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A Brief History
Remote Sensing began in 1839 with the invention of the camera. Remote
sensing is the process of collecting, storing and extracting information about an
object without physical contact. Environmental Remote sensing began with the
use of arial photography from balloons, and later planes, to identify enemy
positions and strategic targets. The technology developed by the military was
later used for the civilian purposes in land surveys. In the 1930's, arial
photography was used to develop topographic maps. This was a much faster,
easier and cheaper way to make maps.
Radars can be either imaging or non-imaging:
a) imaging radars: Imaging radars display the radar backscatter characteristics of
the earth's surface in the form of a strip map or a picture of a selected area. An
example of an imaging radar includes the Side Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR)
which is carried on aircraft. This sensor scans an area not directly below the aircraft
but at an angle to the vertical, hence the term Side Looking
-develop by guess who in the 1950's
- airborne, fixed antenna width, sends one pulse at a time and measures what
gets scattered back
- resolution determined by wavelength and antenna size (narrow antenna width =
higher resolution
b) non-imaging radars: Unlike imaging radars, the non-imaging radars record a
specific physical parameter. Examples of non- imaging radars include the radar
scatterometer and the radar altimeter.
The next step in remote sensing was the development of side looking airborne
radar (SLAR). SLAR was developed by the military after WWII. It produces a
high resolution photo like image. It was developed as side looking rather than
down looking in order to see across political boundaries.
Development of SLAR
The next great step in remote sensing was the development of space
flight. In the early 60's, low resolution weather satellites were sent into
space.
The latest development in remote sensing is the shuttle imaging radars,
SIR-A, B and C. The development of the space shuttle made it possible to
have a reusable radar system in space.
2
SONE EXANPLES OF
SPACEBORNE
DATAACQU!S!T!ON SYSTENS
SCATTEROMETER
What is a Scatterometer?
A scatterometer is a microwave radar sensor used to measure the reflection or
scattering effect produced while scanning the surface of the earth from an
aircraft or a satellite.
SeaWinds Scatterometer
The SAS (antenna subsystem) consists of a one-meter parabolic reflector
antenna mounted to a spin activator assembly, which causes the reflector to
rotate at 18 Rpm's (revolutions per minute). The activator assembly provides
very accurate spin control and precise position or pointing information to the
CDS (command and data subsystem). Optical encoders, glass disks with
small patterns printed on the surface, tell the CDS exactly where the antenna
is pointing to about 10/1000 of a degree. The antenna spins at a very precise
rate, and emits two beams about 6 degrees apart, each consisting of a
continuous stream of pulses. The two beams are necessary to achieve
accurate wind direction measurements. The pointing of these beams is
precisely calibrated before launch so that the echoes may be accurately
located on the ground from space.
Description of the SeaWinds Scatterometer and How It Works
The SeaWinds scatterometer is a microwave radar designed specifically to
measure ocean near-surface wind speed and direction.
The SeaWinds scatterometer consists of three major parts called
subsystems. They are the Electronics Subsystem (SES), the Antenna
Subsystem (SAS), and the Command and Data Subsystem (CDS).
The Electronics Subsystem is the heart of the scatterometer and it contains
a transmitter, receiver and digital signal processor. It generates and sends
high radio frequency (RF) waves to the antenna. The antenna transmits the
signal to the Earth's surface as energy pulses. When the pulses hit the
surface of the ocean it causes a scattering affect referred to as backscatter.
A rough ocean surface returns a stronger signal because the waves reflect
more of the radar energy back toward the scatterometer antenna. A smooth
ocean surface returns a weaker signal because less of the energy is
reflected.
The echo or backscatter is routed by the antenna to the SES through
waveguides (rectangular metal pipes that guide RF energy waves from one
point to another). The SES then converts the signals into digital form for data
processing.
Why is Scatterometry Important?
Data derived from ocean scatterometers is vital to scientists in the their studies of
air-sea interaction and ocean circulation, and their effects on weather patterns and
global climate. These data are also useful in the study of unusual weather
phenomena such as El Nio, the long-term effects of deforestation on our rain
forests, and changes in the sea-ice masses around the polar regions. These all
play a central role in regulating global climate.
Computer modeling of global atmospheric dynamics for the purpose of weather
forecasting has become an increasingly important tool to meteorologists.
Scatterometer data, with wide swath coverage, have been shown to significantly
improve the forecast accuracy of these models. By combining scatterometer data
of ocean-surface wind speed and direction with measurements from other scientific
instruments, scientists gather information to help us better understand the
mechanisms of global climate change and weather patterns.
S Spectrometer pectrometer
A A spectrometer spectrometer is an is an instrument instrument that that measures measures
the the intensity intensity of of light light reflected reflected from from an an object object and and
its its distribution distribution in in the the spectrum spectrum. .
In In contrast contrast, an , an imaging imaging sensor sensor measures measures the the
spatial spatial distribution distribution of of reflectance reflectance throughout throughout the the
field field of of view view. . Spectroradiometers Spectroradiometers collect collect
numerical numerical data data only only and and this this can be can be used used to to
develop develop a a graph graph. .
