Proceedings of Bridge Engineering 2 Conference 2009 April 2009, University of Bath, Bath, UK

A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF BANDRA-WORLI CABLE STAYED BRIDGE, MUMBAI

C.S.W. DAVIES1
1 Undergraduate

Student - University Of Bath

Abstract: This paper provides an analysis of the aesthetic and structural properties of the cable stayed section of the Bandra Worli Sea Link. Both theoretical and visual interpretations of the bridge have been included. Supplementary information helps to interpret the critical analysis such as the construction process and the use of the bridge. Giving context to the paper. Keywords: Bandra-Worli Sea-Link, Cable-Stayed, Dar Al-Handasah, Mumbai. 1 Introduction The construction of the Bandra-Worli Bridge is part of the Bandra-Worli Sea Link project necessitated by the exceptionally large amounts of traffic which currently use the Mahim Causeway travel from the western suburbs of Mumbai to the commercial hub of the island City. This affects the efficiency and links to the economic metropolis and the internationally used harbour. As an upshot of Mumbais rapid growth in economy and population since its independence, traffic has stalled in the city centre. It is thought that 120,000 PCUs use the Mahim causeway every day [1]. Therefore for the sea link to make a substantial difference to the level of traffic on the mainland it is required to be able to accommodate large amounts of traffic. 8 lanes will be provided. It is the first bridge of its kind to be built in open sea, which has brought up a number of engineering issues. The infrastructure within the city is completely saturated and there is little room for expansion on the mainland, there was no other alternative than to construct over the bay. With this solution come a number of other benefits, such as reduced pollution within the city, reduced vehicle operation costs and journey times as well as the city obtaining a coastal landmark. This paper will be mainly concerned with the larger two twinned tower cable stayed sections of the bridge which were designed by consultants Dar Al-Handasah. The bridge is expected to be opened to traffic on the 1st of May 2009. 2 Form The main cable stayed section of the bridge spans 600m in length, consisting of two 250m cable supported spans and two 50m conventional approach spans. The smaller cable stayed section is 350m in length and comprises of 2 smaller cable stayed sections with a 150m central span and 2 50m approach spans on either side Fig 2. The design is described as follows by the designer. The overall tower configuration is an inverted "Y" shape with the inclined legs oriented along the axis of the bridge [1] Fig. 3. In total there are 264 cables attached to the towers, they form a semi-fan arrangement. The bridge deck is constructed of pre cast box girder sections which are identical those used for the approaches the bridge is proposed to be built utilizing the concept of precast, post - tensioned, twin segmented concrete box girder sections.[2]

Figure 2: Layout

Figure 1: General View Craig S W Davies cswd20@bath.ac.uk

Figure 3: Inverted Y Piers

3 Aesthetics It was the intention of the designers to create a striking landmark in the design of this structure. Although large span cable stayed bridge design is fairly restrictive due to designs of this size being fairly standard and there being a finite number of cable layout options. There are a number of subtle design choices used for this bridge that have helped to achieve an impressive design. I will analyse the aesthetics of the bridge bearing in mind the 10 areas of importance in bridge aesthetics suggested by Fritz Leonhardt. These are: Fulfilment of function. Proportions Order within the structure Refinement of design Integration with the environment Surface Texture Colour of components Character Complexity in variety Incorporation of nature. As with most cable stayed bridges its structural function is clear and the structure seems to be fulfilling its function well and efficiently. It is clear without performing calculations, when looking at the spans involved compared to those in the approach section the purpose of the cables in taking the load of the bridge deck. Due to the structural form of cable stayed bridges the interaction between separate functional parts is very pronounced which creates clarity and simplicity in design. Although there are a lot of cables, the colour and semi-fan layout blurs them when looking from a distance, giving, in my opinion the look of a translucent surface. The bridge is well proportioned. Although the towers are massive they do not appear to be disproportional when looking at the span that they have to cater for and again from a visual point of view there appears to be little redundancy in design. The deck is very slender; the aerodynamic shape of the box girder sections allows the edges to be thin. The final design shows that the edges will be finished in a light colour, drawing attention to the deck. The width of the deck is so great it would have been easy to end up with very large towers. A graceful solution has been found whereby the 4 columns supporting the deck meet to form one column above the deck and 2 piers below. Disguising the fact that there is such an expansive deck. The deck appears sufficient in completing the triangle created by the towers and the deck. There is order in the repetitive nature of this bridge and although the two cable stayed sections of the bridge

