonal Control of Female Secondary Sex characteristics p858 Vestibule 1. 2. 3. 4. They hypothalamus releases GnRH, which stimulates the anterior pituitary gland The anterior pituitary gland secretes FSH and LH FSH stimulates the maturation of a follicle Granulosa cells of the follicle produce and secrete estrogens; LH stimulates certain cells to secrete estrogen precursor molecules 5. Estrogens are responsible for the development and maintenance of most of the female secondary sex characteristics 6. Concentrations of androgen affect other sex secondary sex characteristics, including skeletal growth and growth hair 7. Progesterone, secreted by the ovaries, affects cyclical changes in the uterus and mammary glands Table 22.4 Major event in a reproductive cycle 1. The anterior pituitary gland secretes FSH and LH 2. FSH stimulates maturation of a follicle 3. Granulosa cells of the follicle produce and secrete estrogens a. Estrogens maintain secondary sex traits b. Estrogens cause the endometrium to thicken 4. The anterior pituitary gland releases a surge of LH, which stimulates ovulation 5. Follicular and thecal cells become corpus luteum cells, which secrete estrogens and progesterone a. Estrogens continue to stimulate uterine wall development b. Progesterone stimulates the endometrium to become more glandular and vascular c. Estrogens and progesterone inhibit secretion of FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary gland 6. If the secondary oocyte is not fertilized, the corpus luteum degenerates and no longer secretes estrogens and progesterone 7. As the concentrations of luteal hormones decline, blood vessels in the endometrium constrict 8. The uterine lining disintegrates and sloughs off, producing a menstrual flow 9. The anterior pituitary gland is no longer inhibited and again secretes FSH and LH 10. The reproductive cycle repeats

Table 22.5 birth control methods 5

Terminology Notebook-Ch. 22-24

Method Mechanism Advantages Disadvantages Pregnancies per year per 100 women 85 2-12

B A R R I E R & S P E R M I C I D A L

None Condom

Condom and spermicide

Diaphragm and spermicide

Worn over penis or within vagina, keeps sperm out of vagina or from entering cervix Worn over penis or within vagina, keeps sperm out of vagina, and kills sperm that escape Kills sperm and blocks uterus

Protection against sexually transmitted diseases (latex only)

Disrupts spontaneity, can break, reduces sensation in male

Protection against sexually transmitted diseases (latex only)

Disrupts spontaneity, can break, reduces sensation in male

2-5

Inexpensive

Cervical cap and spermicide

Kills sperm and blocks uterus

Inexpensive, can be left in 24 hours

Spermicidal film, sponge, suppository, foam, or gel H O R M O N A L Combination estrogen and progesterone (pill, patch, ring, or injection)

Kills sperm and blocks vagina Prevents follicle maturation, ovulation and implantation

Inexpensive, easy to use and carry Does not interrupt spontaneity, lowers risk of some cancers, decreases menstrual flow (one pill eliminates menstruation) Does not interrupt spontaneity

Disrupts spontaneity, messy, needs to be fitted by doctor May slip out of place, messy, needs to be fitted by doctor Messy, irritates 25% of users, male and female Raises risk of cardiovascular disease in some women, causes weight gain and breast tenderness

6-18

6-18

3-21

Miniphil

Thickens cervical mucus 6

Menstrual charges

Terminology Notebook-Ch. 22-24

Medroxyprogesterone Prevents acetate (depoovulation, provera) alters uterine lining Rhythm method No intercourse during fertile times Withdrawal (coitus Removal of interrupts) penis from vagina before ejaculation Vasectomy Sperm cells never reach penis Tubal ligation Egg cells never reach uterus Easy to use Menstrual charges, weight gain Difficult to do, hard to predict timing Difficult to do 0.3

B E H A V I O R A L

No cost

20

No cost

4-18

S U R G I C A L O T H E R

Permanent, does not interrupt spontaneity Permanent, does not interrupt spontaneity Does not interrupt spontaneity

Requires surgery

0.15

Intrauterine device

Prevents implantation

Requires surgery, entails some risk of infection Severe menstrual cramps, increases risk of infection

0.4

Table 22.6 Sexually Transmitted Infections p.867 Disease Acquired immune deficiency syndrome Chlamydia infection Symptoms Fever, weakness, infections, cancer Painful urination and intercourse, mucous discharge from penis or vagina Genital sores, fever Warts on genitals In women, usually non; in men, painful urination Initial chancre sore usually on genitals or mouth,; rash 6 months later; several years with no symptoms as infection spreads; finally damage to heart, liver, nerves, brain Effects on fetus Exposure to HIV and other infections Premature birth, blindness, pneumonia Brain damage, stillbirth None known Blindness, stillbirth Miscarriage, premature births, birth defects, stillbirth