Spectroradiometers Spectroradiometers use use specialized specialized detectors detectors, ,
such such as as photo photo diodes diodes, , capable capable of of sensing sensing and and
recording recording the the signals signals emitted emitted in in wavelengths wavelengths that that
are are visible visible and and non non- -visible visible to to the the human human eye eye. .
The The spectrometer spectrometer is not an is not an imaging imaging system system; ;
rather rather, it is a , it is a non non- -imaging imaging remote remote sensor. sensor. For For
example example, a , a camera camera capturing capturing a a picture picture is an is an
imaging imaging system system. .
MODIS(Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer)
On board of NASA operated EOS (Earth Observing System)
3
The The advantage advantage of a of a spectrometer spectrometer
operating operating in in space space over over a a multispectral multispectral
scanner scanner, , which which samples samples only only bands bands of of
extended extended but but usually usually separated separated spectral spectral
intervals intervals, is, as , is, as hinted hinted at at before before, , that that it it
samples samples essentially essentially the the full full continuum continuum of of
wavelengths wavelengths ( (actually actually, , with with present present
technology technology, , very very narrow narrow individual individual bands bands
that that are are wavelength wavelength contiguous contiguous). ).
Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS), onboard the Nimbus sattellite
system
NIMBUS is a NASA program to develop observation systems meeting the research
and development requirements of atmospheric and Earth scientists.
The Nimbus satellites, first launched in 1964, carried a number of instruments:
microwave radiometers, atmospheric sounders, ozone mappers, the Coastal Zone
Color Scanner (CZCS), infrared radiometers, etc. Nimbus-7, the last in the series,
provided significant global data on sea-ice coverage, atmospheric temperature,
atmospheric chemistry (i.e. ozone distribution), the Earth's radiation budget, and
sea-surface temperature.
TOMS instrument onboard the NIMBUS satellite was able to map the areal extent
of the phenomenon known as the Ozone hole.
The first Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS),
on Nimbus 7 was used to monitor SO
2
in the
atmosphere. After major volcanic eruptions, clouds of
SO
2
-enriched ash and gases ejected into the upper
atmosphere can be tracked across much of the world
until they dissipate. Here is the status on June 20,
1991, of the cloud produced by the Mt. Pinatubo
eruption in the Philippines.
The TOMS instrument is a second-generation backscatter ultraviolet ozone
sounder. TOMS can measure "total column ozone"--the total amount of ozone in a
"column" of air from the Earth's surface to the top of the atmosphere--under all
daytime observing and geophysical conditions. TOMS observations cover the near
ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum, where sunlight is absorbed only
partially by ozone.
TOMS/EP measures total ozone by observing both incoming solar energy and
backscattered ultraviolet (UV) radiation at six wavelengths. "Backscattered"
radiation is solar radiation that has penetrated to the Earth's lower
atmosphere and is then scattered by air molecules and clouds back through
the stratosphere to the satellite sensors. Along that path, a fraction of the UV
is absorbed by ozone. By comparing the amount of backscattered radiation to
observations of incoming solar energy at identical wavelengths, scientists can
calculate the Earth's albedo, the ratio of light reflected by Earth compared to
that it receives. Changes in albedo at the selected wavelengths can be used
to derive the amount of ozone above the surface.
TOMS makes 35 measurements every 8 seconds, each covering 30 to 125
miles (50 to 200 kilometers) wide on the ground, strung along a line
perpendicular to the motion of the satellite. Almost 200,000 daily
measurements cover every single spot on the Earth except areas near one of
the poles, where the Sun remains close to or below the horizon during the
entire 24-hour period.
The extremely high quality of TOMS ozone data has also helped scientists in
detecting a small but steady long-term damage to the ozone layer over
several parts of the globe, including most of the heavily populated areas in
the northern mid-latitudes.
Landsat Satellite Landsat Satellite
Program Overview Program Overview
Landsats carried combinations of 4 Landsats carried combinations of 4
types of sensors: types of sensors:
- - Return Beam Vidicon (RBV) camera Return Beam Vidicon (RBV) camera
systems systems
- - Multispectral Scanner (MSS) systems Multispectral Scanner (MSS) systems
- - Thematic Mapper (TM) Thematic Mapper (TM)
- - Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM) Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM)
4
The The simplest simplest device is an device is an optical optical glass glass prism prism whose whose cross cross- -section section
is a is a triangle triangle. .
A A polychromatic polychromatic light light ( (non non- -visible visible radiation radiation) ) beam beam arrives arrives at at one one
side side of of the the prism prism. At . At this this glass glass surface surface, , the the rays rays with with different different
wavelengths wavelengths bend bend according according to to their their response response to to the the refractive refractive
power power of of the the glass glass. .
The The degree degree of of bending bending varies varies with with wavelength wavelength, , which which means means that that
the the index index of of refraction refraction also also differs differs for for the the range range of of wavelengths wavelengths. .