are different, efforts have been made to mirror structural elements to create order. The cable stayed sections are of the same proportions, the greater span of the Bandra end bridge is created by merely increasing the number of cables, the tower height and cable spacing is similar for both cable stayed sections. The spacing of the piers for the approach section is concurrent however it could be argued that the spans could be made larger as from some angles there appears to be a forest of piers Fig. 4 due to the bridge curving on plan. As already mentioned the order of the cables seems to work well, the semi-fan layout compliments the structural form of the towers because the density of cables connected in one plane increases as the 4 columns become one. This is an improvement of a precedent to this design in the Rion Antirion Bridge in Greece, where in my opinion the four columns which join appear too slender in comparison to the larger pier beneath the deck. There are a number of refinements that have been used to assist and improve the elegance of this structure. Most of these refinements tend to promote the simplicity of the bridge rather than adding to its complexity. The most worthwhile mentioning is the connection between the stays and the deck.

Figure 4: Forest of Piers The connection is hidden beneath the deck which offers a very neat interaction between the stays and the top side of the deck. This solution is both graceful and practical as the connections are still accessible for inspection. The piers supporting the approach deck are widened at their juncture with the deck so that there is dimensional coherence between the two elements. There is a gentle taper to the columns in the towers which is continued through the deck, this is pleasing to the eye without being overly apparent. As a rule of thumb cable stayed bridges look fitting over a large expanse of water, in that sense I think that it was a good design choice for its natural environment but the more important factor with this bridge is its sympathy to its urban environment. It is in a very prominent position and needs to look appropriate for its stage. The designers had the tricky task of designing something that would befit a business district and a harbour town.

Whether this had been achieved is a matter of opinion. I think that the designers have achieved in making something that from a distance is stylish and intricately simple in appearance but for the commuters who will use the road it will feel as though it is part of the city and merely an extension to the road network. The primary observation about texture is that the concrete in the towers is notched making it appear much darker than the concrete used in the deck. Whether this was a detail based more on practicality than aesthetics I am not sure but it does serve to emphasise the much lighter cables and deck which is a virtuous property in bridge design. The piers also appear to be darker, this may be due to them being shaded by the deck, this helps in making the piers merge with the sea. It is difficult to analyse how colours will look on completion. It is also difficult to define the character of this bridge because of the nature of the large span cable structure and the similarities to many other bridges of this type. My opinion is that the character of this bridge is defined by its use and the fact that the function of this bridge says a lot about the surrounding area and the congestion in Mumbai, the fact that the solution to connecting two areas which are not separated themselves by water, using a bridge over the sea is testament to the level of traffic in Mumbai and the desperate need to relieve this with such an ambitious solution. It is important to give a separate consideration to the pylons and cables which appear to have been subject to much thought in terms of design. The pylons tend to have a governing influence over the overall architectural layout. However the design appears to make structural sense and you can see that it is proportioned well when considering the loads that it is carried. Although it is an architectural statement it does not clash with the structural behaviour and therefore does not interrupt the clarity of structural form which is so often one of the most attractive features of cable stayed structures. 4 Structure 4.1 Pylons Pylons are arguably the most important components of a cable stayed bridge. The main span bridge has 2 pylons, each with 4 legs, each tower is inclined towards the other by 10, eventually merging at 98m above deck to become a single tower. Transverse and longitudinal post - tensioning is provided in the tower head to resist local cable forces[4]. The single tower is tapered towards the very top. Beneath the superstructure of the bridge the 4 legs merge to 2 points which are carried into the ground through the pile caps. As with most cable stayed bridges the pylons are very stiff. An A-frame adds torsional stiffness to the bridge, this is due to the natural resistance to twisting