Genital herpes Genital warts Gonorrhea Syphilis

Innerconnections: p868 7

Terminology Notebook-Ch. 22-24

Reproductive system Gamete production, fertilization, fetal development, and childbirth are essential for survival of the species Hormones control the production of eggs in the female and sperm in the male Male urinary and reproductive systems share common structures. Kidneys help compensate for fluid loss from the reproductive systems Breathing provides oxygen that assists in the production of ATP needed for egg and sperm development Plays a major role in sexual activity and sexual pleasure Skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscles all play a role in reproductive processes and sexual activity Proper nutrition is essential for the formation of normal gametes Special mechanisms inhibit Bones can be a temporary source of calcium during lactation Skin sensory receptors play a role in sexual pleasure Blood pressure is necessary for the normal function of erectile tissue in the male and female

Endocrine system Urinary system

Respiratory system

Nervous system Muscular system Digestive system Lymphatic system Skeletal system Integumentary system Cardiovascular system Chapter 24 Genetics and Genomics Understanding words p916 ChromoColor

GenHeteroHom-

Born Other Same, common

KaryoMono-

Nucleus One-

Phen-

Show, be seen

Chromosomes-a colored body in a cells nucleus that includes the genes Genetics-study of inheritance of characteristics Heterozygous-different members of a gene pair Homologous chromosomes-pair of chromosomes that have similar genetic information Katyotype-a chart that displays chromosomes in size order Monosomy-one type of chromosome present in only one copy Phenotype-physical appearance or health condition that results from the way genes are expressed in an individual 8

Terminology Notebook-Ch. 22-24

TriThree Trisomy-three copies of a chromosome

Chapter 23 pregnancy, growth, and development AllantSausage Allantois-tubelike structure extending from the yolk sac into the connecting stalk of an embryo Chorion-outermost membrane surrounding the fetus and its membranes Cleavage-period of development when a zygote divides, producing increasingly smaller cells Ectoderm-outermost germ layer of embryo Lacuna-space between the chorionic villi that fills with maternal blood Lanugo-fine hair covering the fetus Mesoderm-middle germ layer of embryo Morula-embryonic structure consisting of a solid ball of about 16 cells that resembles a mulberry Prenatal-period of development before birth Neonatal-period of development including the first 4 weeks after birth Postnatal- Period of development after birth Period of development before birth Senescence-process of growing old Trophoblast-cellular layer that surrounds the inner cell mass and helps noursh it Umbilical cord-structure attached to the fetal navel (umbilicus) that connects the fetus to the placenta

Chorio-

Skin

Cleav-

To divide

EctLacun-

Outside Pool

LanugMesMorul-

Down Middle Mulberry

NatNe-

To be born Ney, young

Post PreSenTroph-

After Before Old Well-fed

Umbil-

Navel

Table 23.1 hormonal changes during pregnancy p855

Terminology Notebook-Ch. 22-24

1. 2. 3. 4. Following implantation, cells of the trophoblast begin to secrete hCG hCG maintains the corpus luteum, which continues to secrete estrogens and progesterone as the placenta develops, it secretes abundant estrogens and progesterone placental estrogens and progesterone: a. stimulate the uterine lining to continue development b. maintain the uterine lining c. inhibit secretion of FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary gland d. stimulate development of the mammary glands e. inhibit uterine contractions (progesterone) f. enlarge the reproductive organs (estrogens) relaxin from the corpus luteum also inhibits uterine contractions and relaxes the pelvic ligaments the placenta secretes placental lactogen that stimulates breast development aldosterone from the adrenal cortex promotes reabsorption of sodium parathyroid hormone from the parathyroid glands maintain a high concentration of maternal blood calcium

5. 6. 7. 8.

Table 23.3 stages of prenatal development Stage Preembryonic stage Time period 1st week Major events Cell undergo mitosis, blastocyst forms; inner cell mass appears; blastocyst implants in uterine wall Size: inch (0.63cm), weight: 1/120oz (0.21g) Inner cell mass becomes embryonic disc; primary germ layers form, embryo proper becomes cylindrical; main internal organs and external body structures appear; placenta and umbilical cord form, embryo proper is suspended in amniotic fluid Size: 1 in (2.5cm); weight: 1/30oz (0.8g) Ossification centers appear in bones, sex organs differentiate, nerves and muscle coordinate so that the fetus can move its limbs Size: 4 in(10cm); weight 1 oz(28g) Body grows rapidly; ossification continues 10

Embryonic stage

2nd-8th week

Fetal stage

9th-12th week

13th-16th week

Terminology Notebook-Ch. 22-24

Size: 8 inches (20 cm), weight: 6oz (170g) Muscle movements are stronger, and woman maybe aware of slight flutterings; skin is covered with fine downy hair (lanugo) and coated with sebum mixed with dead epidermal cells (vernix caseosa) Size: 12in (30.5cm) weight: 1lb (454g) Body gains weight, subcutaneous fat deposited, eyebrows and lashes appear; eyelids reopen; testes descend Size: 21 inches(53 cm); weight: 6-10lbs (2.7-4.5kg)