For For example example, in , in crown crown glass glass the the index index is 1.528 is 1.528 for for violet violet and and
1.514 1.514 for for red red. .
If If the the beam beam strikes strikes one one side side of a of a right right- -triangle triangle prism prism at a at a right right
angle angle, it , it continues continues in in the the same same direction direction but but slows slows and and then then bends bends
to to differing differing extents extents as it as it emerges emerges at at the the slant slant ( (hypotenuse hypotenuse) )
surface surface on on the the opposite opposite side side. . If If we we orient orient the the prism prism with with the the
hypotenuse hypotenuse face face as as its its base base ( (parallel parallel to to the the incoming incoming light light beam beam), ),
the the beam beam will will meet meet a a slanted slanted face face first first and and bend bend as it as it enters enters the the
prism prism. . Then Then the the dispersed dispersed light light will will meet meet the the second second slant slant face face
and and bend bend more more. . The The net net effect effect is is to to spread spread the the ( (visible visible) ) light light rays rays
according according to to their their effective effective indices indices of of refraction refraction into into a a continuous continuous
geometric geometric color color pattern pattern that that forms forms the the wavelength wavelength abscissa abscissa of a of a
spectral spectral plot plot. .
MSS Systems MSS Systems
The MSS onboard Landsat The MSS onboard Landsat- -1, 1,- -2, 2,- -3 3
covered a 185 km swath width in 4 covered a 185 km swath width in 4
wavelength bands (green, red, and 2 wavelength bands (green, red, and 2
near near- -IR) designated as bands IR) designated as bands
4,5,6,7. 4,5,6,7.
On Landsat On Landsat- -3 there was a band 8 3 there was a band 8
(thermal band) but this failed shortly (thermal band) but this failed shortly
after launch. after launch.
0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1
Wave1engfh { Wave1engfh { Wave1engfh { Wave1engfh { m} m} m} m} Wave1engfh { Wave1engfh { Wave1engfh { Wave1engfh { m} m} m} m}
MSS Band 7 scene
(NYC / NJ area)
data strips "framed into
a 185x185 km scene
"rotational skew
represented as a "slanted
parallelogram
79m ground resolution
per pixel
MSS Band 7 scene MSS Band 7 scene
(NYC / NJ area) (NYC / NJ area)
data strips data strips " "framed framed into into
a 185x185 km scene a 185x185 km scene
" "rotational skew rotational skew
represented as a represented as a " "slanted slanted
parallelogram parallelogram
79m ground resolution 79m ground resolution
per pixel per pixel
LAN0SAT hSS
sensor appIIcatIons
LAN0SAT hSS LAN0SAT hSS
sensor appIIcatIons sensor appIIcatIons
MSS BAND Wavelength spectral region aplications
4 0,5-0,6 green water penetration, sesitivite to tubidity
and pollution; (most affected by atm. haze)
5 0,6-0,7 red chlorophyll absorption band(veg vs nonveg
,improved haze penetration(reduced water
penetration)
6 0,7-0,8 Near-IR vegetation discrimination,vegatation
stress, soil moisture, land-water contrast
7 0,8-0,9 Near-IR similar to band 6, best haze penetration
and tonal contrast of features
MSS Systems MSS Systems
IFOV of MSS used is square and IFOV of MSS used is square and
results in a ground resolution cell of results in a ground resolution cell of
about 79 m on a side. about 79 m on a side.
The total field of view is 11.56 The total field of view is 11.56 (very (very
small angle). To compensate for small angle). To compensate for
that, an oscillating scan mirror is that, an oscillating scan mirror is
used. used.
MSS Systems MSS Systems
6 contiguous lines are scanned 6 contiguous lines are scanned
simultaneously with each mirror simultaneously with each mirror
oscillation, resulting in a 1/6 the oscillation, resulting in a 1/6 the
single single- -line scan rate. line scan rate.
This arrangement requires This arrangement requires
- - 4 arrays (one for each band) of 4 arrays (one for each band) of
- - 6 detectors each (one for each line). 6 detectors each (one for each line).
5
MSS Systems MSS Systems
Each MSS scan line is from W to E Each MSS scan line is from W to E
with the spacecraft moving with the spacecraft moving
southward. southward.
Each MSS scene is covering a 185 x Each MSS scene is covering a 185 x
185 km area, with 10% endlap 185 km area, with 10% endlap
between successive scenes. between successive scenes.
MSS Systems MSS Systems
A nominal scene consists of ~2340 A nominal scene consists of ~2340
scan lines, with 3240 pixels/line or scan lines, with 3240 pixels/line or
7,581,600 pixels/channel. 7,581,600 pixels/channel.
With 4 spectral observations/pixel, With 4 spectral observations/pixel,
each image data set contains over 30 each image data set contains over 30
million observations. million observations.
An image is collected in about 25 An image is collected in about 25
sec. sec.