created by the closed triangle. The stiff pylon in conjunction with the slender deck and numerous cables means that the pylon will be subjected to high longitudinal moments due to the live loads on the deck and pylon itself. 4.2 Cables The arrangement of the cables is 4 planes of a semifan arrangement. The Cable Stay system comprises 2,250 km of high strength galvanized steel wires which support the Cable Stay Bridge weighing 20,000 tons[3]. Each deck section has 2 planes of inclined cables which are attached to the top of the tower in one plane. This layout of cables is suitable for the large spans as the inclined arrangement provides the lateral stiffness required. The advantage of this layout is that the deck can be slender as it does not have to account for the torsional inadequacies of a single plane of cables whilst taking advantage of the preferred aesthetics of a single plane attachment to the pylon. The cables are inclined due to A-frame pylons. The deck and the two planes of inclined stays behave like a rigid closed section in bending[4] Having this apparent closed section made by the deck, the inclined stays and pylon causes the rigidities of the deck and pylons to work together to make a rigid structure which acts against rotation in the deck. The inclination of the cables is such that clearance is not an issue for the passage of vehicles across the deck due to the spans involved and the height of the pylon, it means that the level of inclination is slight. The method of lateral suspension used in this case causes transverse bending moments with a maximum in the centre of the deck. There are points of maximum shear at the edges of the deck. It was therefore important that the design took into consideration the possibility that the transverse prestress in the deck and the anchorage for the cables may clash. Cable spacing is 6.0 meters along the bridge deck. Fig 5

Figure 5: Cable Spacing

4.3 Deck The deck of the Bandra Worli Sea Link consists of a hollow concrete box section with 3 cores, the dimensions of the deck varies throughout the length of the bridge. The pre-cast segments vary in length from 1.5m to 3.1m. Each section of bridge deck will be post tensioned following installation. The idea behind having a very slender and lightweight deck is to reduce the longitudinal stiffness, it is therefore advantageous to provide a very flexible deck. Because this bridge utilises a lateral suspension, bending within the deck is reduced and torsion in the deck is not normally a critical case. For flexible decks the dimensions of the deck are determined by the transverse moments and the size of the point loads at the anchorages, this is therefore governed by the separation of those cables. [4] For the type of box section used at Bandra Worli Sea link the top slab is continuous over the webs and props. The use of webs and props creates a multi-box section allows the large width which is required for each direction of traffic.

Figure 7. Pile Caps 5 Construction Methods The precast concrete sections of the deck were launched incrementally between the pillars using a truss system, known as the balanced cantilever method [6]. The bespoke girder Fig. 8 spans between two piers with the girder being supported on the outside pier by a temporary support. This allows the central carriage to move between the two piers to install the precast deck sections by picking them up and winching them into the appropriate position. The precast sections were then epoxied together and given a certain degree of pre-stress to hold them in place[6]. Once each span had completed and geometrical adjustments made the primary continuous tendons were stressed to the required level. Once the deck section was in its requisite position cable connection can begin, using the following method. The cables are delivered to site and uncoiled using a winch, fixed to their anchor at the upper tower, winched towards the deck connection and guided into the anchorage then stressed to the required level using hydraulic jacks. One major obstacle which had to be overcome during the construction process was how to move the large truss from the Bandra end of the bridge to the Worli end without having to dismantle the truss which would be too time consuming on such a high profile structure with a strict timescale. A decision was made to use a large sea crane to lift the truss into its new position, however the depth of the water at low tide meant that the

Figure 6: Deck Construction 4.4 Foundations The foundations were designed by Lachel Felice. The drilled shaft method of construction was used to for the shafts. The shafts vary considerably in size, depending on the bedrock Rock encountered at the site included highly weathered, fractured and oxidized volcanic material with RQDs of less than 25 percent and unconfined compressive strengths of 1 MPa[5]. Foundations for the towers comprised of 52 2m diameter Fig. 7 piles arranged in a H shape to capably support the legs of the pylon, they are up to 34m in length. The loads on different parts of the structure vary considerably and this was reflected in the variability of the shaft sizes to accommodate loads from 2-25MN.

Figure 8: Truss Girder

crane could only be used at instances of high tide, this meant that the operation took a number of days. The span by span method was used for the construction of the approach sections of the bridge. Where each span was constructed up to its nearest point of contraflexure to the pier, the formwork is then shifted to the next span and the cycle is repeated. All of the rebar and formwork for the pylon, the diaphragm and the pier table were constructed off site and the pouring was carried out in stages. Due to the inclination and height of the main tower temporary longitudinal and transverse compression struts were required during construction. Geometric control is required to ensure as-built accuracy, for this reason reference points are taken at the base of towers, anchor point and completed structure, these point are used to set formwork. A programme of works for the cable stayed section of the bridge as suggested by the contractor can be seen below [1]: Construction of Foundation Construction of Tower /Pylon below the deck Construction of Tower / Pylon above the deck Construction of Pier Table Construction of Diaphragm Construction of Tower/ Pylon above the deck Erection of Deck and Stay Cables Stressing of Stay Cables Wet Joint Construction Continuity PT and Grouting of Cables Force adjustment and fine tuning.

