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Behind the completion of any successful work there lies the contribution of not one but many individuals who may have directly or indirectly contributed to it. I first of all take the opportunity to thank NORTH CENTRAL RAILWAYS (NCR) for providing me this valuable opportunity to work and learn with them. During this training period everyone there had helped me in every possible way they can. I am also thankful to my parents, colleagues and DRM employees for their invaluable support. A special note of thanks to Mr. Sanjay Nagar (Dy. CSTE/NCR), Mr. D. Goyal (NCR) and many others for their help and suggestions.
MUDIT KHANLWAL
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction Module 1-Optical Fiber Communication o Introduction o Optical Fiber Communication System o Origin And Characteristics of Optical Fiber o Operation of Optical Fiber o A Fiber-Optic Relay System o Application of Optical Fiber o Advantages Of Optical Fiber o Disadvantages of Optical Fiber Module 2-Microwave Communication o Introduction o History of Telegraphic Signals o Origin of Microwave Signals o Microwave Communication Satellites o Generation and Frequency Bands of Microwave Signals o Microwave and Waveguides o Uses of Microwave Signals Module 3-Passenger Reservation System o Introduction o Equipment o Use of IT in Indian Railway Module 4-Local Area Networking
INDIAN RAILWAY
INTRODUCTION:Indian Railway is the state-owned railway company of India, which owns and operates most of the country's rail transport. It is overseen by the Ministry of Railways of the Government of India. India boasts one of the worlds largest railway network in the world. Every day, 20 million people travel around the country in hundreds of trains running between various stations smoothly and safely. The formal inauguration ceremony of IR was performed on 16th April 1853 with the first passenger train steamed out of Howrah station destined for Hooghly, a distance of 36 km, on 15th August, 1854 . Snapshots: It encompasses 6,909 stations over a total route length of more than 63,028 kilometres of route length and a track length of 111,600 km It is one of the world's largest commercial or utility employers, with more than 1.6 million employees. It grossed a revenue of 88,355 cr and The gross traffic receipts have registered a growth of over 7.3% to 94840cr against 88356 cr It moves 2 million tons of freight & 20 million people county with the help of 200,000 (freight) wagons. daily across the
7,000 passenger trains across the country services 20 million people to their destinations
Organisational Structure:IR is a department owned and controlled by the Government of India, the Ministry of Railways. IR is administered by the Railway Board, which has a financial commissioner, five members and a chairman.
MODULE 1
Communication between stations and signalmen is done through telephone. In some places, IR still uses twisted pair cables and elderly Stronger exchanges. This is currently being upgraded to optical fiber and microwave communications. The main impetus for this change came from the Department of Telecommunications, who no longer had the expertise to maintain a large network of heritage technology. Drivers and guards were equipped with VHF radio systems in 1999 to communicate with each other and with station masters.
The optical fiber acts as a low loss, wide bandwidth transmission channel. A light source is required to emit light signals, which are modulated by the signal data. To enhance the performance of the system, a spectrally pure light source is required. Advances in semiconductor laser technology, especially after the invention of double heterostructures (DH), resulted in stable, efficient, small-sized and compact semiconductor laser diodes (SLDs). Using such coherent light sources increases the bandwidth of the signal which can be transmitted in a simple intensity modulated (IM) system [13]. Other modulation methods, such as phase shift keying (PSK) and frequency-shift keying (FSK), can also be used. These can be achieved either by directly modulating the injection current to the SLD or by using an external electro or acoustooptic modulator
Pure Glass
An optical fiber is constructed of a transparent core made of nearly pure silicon dioxide (SiO2), through which the light travels. The core is surrounded by a cladding layer that reflects light, guiding the light along the core. A plastic coating covers the cladding to protect the glass surface. Cables also include fibers of Kevlar and/or steel wires for strength and an outer sheath of plastic or Teflon for protection.
Enormous Bandwidth
For glass fibers, there are two "optical windows" where the fiber is most transparent and efficient. The centers of these windows are 1300 nm and 1550 nm, providing approximately 18,000GHz and 12,000GHz respectively, for a total of 30,000GHz. This
enormous bandwidth is potentially usable in one fiber. Plastic is also used for shortdistance fiber runs, and their transparent windows are typically 650 nm and in the 750-900 nm range.
Diagram of total internal reflection in an optical fiber The light in a fiber-optic cable travels through the core (hallway) by constantly bouncing from the cladding (mirror-lined walls), a principle called total internal reflection. Because the cladding does not absorb any light from the core, the light wave can travel great distances. However, some of the light signal degrades within the fiber, mostly due to impurities in the glass. The extent that the signal degrades depends on the purity of the
glass and the wavelength of the transmitted light (for example, 850 nm = 60 to 75 percent/km; 1,300 nm = 50 to 60 percent/km; 1,550 nm is greater than 50 percent/km). Some premium optical fibers show much less signal degradation -- less than 10 percent/km at 1,550 nm
Transmitter The transmitter is like the sailor on the deck of the sending ship. It receives and directs the optical device to turn the light "on" and "off" in the correct sequence, thereby generating a light signal. The transmitter is physically close to the optical fiber and may even have a lens to focus the light into the fiber. Lasers have more power than LEDs, but vary more with changes in temperature and are more expensive. The most common wavelengths of light signals are 850 nm, 1,300 nm, and 1,550 nm (infrared, non-visible portions of the spectrum).