MSS Systems MSS Systems
Color composites can be generated Color composites can be generated
by printing three MSS bands onto by printing three MSS bands onto
color film. color film.
Usually, band 4 is printed in blue, Usually, band 4 is printed in blue,
band 5 in green, and band 7 in red. band 5 in green, and band 7 in red.
Color IR film is simulated that way. Color IR film is simulated that way.
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MSS Systems MSS Systems
A A- -D converters onboard convert the D converters onboard convert the
analog signal from each detector to analog signal from each detector to
digital form, sampling the output of the digital form, sampling the output of the
detectors about 100,000 times/sec. detectors about 100,000 times/sec.
The resulting nominal ground spacing The resulting nominal ground spacing
between readings is 56 m, forming an between readings is 56 m, forming an
image value matrix of 56 x 79 m cells. image value matrix of 56 x 79 m cells.
Brightness value for each pixel though Brightness value for each pixel though
is derived from the full 79 x 79 m is derived from the full 79 x 79 m
ground resolution cell. ground resolution cell.
Reflectance Reflectance in in
Visible and Visible and
Near IR Near IR
6
Minerals from Minerals from
Reflected Reflected
Light Light
General Examples General Examples
ERS ERS and and Topex Topex- -Poseidon Poseidon
series satellites, which are series satellites, which are
used to estimate and used to estimate and
correct for atmospheric correct for atmospheric
water vapour content in water vapour content in
the column through which the column through which
altimetric altimetric readings are readings are
being taken uses being taken uses
microwave radiometry microwave radiometry
instrument. instrument.
Detailed figure of Topex-Poseidon satellite
ATSR ATSR
Along Along Track Track Scanning Scanning Radiometer Radiometer
Along Along- -Track Scanning Radiometer (ATSR) Track Scanning Radiometer (ATSR)
A sweeping mirror detects and A sweeping mirror detects and
maps infrared radiation in maps infrared radiation in
various wavelengths along the various wavelengths along the
satellite track. When the sky is satellite track. When the sky is
cloud cloud- -free, these measurements free, these measurements
can be converted to land and can be converted to land and
sea surface temperature. sea surface temperature.
Each Each ATSR ATSR instrument instrument has has been been designed designed for for exceptional exceptional
sensitivity sensitivity and and stability stability of of calibration calibration which which are are achieved achieved through through
the the incorporation incorporation of of several several innovative innovative features features in in the the instrument instrument
design design
- - use use of of low low- -noise noise infrared infrared detectors detectors, , cooled cooled to to near near- -optimum optimum
temperatures temperatures (i.e., (i.e., less less than than 95 K) 95 K) by by a a Stirling Stirling cycle cycle mechanical mechanical
cooler cooler; ;
- - continuous continuous on on- -board board radiometric radiometric calibration calibration of of the the infrared infrared channels channels
against against two two stable stable, , high high- -accuracy accuracy blackbody blackbody calibration calibration targets targets and and, in , in
the the case case of ATSR of ATSR- -2 2 and and AATSR, AATSR, calibration calibration of of the the visible visible and and near near
infrared infrared channels channels with with an on an on- -board board visible visible calibration calibration system system; ;
- - use use of of the the multichannel multichannel approach approach to to SST SST retrieval retrieval previously previously
demonstrated demonstrated by by the the AVHRR AVHRR instruments instruments; ;
- - use use of of the the " "along along- -track track scanning scanning" " technique technique to to provide provide two two views views of of
the the surface surface and and thus thus an an improved improved correction correction for for atmospheric atmospheric effects effects. .
ATSR's ATSR's field field of of view view comprises comprises two two 500 km 500 km- -wide wide curved curved swaths swaths, ,
with with 555 555 pixels pixels across across the the nadir nadir swath swath and and 371 371 pixels pixels across across the the
forward forward swath swath. .
The The nominal nominal instantaneous instantaneous field field of of view view (IFOV) (IFOV) pixel pixel size is 1 km2 size is 1 km2
at at the the centre centre of of the the nadir nadir swath swath and and 1.5 1.5 m m processing processing. .
ATSR ATSR- -1 1
ATSR ATSR- -1 1 was was launched launched as as part part of of the the payload payload of of
ESA's ESA's ERS ERS- -1 1 satellite satellite on 17th on 17th July July 1991, 1991, and and was was
the the test test- -bed bed for for the the along along track track scanning scanning
concept concept. .
It It carries carries infrared infrared channels channels at 1.6 at 1.6 m, 3.7 m, 3.7 m, m,
10.8 10.8 m m and and 12.0 12.0 m, m, and and has no has no visible visible
channels channels. .
Routine Routine ATSR ATSR- -1 1 operations operations stopped stopped when when ERS ERS- -1 1
was was put put into into hibernation hibernation in in June June 1996, but 1996, but the the
instrument instrument is is still still capable capable of of operation operation as, as, even even
after after nearly nearly 7 7 years years of of use use, , the the signal signal to to noise noise
performance performance of of the the detectors detectors is is higher higher than than for for a a
typical typical AVHRR at AVHRR at launch launch. .