combination of the effects of a UDL over a notional lane and a knife-edge load place at the most critical point within this lane. HB loading takes account of a particularly large truck placed at the most critical point along the bridge. 6.1 Dead Loads Dead loads are taken to be just the weight of the precast deck sections, any reinforcing steel is assumed to be accounted for by the increased density of the concrete. Where dimensional information is not available conservative values have been assumed. The 2 separate decks for traffic in opposite directions can be considered in isolation as the structural systems for each deck are independent. The deck sections considered are 3m in length along most of the bridge, there are some variations in the dimensions of the approach sections but these account for small differences and will be neglected for the purpose of analysis. Density of reinforced concrete = 2400kg/m3=23.5kN/m3 The web thickness and the top and soffit thickness vary slightly over the sectional profile of the deck. The thickness of top and soffit can be approximated as 150mm and 200mm for the web. Cross-sectional deck area = 7.22 23.5 7.2 = 169.5/ (1) 6.2 Super-imposed Dead Load The super-imposed dead load will be taken as merely the components of the road surface. In reality there will be loads incident from the services for the bridge, such as lighting and prestressing. It is likely that these loads will be neglible in comparison to those from the road surface. It is likely that the deck covering will consist of a waterproof layer, a sand asphalt mix and an asphalt surface. I have assumed that this layer can be modelled as 200mm of asphalt with a density of 2300kg/m 3, for analysis. 2300 9.81 1000 = 22.6 22.6 22.7 0.2 = 102/

Figure 9. Dimensions For Cable Stayed Deck Section 6 Loading The following analysis of some of the primary structural considerations for this bridge will be carried out for Ultimate Limit State (ULS) and Serviceability Limit State (SLS). Dead loads for serviceability should be taken as the actual loads whereas the loads for ultimate limit state will be subject to factors for particular materials and varying load cases such as favourable and unfavourable effects, these are to be found in BS5400 Table 1. Live loads must also be taken into account. . The nominal vales for traffic loads will be given using the HA and HB loading convention where. HA is the

6.3 Live Traffic Loading HA is the combination of the effects of a UDL over a notional lane and a knife-edge load place at the most critical point within this lane. The primary issue which needs to be considered at this point is the number of

notional lanes for the deck, BS5400 3.2.9.3; this defines how much loading there will be on the deck. Carriageway width: >19.0m and 22.8< Therefore there will be 6 notional lanes. The two types of live loads which need to be applied to the bridge separately in their most adverse form are HA and HB loading. HA is a UDL action over 2 notional lanes where all other notional lanes are loaded with 1/3 HA. In addition a KEL of 120kN per notional lane. These loads must be factored for limit state analysis. Because the loaded length is over 380m a load of 9kN/m will be used. This needs converted into a UDL: 9 3.3 = 2.7kN/m2. 3.3m is the notional width of the loaded lanes. HB loading represents an abnormally large truck. Due to the size and funtion of this bridge I believe that it is reaosnable to suggest full HB loading for the bridge. This is 45 units, where each wheel carries 112.5kN. The critical load cases for maximum hogging and sagging are shown in Figs 10-13. 6.4 Combination Loading There are a number of load combinations to consider in finding the worst case. For this example I will look at load case 1 which includes all permanent loads and primary live loads (all traffic loads). These loads have been calculated previously and are shown below. Table 1: Loading For Load Case 1 Loads Dead Super-imposed Dead HA HB Factors (f) 1.05 1.75 1.5 1.3 Value 177.9kN/m 178.5kN/m 13.5kN/m 45 units, nominally 146.3kN per wheel The loads needs to be applied to spans in a critical manner for both hogging and sagging in order to find the bending moments in the deck. In order to display this clearly I have shown the calculations for the 50m approach span sections of the bridge. For maximum sag the smallest, distance between the wheel axels will cause the critical situation for HB loading, therefore 6m separation, 9.6m in total. The height of the deck is 74m from sea level The loaded length is 500m S1=1 S2=1.66 K2=1.42 The average wind speed was found to be 4.5m/s Therefore, = 4.5 1.42 1 1.66 = 10.6/ The horizontal wind load acting on the deck = qA1Cd. Where q is the dynamic pressure head, 0.613Vc And A1 is the solid horizontal projected area Figure 13: Maximum Hog Loading Plan An assumption has been made for the bending and compression calculations based on this load case that there is no lengthening of the cables during normal loading conditions. Figure 11: Maximum Sag Loading Plan A possible case of maximum hogging is shown below. The largest vehicle has been chosen for HB loading to concentrate as much load as possible towards the centre of the spans adjacent to the hogging pier. An iterative process may be required in order to place the KEL in the most critical position but for simplicity I have assumed that it is in the centre of the span to the right of the pier.