17th-20th week

21st-38th week

Clinical application-causes of birth defects p896-897 1. thalidomide: the idea that placenta protects the embryo and fetus from harmful substances was disproven between 1957 and 1961, when 100, 000 children in Europe were born with flippers in place of limbs. Doctors soon identified a mild tranquilizer, thalidomide, which all of the mother of the deformed infants had taken early in pregnancy, during the time of limb formation. Although some women in the US did use thalidomide and had affected children, the US was spared the disaster because an astute government physician noted adverse effects of the drug on monkeys in experiments, and she halted use of the drug. Thalidomide is used to today to treat leprosy and certain blood disorders 2. rubella: virus that causes rubella (german measles) is a powerful teratogen. Australian physician 1st noted its effects in 1941, and a rubella epidemic in the US in the early 1960s caused 20,000 birth defects and 30,000 still births. Exposure in the 1st trimester leads to cataracts, deafness, and heart defects, and later exposure causes learning disabilities, speech and hearing problems, and type I diabetes mellitus. Widespread vaccination has slashed the incidence of congenital rubella syndrome, and today it occurs only where people are not vaccinated 3. alcohol: a pregnant woman who has just one or 2 alcoholic drinks a day, or perhaps many drinks at a crucial time in prenatal development, risks fetal alcohol syndrome or the more prevalent fetal alcohol effects in her unborn child. The effects of small amounts of alcohol at different stages of pregnancy are not yet well understood and because each woman metabolizes alcohol slightly different, its best to avoid drinking alcohol entirely when pregnant or when trying to become pregnant. A child with fetal alcohol syndrome has a characteristic small head, misshapen eyes, and flat face and nose. Growth is slow and after birth. Intellect is impaired ranging from minor learning disabilities to mental retardation. Teens and young adults with fetal alcohol syndrome are short and have small heads. Many individuals remain at early grade school level. They often lack social and communication skills, such as understanding the consequences of actions, forming friendships, taking initiative and interpreting social cues. Problems in 11

Terminology Notebook-Ch. 22-24

children of alcoholic mothers were noted by Aristotle more than 23 centuries ago. FAS is the most common cause of mental retardation in newborns. 1-3 in every 1000 infants has the syndrome, and more than 40,000 affected children are born each year. 4. Cigarettes: chemicals in cigarette smoke stress a fetus. Carbon monoxide crosses the placenta and plugs up the sites on the fetuss hemoglobin molecules that would normally bind oxygen. Other chemicals in smoke prevent nutrients from reaching the fetus. Studies comparing placentas of smokers and nonsmokers show that smoke-exposed placentas lack important growth factors. The result of these assaults is poor growth before and after birth. Cigarette smoking during pregnancy raises the risk of spontaneous abortion, stillbirth, prematurity, and low birth weight. 5. Nutrients and malnutrition: certain nutrients in large amounts, particularly vitamins, act in the body as drugs the acne medication isotretinoin (Accutane) is a derivative of vitamin A that causes spontaneous abortions and defects of the heart, nervous system, and face in the fetus. A vitamin A based drug used to treat psoriasis, as well as excess of vitamin A itself, also cause birth defects. This is because some forms of vitamin A are stored in body fat for up to 3 years after ingestion. Malnutrition during pregnancy causes intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR),which may have delayed health effects. Fetal physiology adapts to starvation to best use available nutrients. Insulin resistance changes to compensate for lack of muscle tissue. Cardiovascular changes shunt blood to vital organs. Starvation also raises stress hormone levels, stiffen arteries, and too few kidney tubules form. These changes set the stage for type 2 diabetes mellitus, hypertension, stroke, and coronary artery disease years later. Infant is scrawny, but the older child tends to be obese, and difficulty losing weight may persist. 6. Occupational hazards: some teratogens are encountered in the workplace. Increased rates of spontaneous abortion and birth defects have been noted among women who work with textile dyes, lead, certain photographic chemicals, semiconductor materials, mercury, cadmium. Men whose jobs expose them to sustained heat, such as smelter workers, glass manufacturers, and bakers, may produce sperm that can fertilize an egg and possibly lead to spontaneous abortion or defect. A virus or toxic chemical carried in semen may also cause a birth defect. Table 23.5 factors contributing to the labor process p901 1. As the time of birth approaches, secretion of progesterone declines, and its inhibiting effect on uterine contraction lessens 2. Decreasing progesterone concentration stimulates synthesis of prostaglandins, which initiate labor 3. Stretching uterine tissue stimulates synthesis release of oxytocins from the posterior pituitary gland 4. Oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions and aids labor in its later stages 5. As the fetal head stretches the cervix, a positive feedback mechanism results in stronger and stronger uttering contractions and a greater release of oxytocin 6. Positive feedback stimulates abdominal wall muscles to contract with greater and greater force 7. The fetus is forced through the birth canal to the outside 12