7
ATSR ATSR- -2 2 and and AATSR AATSR
The The ATSR ATSR- -2 2 and and Advanced Advanced ATSR (AATSR) ATSR (AATSR)
instruments instruments are are developments developments from from the the
original original experimental experimental ATSR ATSR- -1 1 instrument instrument
which which, in , in addition addition to to the the ATSR ATSR- -1's 1's infrared infrared
channels channels, , carry carry extra extra visible visible channels channels at at
0.55 0.55 m, 0.67 m, 0.67 m m and and 0.87 0.87 m m for for
vegetation vegetation remote remote sensing sensing. .
The The evolution evolution of ATSR of ATSR- -2 2 was was constrained constrained
by by the the requirement requirement to to maintain maintain the the ATSR ATSR- -
1 1 precision precision measurement measurement of global SST. of global SST.
ATSR ATSR- -1, ATSR 1, ATSR- -2 2 and and AATSR AATSR
Spectral Spectral Channels Channels
The The ATSR ATSR- -2 2 instrument instrument for for ERS ERS- -2 is 2 is
largely largely the the same same as ATSR as ATSR- -1 1 except except
for for: :
the the inclusion inclusion of 3 of 3 extra extra spectral spectral
bands bands in in the the visible visible, ,
mainly mainly for for vegetation vegetation monitoring monitoring; ;
an on an on- -board board visible visible calibration calibration
system system. .
AVHRR AVHRR
Advanced Advanced Very Very High High Resolution Resolution
Radiometer Radiometer
Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer - -
AVHRR; AVHRR;
The AVHRR is a radiation The AVHRR is a radiation- -detection imager that detection imager that
can be used for remotely determining cloud can be used for remotely determining cloud
cover and the surface temperature. cover and the surface temperature.
The AVHRR five channel scanning radiometer The AVHRR five channel scanning radiometer
with 1.1 with 1.1- -km resolution is sensitive in the visible km resolution is sensitive in the visible
and near and near- -infrared, and the infrared 'window' infrared, and the infrared 'window'
regions. regions.
The The AVHRR is a AVHRR is a radiation radiation- -detection detection imager imager that that can be can be used used
for for remotely remotely determining determining cloud cloud cover cover and and the the surface surface
temperature temperature. .
Note Note that that the the term term surface surface can can mean mean the the surface surface of of the the
Earth Earth, , the the upper upper surfaces surfaces of of clouds clouds, , or or the the surface surface of a of a
body of body of water water. .
This This scanning scanning radiometer radiometer uses uses 6 6 detectors detectors that that collect collect
different different bands bands of of radiation radiation wavelengths wavelengths as as shown shown below below. .
The The first first AVHRR AVHRR was was a 4 a 4- -channel channel radiometer radiometer, , first first carried carried
on TIROS on TIROS- -N ( N (launched launched October October 1978). 1978).
This This was was subsequently subsequently improved improved to to a 5 a 5- -channel channel instrument instrument
(AVHRR/2) (AVHRR/2) that that was was initially initially carried carried on NOAA on NOAA- -7 ( 7 (launched launched
June June 1981). 1981).
The The latest latest instrument instrument version version is AVHRR/3, is AVHRR/3, with with 6 6 channels channels, ,
first first carried carried on NOAA on NOAA- -15 15 launched launched in May 1998. in May 1998.
The The AVHRR/3 AVHRR/3 instrument instrument weighs weighs approximately approximately 72 72 pounds pounds, ,
measures measures 11.5 11.5 inches inches X 14.4 X 14.4 inches inches X 31.4 X 31.4 inches inches, , and and
consumes consumes 28.5 28.5 watts watts power power. .
8
AVHRR /3 AVHRR /3 Characteristics Characteristics
Measuring Measuring the the same same view view, , this this array array of of diverse diverse
wavelengths wavelengths, , after after processing processing, , permits permits multi multi
spectral spectral analysis analysis for for more more precisely precisely defining defining
hydrologic hydrologic, , oceanographic oceanographic, , and and meteorological meteorological
parameters parameters. .
Comparison Comparison of data of data from from two two channels channels is is often often
used used to to observe observe features features or or measure measure various various
environmental environmental parameters parameters. .
The The three three channels channels operating operating entirely entirely within within the the
infrared infrared band band are are used used to to detect detect the the heat heat
radiation radiation from from and and hence hence, , the the temperature temperature of of
land land, , water water, , sea sea surfaces surfaces, , and and the the clouds clouds above above
them them. .
Thematic Mapper:
ETM+ ETM+ (Enhanced Thematic (Enhanced Thematic Mapper Mapper Plus) Plus)
It provides for an eight It provides for an eight- -band multispectral scanning band multispectral scanning
radiometer capable of providing high radiometer capable of providing high- -resolution image resolution image
information of the Earth's surface. information of the Earth's surface.