Optical Regenerator As mentioned above, some signal loss occurs when the light is transmitted through the fiber, especially over long distances (more than a half mile, or about 1 km) such as with undersea cables. Therefore, one or more optical regenerators is spliced along the cable to boost the degraded light signals. An optical regenerator consists of optical fibers with a special coating (doping). The doped portion is "pumped" with a laser. When the degraded signal comes into the doped coating, the energy from the laser allows the doped molecules to become lasers themselves. The doped molecules then emit a new, stronger light signal with the same characteristics as the incoming weak light signal. Basically, the regenerator is a laser amplifier for the incoming signal. See Photonics.com: Fiber Amplifiers for more details. Optical Receiver The optical receiver is like the sailor on the deck of the receiving ship. It takes the incoming digital light signals, decodes them and sends the electrical signal to the other user's computer, TV or telephone (receiving ship's captain). The receiver uses a photocell or photodiode to detect the light.
Core - Thin glass center of the fiber where the light travels Cladding-Outer optical material surrounding the core that reflects the light back into the core Buffer coating - Plastic coating that protects the fiber from damage and moisture Fibers are generally used in pairs, with one fiber of the pair carrying a signal in each direction, however bidirectional communications is possible over one strand by using two different wavelengths (colors) and appropriate coupling/splitting devices. Fibers, like waveguides, can have various transmission modes. The fibers used for longdistance communication are known as single mode fibers, as they have only one strong propagation mode. This results in superior performance compared to other, multi-mode fibers, where light transmitted in the different modes arrives at different times, resulting in dispersion of the transmitted signal. Typical single mode fiber optic cables can sustain transmission distances of 80 to 140 km between regenerations of the signal, whereas most multi-mode fiber has a maximum transmission distance of 300 to 500 meters. Note thatsingle mode equipment is generally more expensive than multi-mode equipment. Fibers used in telecommunications typically have a diameter of 125 m. The transmission core of single-mode fibers most commonly has a diameter of 9 m, while multi-mode cores are available with 50 m or 62.5 m diameters. Because of the remarkably low loss and excellent linearity and dispersion behavior of single-mode optical fiber, data rates of up to 40 gigabits per second are possible in realworld use on a single wavelength. Wavelength division multiplexing can then be used to allow many wavelengths to be used at once on a single fiber, allowing a single fiber to bear an aggregate bandwidth measured in terabits per second.
Modern fiber cables can contain up to a thousand fibers in a single cable, so the performance of optical networks easily accommodate even today's demands for bandwidth on a point-to-point basis. However, unused point-to-point potential bandwidth does not translate to operating profits, and it is estimated that no more than 1% of the optical fiber buried in recent years is actually 'lit'. Modern cables come in a wide variety of sheathings and armor, designed for applications such as direct burial in trenches, installation in conduit, lashing to aerial telephone poles, submarine installation, or insertion in paved streets. In recent years the cost of small fiber-count pole mounted cables has greatly decreased due to the high Japanese and South Korean demand for Fiber to the Home (FTTH) installations. Recent advances in fiber technology have reduced losses so far that no amplification of the optical signal is needed over distances of hundreds of kilometers. This has greatly reduced the cost of optical networking, particularly over undersea spans where the cost reliability of amplifiers is one of the key factors determining the performance of the whole cable system. In the past few years several manufacturers of submarine cable line terminal equipment have introduced upgrades that promise to quadruple the capacity of older submarine systems installed in the early to mid 1990s.
MODULE 2
MICROWAVE COMMUNICATION
INTRODUCTION
The objective of microwave communication systems is to transmit informationfrom one place to another without interruption, and clear reproduction at the receiver. Fig.indicates how this is achieved in its simplest form. Above 100 MHz the waves travel in straight lines and can therefore be narrowly focused. Concentrating all the energy into a small beam using a parabolic antenna(like the satellite TV dish) gives a much higher signal to noise ratio, but thetransmitting and receiving antennas must be accurately aligned with each other. Before the advent of fiber optics, these microwaves formed the heart of the long distance telephone transmission system. In its simplest form the microwave link can be one hop, consisting of one pairof antennas spaced as little as one or two kilometers apart, or can be a backbone,including multiple hops, spanning several thousand kilometers. A single hop is typically 30 to 60 km in relatively flat regions for frequencies in the 2 to 8 GHz bands. When antennas are placed between mountain peaks, a verylong hop length can be achieved. Hop distances in excess of 200 km are in existence. The "line-of-sight" nature of microwaves has some very attractive advantages over cable systems. Line of sight is a term which is only partially correct when describing microwave path Atmospheric conditions and certain effects modify the propagation of microwaves so that even if the designer can see from point A to point B (true line of sight), itmay not be possible to place antennas at those two points and achieve asatisfactory communication performance
In order to overcome the problems of line-of-sight and power amplification ofweak signals, microwave systems use repeaters at intervals of about 25 to 30 km inbetween the transmitting receiving stations. The first repeater is placed in line-of-sight of the transmitting station and the last repeater is placed in line-of-sight of the receiving station. Two consecutive repeaters are also placed in line-of-sight of each other. The data signals are received, amplified, and re-transmitted by each of these stations
telecommunications lines. Telegraphs are keyboard-operated machines that transmit a five-unit Baudot code (see baud). The receiving teleprinter automatically prints the received message. The modern version of the telegraph is e-mail in which text messages are sent electronically from computer to computer via network connections such as the Internet.