Figure 12: Maximum Hog Loading Elevation

6.5 Wind Loading From BS5400 5.3.2.1, the maximum gust that could strike the bridge is: = 112 (3)

Figure 10: Maximum Sag Loading Elevation

Cd is a function of b/d. In the case of the Bandra worli sea link, the depth of the deck with a 1m parapet is greater than the height of the largest vehicle. For a conservsative assumtion I have said that the bridge has a solid parapet. Therefore b/d=22700/4000=5.675 and Cd= 1.3 = 0.613 10.6 4 1.3 = 358/ (4) This is not a large force; this is largely due to the relatively low maximum gust. These calculations do not take into account the aerodynamic shape of the deck. This force is taken to act at the centroid. This force will have been taken into account for stability of the parapet. Vertical wind can also be considered for live loading and may be part of the critical load situation, both upwards and downwards wind need to be considered. A similar equation for horizontal loading is used: = 3 68.9 22.7 0.4 = 625.6/ (5) As the depth of the deck and parapet is greater than the largest expected vehicle the depth of 4m will be used again. For uplift the depth without vehicles is always considered as the critical case would always occur when the bridge had no vehicle loading. 6.6 Seismic Loading Mumbai is in a geographically sensitive area for earthquakes. In general cable stayed structures are extremely effective at coping with ground displacements due to them resting on a limited number of point supports [walther]. However differential movement of the supports can cause damage to the structure, this is fairly common with a bridge of this size due to the separation and therefore geological variation between the ground beneath them. Particularly affecting the junctions between piers and the deck. For this reason horizontal affects are much more hazardous than vertical movements. The Bandra-Worli Sea link design fulfils the criteria laid out in the Indian standard for earthquake design in bridges IS 1893 (1984). In the introduction to the codes it is stated that all earthquake resistant structures should have good structural configuration, good lateral stability, stiffness and ductility. The structural form of a cable stayed structure delivers adequate ductility and the Aframe shape of the piers along with the generous sizing of the foundations provides a certain degree of stiffness
2

and lateral stability. There are a number of other minor features which contribute to the bridges seismic design such as using DISKTRON bearings which allow complete rotation in both longitudinal and transverse directions. 7 Natural Frequency The effects of vibration on the structure of a bridge can be great. Examples of where natural frequency issues of a bridge have caused problems are the Tacoma Narrows bridge and the Millennium Bridge crossing the Thames. These two examples highlight how the frequency of live loads, apart from wind have to be considered. It demonstrates that the bridge should be analysed bearing in mind not only collapse but the comfort of the users. Therefore a range of frequencies should be considered to confirm that the bridge will not suffer excessive movement due to having a natural frequency which matches the frequency of any oscillatory loads applied to the bridge. Without damaging the structure, the vibrations due to wind and traffic can inconvenience users. These physiological effects are generally very subjective experiences[4]. These physiological effects are acceptable when the natural frequency of the bridge is: < < 75 Using: = 2 2 (6) The value of C is because the 2 spans on opposite sides of the piers are equal. L = 250m the longest span occurs at Worli end suspension section. E = 30GPa I = 17m4 So: 30 106 9.81 17 = 26.9 2 250 272.5

This is within acceptable bounds 8 Cable Sizing The spacing of the cables at the deck is every 6 metres. There is a cable connection at every other precast section of deck. The load carried by each cable will include the live loads and the dead loads of the

bridge. The worst case will be when there is full HA loading on two lanes and a third HA loading on the other 4 notional lanes. There will also be a KEL of 120kN per notional lane. There are 2 inclined planes per deck; for the purpose of this analysis the cables will feel the entire load. These calculations therefore conservatively neglect any support from the piers in the cable section. I will just display calculations for the worst case cable. This is assumed to be where the angle of the cable to the plane of the bridge is least. It should be born in mind when looking at these calculations using operational loads that the worst loading case for the cables may be during construction. The critical angle is 26. tan = 120 250