ETM+ has resolutions of 15 m, 30 m, and 60 m and ETM+ has resolutions of 15 m, 30 m, and 60 m and
useful for measurements of land surface useful for measurements of land surface
characterization and environmental changes (vegetation characterization and environmental changes (vegetation
cover, deforestation, and land use). cover, deforestation, and land use).
9
The ETM+ provides 7 channels in the visible, near, mid, and thermal
infrared channels, along with a 15 meter resolution panchromatic sensor.
ASTER ASTER
The The Advanced Advanced Spaceborne Spaceborne Thermal Thermal
Emission Emission and and Reflection Reflection Radiometer Radiometer
ASTER ASTER (Advanced (Advanced Spaceborne Spaceborne Thermal Thermal
Emission and Reflection Radiometer) is an Emission and Reflection Radiometer) is an
imaging instrument that is flying on imaging instrument that is flying on Terra. Terra.
ASTER is used to obtain detailed maps of ASTER is used to obtain detailed maps of
land surface temperature, emissivity, land surface temperature, emissivity,
reflectance and elevation. reflectance and elevation.
ASTER consists of three
different subsystems; the
Visible and Near Infrared
(VNIR), the Shortwave
Infrared (SWIR), and the
Thermal Infrared (TIR).
ASTER
ASTER (Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection
Radiometer) is an imaging instrument flying on Terra, a satellite launched in
December 1999 as part of NASA's Earth Observing System (EOS). ASTER is
a cooperative effort between NASA, Japan's Ministry of Economy, Trade and
Industry (METI) and Japan's Earth Remote Sensing Data Analysis Center
(ERSDAC). ASTER is being used to obtain detailed maps of land surface
temperature, reflectance and elevation. The three EOS platforms are part of
NASA's Science Mission Directorate and the Earth-Sun System whose goal is
to observe, understand, and model the Earth system to discover how it is
changing, to better predict change, and to understand the consequences for
life on Earth.
ASTER Mission
ASTER is a cooperative effort between NASA and Japan's Ministry of
Economy Trade and Industry (METI), with the collaboration of scientific and
industry organizations in both countries. The ASTER instrument provides
the next generation in remote sensing imaging capabilities compared with
the older Landsat Thematic Mapper, and Japan's JERS-1 OPS scanner.
ASTER captures high spatial resolution data in 14 bands, from the visible to
the thermal infrared wavelengths; and provides stereo viewing capability for
digital elevation model creation. As the "zoom lens" for Terra, ASTER data
are used by other Terra and space-borne instruments for validation and
calibration.
12 8 8 Quantization (bits)
HgCdTe PtSi-Si Si Detector Type
60 60 60 Swath Width (km)
116 116 318 Cross-track Pointing (km)
8.55 8.55 24 Cross-track Pointing (deg.)
4.2 23 62 Data Rate (Mbits/sec)
90m 30m 15 m Ground Resolution
Band 9: 2.360 - 2.430 m
Band 14: 10.95 - 11.65 m Band 8: 2.295 - 2.365 m
Band 13: 10.25 - 10.95 m Band 7: 2.235 - 2.285 m
Band 3: 0.76 - 0.86 m
Backward looking
Band 12: 8.925 - 9.275 m Band 6: 2.185 - 2.225 m
Band 3: 0.76 - 0.86 m
Nadir looking
Band 11: 8.475 - 8.825 m Band 5: 2.145 - 2.185 m
Band 2: 0.63 - 0.69 m
Nadir looking
Band 10: 8.125 - 8.475 m Band 4: 1.600 - 1.700 m
Band 1: 0.52 - 0.60 m
Nadir looking
Spectral Range
TIR SWIR VNIR Characteristic
ASTER Instrument Characteristics
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The ASTER instrument consists of three separate instrument subsystems.
Each subsystem operates in a different spectral region, has its own
telescope(s), and was built by a different Japanese company. ASTER's three
subsystems are: the Visible and Near Infrared (VNIR), the Shortwave Infrared
(SWIR), and the Thermal Infrared (TIR).
VNIR
The VNIR subsystem operates in three spectral bands at visible and near-IR
wavelengths, with a resolution of 15 m. It consists of two telescopes--one nadir-
looking with a three-spectral-band detector, and the other backward-looking with a
single-band detector. The backward-looking telescope provides a second view of
the target area in Band 3 for stereo observations. Thermal control of the CCD
detectors is provided by a platform-provided cold plate. Cross-track pointing to 24
degrees on either side of the track is accomplished by rotating the entire telescope
assembly. Band separation is through a combination of dichroic elements and
interference filters that allow all three bands to view the same ground area
simultaneously. The data rate is 62 Mbps when all four bands are operating. Two
on-board halogen lamps are used for calibration of the nadir-looking detectors.
This calibration source is always in the optical path.
Backward Looking Telescope (RED) - The VNIR subsystem backward looking
telescope is of the same design as the nadir telescope and contains only a single
silicon charge coupled detector line array and no calibration lamps as it is only used
to acquire a stereo pair image.