The voice, video, or data channels are combined by a technique known as multiplexing to produce a BB signal. This signal is frequency modulated to an IFand then up converted (heterodyned) to the RF for transmission through theatmosphere. The reverse process occurs at the receiver. The microwave transmission frequencies are within the approximate range 2 to 24 GHz. The frequency bands used for digital microwave radio are recommended by the CCIR. Each recommendation clearly defines the frequency range, the number ofchannels that can be used within that range, the channel spacing the bit rate andthe polarization possibilities.
Waveguide propagation modes depend on the operating wavelength and polarization and the shape and size of the guide. In hollow metallic waveguides, the fundamental modes are the transverse electric TE1,0 mode for rectangular and TE1,1 for circular waveguides, seen here in cross-section: A dielectric waveguide is a waveguide that consists of a dielectric material surrounded by another dielectric material, such as air, glass, or plastic, with a lower refractive index. An example of a dielectric waveguide is an optical fiber. Paradoxically, a metallic waveguide filled with a dielectric material is not a dielectric waveguide. A closed waveguide is an electromagnetic waveguide (a) that is tubular, usually with a circular or rectangular cross section, (b) that has electrically conducting walls, (c) that may be hollow or filled with a dielectric material, (d) that can support a large number of discrete propagating modes, though only a few may be practical, (e) in which each discrete mode defines the propagation constant for that mode, (f) in which the field at any point is describable in terms of the supported modes, (g) in which there is no radiation field, and (h) in which discontinuities and bends cause mode conversion but not radiation. A slotted waveguide is generally used for radar and other similar applications.
Plot of the zenith atmospheric transmission on the summit of Mauna Kea throughout the entire Gigahertz range of the electromagnetic spectrum at a precipitable water vapor level of 0.001 mm. (simulated) Cable TV and Internet access on coax cable as well as broadcast television use some of the lower microwave frequencies. Some cell phone networks also use the lower microwave frequencies. Microwaves can be used to transmit power over long distances, and post-World War II research was done to examine possibilities. NASA worked in the 1970s and early 1980s to research the possibilities of using Solar Power Satellite (SPS) systems with large solar arrays that would beam power down to the Earth's surface via microwaves. A maser is a device similar to a laser, except that it works at microwave frequencies.
MODULE 3
EQUIPMENTS:
The equipment used in PRS are - Modem Multiplexing Equipment End terminal.
MODEM
Modem are used for communication various computer or between Computer & terminals over ordinary or leased(dedicated ) telephone lines. Wecan use modems to log on to micro, mini, main frame computer for line processing. We can use them to connect two remote computers for data.
The word modem in feed is derived from the words modulate & demodulator. Computer communicate in digital languages while telephone lines communicate in analog language. So an inter mediator required which can communicate both these language Modem transmits information between computer bit by one stream. To represent a bit (or group of bits), modem modulates the characteristics of the wave that are carried by telephone lines. The rate at which the modem change these characteristics determines the transmission speed of data transmission .The rate of modem is called bound rate of modem. The bound rate of modem is bits per second. In advance modulation such as quadratureamplitude modulate 4 bits & transmitted it in each band. Thus the speed ofthe modem transmitting at 600 band would be 2400 bps. The modems can transmit data in two formats: Asynchronous & Synchronous. The analog modem switch at each location is connected to analog modems of the main as well as the stand by links. If the main links fails , the switch units at either end switch the user equipment at the stand by link. When the main links get restored, the analog modem switches the user equipment back to main link.
Multiplexing Equipment:There are two type multiplexing equipments for each channel. Themultiplexer used may be of 8-ports or 16-port .The data is get multiplexed at the rate of the 96KBps. The multiplexing generally of analog type.
End Terminal:The end terminals of system is the station where the tickets to be Printed out. The terminal consists of a computer system with a dot matrix printer. The number of the total end terminal at the station can be increased or decreased according to the multiplexing used.
e-Ticketing
CRIS (Centre for Railway Information System) has successfully developed the Internet ticketing solution launched by IRCTC (Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation) The effort involved interfacing the IRCTC front end with backend PRS Alpha servers, writing procedures for search and queries at the backend, ticket printing on existing clients and accounting software
NTES provides arrival/departure as well as current status information about any passenger train in the entire Indian Railways NTES is parallel to PRS. The servers are located at five metros i.e. Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai, Secunderabad and all are interconnected. Entries are made regarding running of train every half an hour at various locations including divisional headquarter all over the Indian Railways. NTES is used by IVRS and other web enabled services and mobile services for providing train information to the public