If I now consider the section between the cables as simply supported, 1515kNm =
2 12

505000 6 2 12

To check in tension, minimum compression in the deck of the suspended bridge section will occur for a in the deck section furthest away from the pier, it has a stress of: = 6.2 = 0.86/2 7.2

(10) The compression due to bending moments is shown below: = 1515 106 2000 = 0.176/2 17 1012

= 26 (7) The total load over 6 metres of the bridge with the aforementioned vertical loading loading is 3.03MN. This is split evenly between 2 planes, therefore 1.515MN. This will be the vertical load in the cable, the tension in the cable is therefore: = sin 26 = 3.46
1.514

(11) This level of stress seems fairly low for the size of load we are looking at. This seems to be due to the particularly high second moment of area value for the deck. These calculations show that the whole section of the deck will be in compression due to the force transferred by the cables and tensile considerations can be ignored. 9.2 Compression in the Tower The vertical force in each cable will be equal to the weight of the section of deck that the cable carries and any live loads that this section of the deck may be subjected to. This has been calculated to be 3.03MN. For all of the cables, the total compressive force carried into the tower is around 242.4MN. Due to the changing cross section of the tower it is difficult to easily see where the maximum stress will occur without more in depth analysis. For this purpose, as I do not have dimensional information for the tower, I will calculate the area of C50 concrete required to safely carry this load and make visual comparisons to the profile of the tower. = 242.4 = 4.852 50

(8)

Using technical information from cable contractors, Shanghai Pujyang Cable Company, I have found that the strength of the steel used is 1860N/mm2. This is 64mm diameter of solid steel or 19 cables with a diameter of 15.7mm diameter. 9 Compression and Bending 9.1 Deck Compression Some of the horizontal force in the cable will be carried as compression in the deck. I have calculated the horizontal force for all of the cables to find the compression in the deck. The total compression in the deck due to cable forces is 200MN. To check this value against the strength of the concrete deck, a stress value needs to be obtained. = 200 106 = = 27.7 7.2 106

(12) The actual area of concrete appears to be much greater than this throughout the whole profile of the tower. The most critical condition for the tower may be uneven loading, for instance full HA and HB on only one side, this will cause considerable moments at the base of the tower.

(9) This compression is acceptable as the compressive strength of concrete is between 50 and 60Mpa.

9.3 Bending To calculate the bending moments in the bridge I have had to assume that the bridge is continuous over piers and has non moment carrying connection at both ends. Due to the scale of the bridge it would be difficult to clarify the distribution of moments for the bridge as a whole. For this reason I will display those for just the cable stayed section.

bridge than a cable stayed bridge, giving unexpected load conditions. BS5400 5.4 dictates that the bridge must be analysed for 2 conditions, overall temperature increases and variations in temperature through the profile of the bridge. I will initially look at the stresses caused by overall temperature increases. The design values for the temperature variation are unknown but for the climate in India I would suggest a conservative value of 25. Concrete has a thermal expansion of 12106/C. The greatest distance between expansion joints is 500m. = = (12 106 ) 25 = 300 = = 300 106 500000 = 150 (14) The apparent stress in the deck can then be found:

Figure 14: Bending Moment and Shear Force Diagram for Cable Section Fig. 14 shows the bridge under combination 1 loading. The deck is continuous and is supported by cables which are assumed to take all of the loads, any support from piers has been neglected. There are movements at each end of the cable stayed section of the bridge and there is no moment carried. The bending and shear diagram above shows just a small section but due to the symmetrical and orthotropic nature of the cable stayed section of this bridge the values will be concurrent for the whole length of the cable stayed section. The maximum sagging moment is 2.27MNm and the maximum hogging is 9.09NMm. This produces a stress of: 9.09 109 1500 = = 0.8/2 < 1 17 1012 (13) 10 Temperature Effects = Effective temperature fluctuations and a severe temperature gradient over the profile of a bridge can cause deformations in the members. These deformations must be accommodated in design to avoid high levels of stress being induced in the structure. For example, the designer needs to provide bearings with adequate displacement and rotation capacities. [7] For cable stayed bridges it is extremely important that temperature changes will not cause the cables to slacken thus reducing their tension and load carrying capacity resulting in the large span section acting more as a beam