Terminology Notebook-Ch. 22-24

Table 23.6 hormonal control of the mammary glands Before pregnancy (beginning of puberty) Ovarian hormones secreted during reproductive cycles stimulate alveolar glands and ducts of mammary glands to develop During pregnancy 1. Estrogens cause the ductile system to grow and branch 2. Progesterone stimulates development of alveolar glands 3. Placental lactogen promotes development of the breasts 4. Prolactin is secreted throughout pregnancy, but placental progesterone inhibits milk production and placental lactogen blocks the action of prolactin Table 23.9 stages in postnatal development Stage Neonatal period Following childbirth 1. Placental hormonal concentrations decline, so the action of prolactin is no longer inhibited 2. The breasts begin producing milk 3. Mechanical stimulation of the breasts releases oxytocin from the posterior pituitary gland 4. Oxytocin stimulates release of milk from ducts 5. As long as breastfeeding continues, more prolactin is released; if than nipple is not stimulated regularly, milk production ceases.

Time period Birth to end of 4th week

Infancy

End of 4th week to 1 yr

Childhood

1 yr to puberty

Adolescence

Puberty to adulthood

Adulthood

Adolescence to old age

Major events Newborn begins to carry on respiration, obtain nutrients, digest nutrients, excrete wastes, regulate body temperature, and make cardiovascular adjustments Growth rate is high; teeth begin to erupt; muscular and nervous systems mature so that coordinated activities are possible; communication begins Growth rate is high; primary teeth erupt and are replaced by secondary teeth; high degree of muscular control is achieved; bladder and bowel controls are established; intellectual abilities mature Person becomes reproductively functional and emotionally more mature; growth spurts occur in skeletal and muscular systems; high levels of motor skills are developed intellectual abilities increase Person remains relatively unchanged anatomically and

13

Terminology Notebook-Ch. 22-24

physiologically; degenerative changes begin Degenerative changes continue; body becomes less able to cope with demands; death usually results from mechanical disturbances in the cardiovascular system or from diseases that affect vital organs. Signs of approaching death may appear in a common sequence

Senescence

Old age to death

Table 23.10 aging-related changes Organ system Integumentary Aging-related changes Degenerative loss of collagenous and elastic fibers in dermis; decreased production of pigment in hair follicles; reduced activity of sweat and sebaceous glands; skin thins, wrinkles, and dries out; hair turns gray then white Degenerative loss of bone matrix; bones become thinner, less dense, and more likely to fracture; stature may shorten due to compression of intervertebral discs and vertebrae Loss of skeletal muscle fibers; degenerative changes in neuromuscular junctions; loss of muscular strength Degenerative changes in neurons; loss of dendrites and synaptic connections; accumulation of lipofuscin in neurons; decreases in sensation; decreasing efficiency in processing and recalling information; decreasing ability to communicate; diminished senses of smell and taste; loss of elasticity of lenses and consequent loss of ability to accommodate for close vision Reduced hormonal secretions; decreased metabolic rate; reduced ability to cope with stress; reduced ability to maintain homeostasis Degenerative changes in cardiac muscle; decrease in lumen diameters of arteries and arterioles; decreased cardiac output; increased resistance to blood flow; increased blood pressure Decrease in efficiency; increased incidence of infections and neoplastic diseases; increased incidence of autoimmune diseases 14

Skeletal

Muscular

Nervous

Endocrine

Cardiovascular

Lymphatic

Terminology Notebook-Ch. 22-24

Digestive Respiratory Decreased motility in GI tract; reduced secretion of digestive juices; reduced efficiency of digestion Degenerative loss of elastic fibers in lungs; fewer alveoli; reduced vital capacity; increased in dead air space; reduced ability to clear airways by coughing Degenerative changes in kidneys; fewer functional nephrons; reductions in filtration rate, tubular secretion, and tubular reabsorption

Urinary

Reproductive systems Male

Reduced secretion of sex hormones; enlargement of prostate gland ; decrease in sexual energy Female Degenerative changes in ovaries; decrease in secretion of sex hormones; menopause; regression of secondary sex characteristics Table 23.11 ten leading causes of death in the US, 2004 Cause Heart disease Cancer Stroke Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease Injuries Diabetes mellitus Alzheimer diseases Influenza and pneumonia Kidney disease Infection (septicemia) % of total 2,397,615 deaths 27.2 23.1 6.2 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1

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