Nadir Looking Telescope (Dark Blue) - The VNIR subsystem nadir looking telescope
is a reflecting-refracting improved Schmidt design. The focal plane of this telescope
contains three 5000 silicon charge coupled detector line arrays. The nadir and
backward looking telescope pair are used for same orbit stereo imaging and can be
rotated as a unit +/- 24 degrees to provide extensive cross-track pointing capability.
Light from either of two halogen lamps are used periodically for subsystem
calibration.
VNIR Design.
The VNIR subsystem consists of two independent telescope assemblies to
minimize image distortion in the backward and nadir looking telescopes. The
detectors for each of the bands consist of 5000 element silicon charge coupled
detectors (CCD's). Only 4000 of these detectors are used at any one time. A time
lag occurs between the acquisition of the backward image and the nadir image.
During this time earth rotation displaces the image center. The VNIR subsystem
automatically extracts the correct 4000 pixels based on orbit position information
supplied by the EOS platform.
The VNIR optical system is a reflecting-refracting improved Schmidt design. The
backward looking telescope focal plane contains only a single detector array (Band
3) and uses an interference filter for wavelength discrimination. The focal plane of
the nadir telescope contains 3 line arrays (Bands 1-3) and uses a dichroic prism
and interference filters for spectral separation allowing all three bands to view the
same area simultaneously. The telescope and detectors are maintained at 296 + 3K
using thermal control and cooling from a platform provided cold plate. On-board
calibration of the two VNIR telescopes is accomplished with either of two
independent calibration devices for each telescope. The radiation source is a
halogen lamp. The detector elements are uniformly irradiated by this beam. In each
calibration device, two silicon photo-diodes are used to monitor the radiance of the
lamp. One photo-diode monitors the filament directly and the second monitors the
calibration beam just in front of the first optical element of the telescope.
SWIR
The SWIR subsystem operates in six spectral bands in the near-IR region
through a single, nadir-pointing telescope that provides 30 m resolution.
Cross-track pointing ( 8.550) is accomplished by a pointing mirror. Because
of the size of the detector/filter combination, the detectors must be widely
spaced, causing a parallax error of about 0.5 pixels per 900 m of elevation.
This error is correctable if elevation data, such as a DEM, are available. Two
on-board halogen lamps are used for calibration in a manner similar to that
used for the VNIR subsystem, however, the pointing mirror must turn to see
the calibration source. The maximum data rate is 23 Mbps.
Cryocooler (Green) - The platinum Silicide-Silicon Schottky barrier linear detector
array in each of the six SWIR channels are cooled to 80 K using a mechanical split
Stirling cycle cooler of long life and low vibration design.
Pointing Module (Blue) - The pointing mirror can point +/- 8.54 degrees from the
nadir direction to allow coverage of any point on the earth over the spacecraft's 16
day mapping cycle. This mirror is also periodically used to direct light from either of
two calibration lamps into the subsystem's telescope.
Telescope (Red) - The SWIR subsystem uses a single fixed aspheric refracting
telescope
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SWIR Design.
The SWIR subsystem uses a single aspheric refracting telescope. The detector in
each of the six bands is a Platinum Silicide-Silicon (PtSi-Si) Schottky barrier linear
array cooled to 80K. The on-orbit design life of this cooler is to be 50,000 hours.
Although ASTER will operate with a low duty cycle (8% average data collection time)
the cryocooler will operate continuously because the cool-down and stabilization time
is long.
The cryocooler is a major source of heat. Because the cooler is attached to the SWIR
telescope, which must be free to move to provide cross-track pointing, this heat
cannot be removed using a platform provided cold plate. This heat is transferred to a
local radiator attached to the cooler compressor and radiated to space.
Six optical bandpass filters are used to provide spectral separation. No prisms or
dichroic elements are used for this purpose. A calibration device similar to that used
for the VNIR subsystem is used for inflight calibration. The exception is that the SWIR
subsystem has only one such device.
The combined data rate for all six SWIR bands, including supplementary telemetry
and engineering telemetry, is 23 Mbps.
The TIR subsystem operates in five bands in the thermal infrared region using a
single, fixed-position, nadir-looking telescope with a resolution of 90 m. Unlike the
other instrument subsystems, it has a "whiskbroom" scanning mirror. Each band uses
10 detectors in a staggered array with optical bandpass filters over each detector
element. The maximum data rate is 4.2 Mbps. The scanning mirror functions both for
scanning and cross-track pointing (to 8.55 degrees). In the scanning mode, the
mirror oscillates at about 7 Hz and, during oscillation, data are collected in one
direction only. During calibration, the scanning mirror rotates 90 degrees from the
nadir position to view an internal black body. Because of the instrument's high data
rate, restrictions have been imposed so that the average data rate is manageable by
the spacecraft data management system. This restriction is a one-orbit maximum
average rate of 16.6 Mbps and a two-orbit maximum average rate of 8.3 Mbps, which
results in approximately a 9.3% duty cycle
TIR
Cryocooler (Yellow) - The ten
Mercury-Cadmium-Telluride
detectors in each of the five TIR
channels are cooled to 80 K using a
mechanical split Stirling cycle
cooler of long life and low vibration
design.