= 210000 300 106 = 63/2 (15)

Figure15: Temperature Gradient and Associated Strains Using Fig. 9 in BS5400 to obtain the expected temperature gradient over the depth of the bridge. Clearly these values will have to be adapted somewhat to allow for the different temperatures in India. The corresponding values for strain are also shown. Stress in the deck can also be found and used to confirm the capacity of the deck. The maximum stress due to temperature effects will occur when the strain is 240. In this instance the associated stress, assuming E of concrete is 30GPa is 7.2N/mm2. 11 Creep Effects One of the most critical factors in the assessment of a bridge is how the structure will perform and change with time. There are a number of parameters which can affect the loading on the bridge such as, stress relaxation,

settlement and earth pressure. Possible shrinkage and creep effects are two of the most important and need to be incorporated into the design. The effects of creep are inevitable in concrete structures, to a certain degree. Due to the effect of creep, a structure tend to amplify its deformation under a given load condition over time [8]. These changes can substantially effect the stresses and strains calculated throughout this paper, which have neglected the effects of creep. The interaction between deformations of different portions of the structural system can cause difficulties in design, for example increase in the deformations of the deck and pylons over time leads to an increase in the initial tension in the stays [8]. It is therefore important to counter these effects by putting some initial prestress into the cables to reduce the effect that the creep in the concrete has on the cables. The amount of creep must be known in order to be able to adjust the level of prestress accordingly. At the Bandra Worli Sea Link O-Cells are used which are able to output data about creep behaviour at various points along the bridge, these can remain in-situ post construction. The bridge will be tested for reference geometry after 200 days in service stage which requires a detailed analysis of the time dependant factors.

must also allow inspection of the cables passage into the socket using an endoscope. Other methods of inspection are available such as electromagnetic and x-ray inspection which allow for examination of internal steel. The sockets for the cables are located on the soffit of the deck to aid inspection [9]. Mitigation is a more effective solution but is not wholly reliable in all cases and does not remove the need for inspection. A number of measures have been taken in this case to improve durability and reduce the amount of required maintenance such as having glavanised strands with a protective coating and covering the whole cable with a polyethylene sheath. Microsillica and other admixtures have been added to the concrete creating a denser, stronger and less permeable material which is less likely to require maintenance during construction. The bridge has been designed with contingency for increase in traffic anticipated in Mumbai and no changes are anticipated in the near future. 13 Conclusion Having studied the Bandra Worli Sea Link in depth I can appreciate that it is a worthy representation of current bridge engineering technology and a good example of what is possible in the current climate. The optimised execution of the inverted Y design of the pylon is a solution that is both aesthetically and technically successful. The use of tensioning mechanisms has provided an efficient compromise between deck sizing and costly strengthening methods.

References [1] HCC. Bandra Worli Sea Link Project - Construction Methods. HCC India Website. [Online] 2008. [2] Dar Consultants. Bandra Worli Sea Link. [Online] 2008. [3]Bandra-Worli Sea Link - Mumbai, India. Waymarking. [Online] April 2009. [4] Walther, Rene, et al. Cable Stayed Bridges. s.l. : Thomas Telford, London, 1988. [5] Drilled Shaft Construction For the Bandra Worli Sea Link Project. Conrad, W. Felice and Brenniman, Henry. 2004, pp. 84-95. [6] Bridge Construction Paper - Cable Stay Construction . VSL. [7] Effects of Temperature Variations on Precast, Prestressed. Barr, P. J., Stanton, J. F. and Eberhard, M. O. 2005, Jounal of Bridge Engineering. [8] Long Term Behaviour of Cable Stayed Bridges. Scotti, Andrea. 2003. [9] LaViolette, Mike et al. 2007, Bridge Construction Practices.

Figure 16: Effect of Pre-stress on cable tension with 12 Durability and Maintenace Due to this bridge being a new build it is unlikely that there will be any durability or serious maintenance issues for some time, however the these issues must be accounted for and any possible inadequacies in durability highlighted so that there is a prior awareness of any shortfalls. It is useful to look to precedents prior to design to see if there is a trend in the type of damage caused to cable stayed structures over time which can be alleviated through design. It is important to undertake comprehensive inspections both periodically and after extreme events such as floods or storms. In cable structures critical damage to the cables themselves must be prevented. The cable anchorages at Bandra Worli have been designed to allow full access and a thorough inspection. The design