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This section contains the basic definitions of energy, power, efficiency, and load
factor, together with a listing of the most common units used.
Definition of energy
• Objects move
• Heat is transported or transferred
• Electricity flows
This is usually used in 1 kJ= 1000 J; 1 MJ= 106 J; 1 GJ= 109 J and even higher
powers.
Definition of power
This is usually used in 1 kW= 1000 W; 1 MW= 106 W and higher powers.
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The first Law of Thermodynamics states that
Energy is conserved.
This means that it is possible to convert energy from one form to another but it is not
possible to create or destroy energy.
From the first law we can also state the following consequence:
Since power is the rate at which energy is converted, rate at which energy is
consumed by somebody has to be the same at which it is provided by
somebody else. In other words, the power generation has to match the power
consumption.
It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive heat from a
single reservoir and produce a net amount of work.
or, we can never convert energy completely into motion or electricity but always
produce some heat which is lost to the user.
Efficiency
The fact that we can never get out the same amount of energy in the form of motion or
electricity as we feed into an energy converting device leads to the concept of
efficiency
Efficiency is defined as the ratio of the useful output over the required input.
The symbol usually used for the efficiency is η (lower case Greek eta). Because it is a
ratio of two numbers with the same units, it is a dimensionless quantity.
This ratio is always less than one (or equals one in the very best ideal world). It is
often given in percentage rather than the ratio
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For example
Types of energy
Heat
Q= m Cp ∆T (or m CV ∆T ) = mass ´ specific heat ´ temperature difference
Potential energy
Ep= m g h = mass × gravitational acceleration × height.
Kinetic energy
Ek= 1/2 m v2 = half × mass × velocity squared.
Work
W= F d = force × distance
Pressure work
Wp= p V= pressure × Volume
This is the same as applying on an area A a pressure force, F= pA, and moving
it by a distance d. This will change the volume within the boundary by d A:
W= F d= p A d = p V
Electrical energy
Eel= V Q= volt × charge.
Radiation
energy of a photon: h λ,
with Planck's constant, h= 6.625× 10 − 34 J s, and the wavelength λ.
'Chemical' energy
The heat released in a chemical reaction. This is specific to each reaction and
is usually given as energy unit mass (e.g. kJ/kg) or number of molecules (e.g.
kJ/mol)
Atomic energy
E= m c2 = mass × speed of light squared, with c= 3 × 108 m/s
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A list of different types of power
Kinetic power
Pk= 1/2 ρ A v3 = half × density × cross-sectional area × velocity cubed.
This is the kinetic energy passing through an area A per unit time.
Hydraulic power
Ph= ρ g H Q = density × gravitational acceleration × height or 'head' × volume
flow rate.
This is the flow of energy of a liquid under pressure, p, passing through at a
flow rate, Q, if the pressure is given by the hydrostatic pressure, p = ρ g H.
The rate of change of the volume measures how much volume passes through
a measuring area: dV/dt= Q.
It is also the rate of release of potential energy from a liquid flowing from a
height H at a volume flow rate of Q.
(take the rate of change of the mass: dm/dt= ρQ
Electrical power
Eel= V I= volt × current.
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Capacity factor and load factor
Load factor
the ratio of the average load to peak load over a period.
These two factors are two sides of the same thing. The load factor measures the
proportion of power output required from a generator against what it could do, while
the capacity factor measures the proportion of the energy provided by the generator
against what it could do.
Example
In reality, no turbine can run at full load for ever. This is partly because the turbine
requires maintenance, partly because the demand is not there (and the production has
to be adjusted to meet the demand), and partly because the energy source is not
available (e.g. the wind in a wind turbine)
A typical availability factor for a well-maintained gas- or coal-fired power station can
be as high as 80%, but a typical hydropower station may only have a capacity factor
of about 40%. This can be explained by the fact that hyrdopower turbines can adjust
their output extremely fast, while thermal plant take much longer to change their
output. As a result, many thermal plants are operated to provide the relatively constant
base load while hydropower stations are used to follow the varying demand.
Following on the example of the 70MW turbine from above: If it has operated over
the last year with a capacity factor of 60%, then its total output during that year was
60% of the 610GWh, i.e. 0.6*610GWh= 370 GWh.
A typical wind turbine may have a capacity factor of about 30%. This number is not
constrained by it responding to the demand but by it driven by a fluctuating wind.
Even if the demand were always there, a 1MW wind turbine can never generate 1MW
all the time all year round. So, for a wind turbine (and almost all renewable
generators), the capacity factor is not limited by its most appropriate operating
conditions under the varying load but it is limited by the variability ('intermittency') of
the energy source.
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Annual energy output from different turbines, all rated at 100 MW
This leads to the definition of capacity credit, which measures how much a generator
can replace a 'standard' thermal plant.
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Powers of Ten
To illustrate the different powers, and when they are used, a few examples are given:
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Conversion Tables
kJ kcal
1 J 1 0.238
1 kcal 4.2 1
GJ kWh toe
1 GJ 1 277.8 0.024
1 kWh 0.0036 1 8.6×10-5
1 toe 42 12,000 1
PJ EJ TWh Mtoe
1 PJ 1 0.001 0.2778 0.024
1 EJ 1000 1 277.8 24
1 TWh 3.6 0.0036 1 0.086
1 Mtoe 42 0.042 12 1
Conversion between Power and Energy assuming a constant power over time
per hour per day per year per year per year
1 kW 3.6 MJ 86.4 MJ 31.54 GJ 8760 kWh 0.75 toe
1 MW 3.6 GJ 86.4 GJ 31.54 TJ 8.76 MWh 750 toe
1 GW 3.6 TJ 86.4 TJ 31.54 PJ 8.76 GWh 0.75 Mtoe
1 TW 3.6 PJ 86.4 PJ 31.54 EJ 8.76 TWh 750 Mtoe
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