Reference Plate (Black Body) (Green) - A high emissivity reference plate is used as
the on-board calibration reference for the TIR subsystem. This reference plate is
viewed before and after each observation to provide an estimate of instrument drift and
periodically this plate is heated through a range of temperature to provide an estimate
for both instrument gain and offset.
Scan Mirror (Red) - The scan mirror is used for both scanning and pointing. In the
scanning mode the mirror oscillates across the ground track at about 7 Hz. This mirror
can point +/- 8.54 degrees from the nadir direction to allow coverage of any point on
the earth over the spacecraft's 16 day mapping cycle. This mirror can also rotate 180
degrees from the nadir direction to provide a view of the reference plate for calibration.
Telescope (Blue) - Unlike the VNIR telescope, the telescope of the TIR subsystem is
fixed and both pointing and scanning is done by the mirror.
TIR Design.
The TIR subsystem uses a Newtonian catadioptric system with an aspheric primary
mirror and lenses for aberration correction. Unlike the VNIR and SWIR telescopes,
the telescope of the TIR subsystem is fixed with pointing and scanning done by a
mirror. Each band uses 10 Mercury-Cadmium-Telluride (HgCdTe) detectors in a
staggered array with optical band-pass filters over each detector element. Each
detector has its own pre-and post-amplifier for a total of 50. Performance of the
system will be improved if photovoltaic detectors can be used. Development of such
detectors is a technical challenge.
As with the SWIR subsystem, the TIR subsystem will use a mechanical split Stirling
cycle cooler for maintaining the detectors at 80K. In this case, since the cooler is
fixed, the waste heat it generates will be removed using a platform supplied cold
plate.
The scanning mirror functions both for scanning and pointing. In the scanning mode
the mirror oscillates at about 7 Hz.For calibration, the scanning mirror rotates 180
degrees from the nadir position to view an internal black body which can be heated
or cooled. The scanning/pointing mirror design precludes a view of cold space, so at
any one time only a one point temperature calibration can be effected. The system
does contain a temperature controlled and monitored chopper to remove low
frequency drift. In flight, a single point calibration can be done frequently (e.g., every
observation) if necessary. On a less frequent interval, the black body may be cooled
or heated (to a maximum temperature of 340K) to provide a multipoint thermal
calibration. Facility for electrical calibration of the post-amplifiers is also provided.
The total data rate for the TIR subsystem, including supplementary telemetry
and engineering telemetry, is 4.2 Mbps. Because the TIR subsystem can
return useful data both day and night, the duty cycle for this subsystem has
been set at 16%. The cryocooler, like that of the SWIR subsystem, will operate
with a 100% duty cycle.
ASTER ASTER Application Application: :
Glaciology Glaciology
Urban Urban Change Change
Evapotranspiration Evapotranspiration and and Surface Surface
Fluxes Fluxes
Hydrology Hydrology
Volcanology Volcanology
Geology Geology
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ASTER ASTER Application Application
drought drought early early warning warning
regional regional and and global global vegetation vegetation monitoring monitoring
snow snow and and ice ice mapping mapping
dynamic dynamic oceanography oceanography
hydrology hydrology
geology geology
detection detection of of forest forest fires fires, , gas gas flares flares and and agricultural agricultural
burning burning
fire fire fuel fuel mapping mapping
volcanology volcanology
air air and and sea sea pollution pollution monitoring monitoring
toxic toxic algal algal bloom bloom detection detection
continental continental scale scale mapping mapping ( (less less than than 1 :3,000,000) 1 :3,000,000)
soil soil moisture moisture analysis analysis
observing observing sand sand- -storms storms
SENSDP CDhPAPISDNS
spatIaI resoIutIon
SENSDP CDhPAPISDNS SENSDP CDhPAPISDNS
spatIaI resoIutIon spatIaI resoIutIon
Avhkk {1.1km} Avhkk {1.1km} Avhkk {1.1km} Avhkk {1.1km} Avhkk {1.1km} Avhkk {1.1km} Avhkk {1.1km} Avhkk {1.1km} Avhkk {1.1km} Avhkk {1.1km} Avhkk {1.1km} Avhkk {1.1km}
M55 {0m} M55 {0m} M55 {0m}
1M {30m} 1M {30m} 1M {30m}
HF7 Pan
(10m}
HF7 Pan HF7 Pan
(10m (10m}
SENSOR (BANDS) NOMINALSPATIALRESOLUTION
NOAAAVHRR 1.1km
Landsat MSS 80m
Landsat TMandETM+(Multispectral) 30m
TM(Thermal) 120m
ETM+(Thermal) 60m
ETM+(Panchromatic) 15m
SPOTHRV(Multispectral) 20m
SPOTHRV(Panchromatic) 10m