Power System Operation& Control

Dr. Hossam Talaat

I I.1

FUNDAMENTALS OF POWER SYSTEM OPERATION BASIC DEFINITIONS

The problem of power system operation may be clarified with the aid of the diagram of Fig-1.1. The diagram shows operating objectives and system states impacting control tasks, which the control engineer must consider in order to design effective control strategies. Table 1.1 illustrates the respective elements of this diagram.
Operating Objectives Control Tasks Operating States

Control Control Strategies Strategies

Power Power System System

Fig-1.1

Power System Operation Problem

Table 1.1 Details of Power System Operation Problem

Operating Objectives Demand satisfaction System security Cost minimization Environmental compatibility Fuel conservation Operating States Normal Alert Emergency In Extremis Restorative Control Tasks Supply control Demand control Delivery control System states control Control Strategies o Load frequency control o Economic dispatch o Unit commitment o Voltage/VAR control o Security control o Load management o Emergency control o Protective relaying

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Power System Operation& Control

Dr. Hossam Talaat

I.2 OPERATING OBJECTIVES I.2.1 General As the role of electric energy in society has evolved and grown during the past century, the objectives of the system operation have themselves developed and reformulated. Table 1.1 includes five objectives, the first two (quality& security) have historical precedence, the third (economy) has been the most thoroughly studied and formalized, and the last two (environment& fuel)are of most recent period. The operating objectives are usually sorted according to their priority with respect to the operating status. I.2.2 Satisfaction of Customer Demand It is a hard constraint, its violation results in uncompensated loss to both the customer and the utility. Under extreme conditions it becomes impossible for the utility to satisfy all demands. Therefore, the loads should be classified according to their priority: very critical loads, critical loads, normal loads, etc. I.2.3 System Security It is instantaneous time-varying condition reflecting the robustness of the system relative to imminent disturbance. Historical background: Since the early beginning of power industry, utilities have learned how to be able to build enough reserve margins to assure a high level of reliability through
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Power System Operation& Control

Dr. Hossam Talaat

redundancy. By the late 1960s, the concept of security was beginning to emerge as an active concern as a result of unexpected complexities. By the early 1970s, new concepts were introduced: corrective rescheduling, security control, etc. The practical approach used by operators is to judge security in terms of reserve margins on generators, transformers, and lines relative to current system load levels and weather conditions. Such reserve margins should be seen not only in terms of power (MW) levels, but also in terms of reactive power (MVAR), voltage, frequency and even angular differences. Another approach for security monitoring is the application of contingency analysis concept. Computerized control centers should be given the capability of continually simulating, in demand, the response of the system in its current configuration to all credible severe disturbances: if the simulation indicates a stable response the system is judges secure, otherwise it is deemed insecure. Recently, pattern recognition techniques have been applied extensively for security assessment. I.2.4 Cost Minimization For several decades, the power industry was successful in reducing the cost of delivered energy. In large part this was achieved through increased efficiency in capital plant, but continuing attention to improved efficiency in production and delivery costs was also an important factor.
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Power System Operation& Control

Dr. Hossam Talaat

In 1962, J. Carpentier of Electricite de France formulated the problem as an optimal power flow utilizing nonlinear optimization and treating simultaneously incremental transmission losses as well as incremental production costs. Since then, attention of most investigators has been directed toward proposing suboptimal formulations of the problem and/or device new numerical solutions of the problem. I.2.5 Minimization of environmental impacts This objective has received enormous attention over the past decade, so that some groups have attempted to impose it as the preeminent if not the sole objective. Much of the effort in this area is exerted in the planning rather than in the operating stage, but the impact on system operations has nevertheless been profound. The monitoring of the degree of environmental compatibility is concerned with several quantities: stack gas composition, temperature, and velocity; cooling water outlet temperature and flow rate, or cooling tower exhaust velocity, temperature, and water consumption; noise; not to mention radiation. The monitoring may be with instantaneous levels or rates in any of these quantities, or with sliding average levels. I.2.6 Fuel Conservation It is the most recent objective to face the power industry, in consequence of the energy crisis.

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Dr. Hossam Talaat

Faced with temporary/long-term, local/national shortages, utilities must employ plants that can utilize available fuel. Many Arab countries (Egypt, Algeria, Emirates,..) have converted plants from oil to gas firing. With the increase of Egyptian storage of natural gas (NG), it becomes the first priority in electric generation. The advantages of using NG in thermal units instead of heavy or light oil have been proved in two aspects: lower cost and lower environmental pollution. I.3 OPERATING STATES Power system conditions are described by five operating states, as shown in Fig-1.2. Table 1.2 summarizes the principal features of each of the five states.

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Dr. Hossam Talaat

NORMAL STATE

E,I

Load Tracking, Cost Minimization, System Coordination System Restoration Reduction In Reserve Margin

Preventive Control System Restoration

E,I

E,I

RESTORATIVE STATE
Emergency Control

ALERT STATE

Emergency Control

Limits Violation

E,I

E,I

IN EXTREMIS STATE

EMERGENCY STATE

E: Equality Constraints Satisfied I: Inequality Constraints Satisfied E: Equality Constraints Not Satisfied I: Inequality Constraints Not Satisfied

Controlled Transition Uncontrolled Transition

Fig-1.2
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Power System Operation& Control

Dr. Hossam Talaat

Three sets of generic equations, one differential and two algebraic, govern power system operation. The differential set describes the dynamic behavior of the systems components; the two algebraic sets comprise equality and inequality constraints. Equality constraints represent the power balance equation, i.e. total load equals total generation. While inequality constraints affirm that some system variables as currents and voltages, must not exceed maximum levels (practical limitations). Table 1.2 Characteristics of the Operating States STATE Normal Alert Emergency In Extremis Restorative Equality Constraint s satisfied satisfied satisfied violated violated Inequality Constraint s satisfied satisfied violated violated satisfied Security Secure Insecure Syste m Intact Intact Intact Preventive control Emergency control Emergency control System restoration Required Action

Nonexistent Intact Nonexistent Insecure Not Intact Not Intact

In the normal state, all constraints are satisfied, indicating that the generation is adequate to supply all the connected loads, and that no equipment is being overloaded. Also, reserve margins

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Dr. Hossam Talaat

(transmission as well as generation) are sufficient to provide an adequate level of security with respect to expected stresses. If the security level falls below some threshold of adequacy, then the system enters the alert state. In this state, all constraints are still satisfied, but existing reserve margins are such that some disturbance could result in a violation of some inequality constraints; e.g. equipment would be overloaded above its rated emergency capability. In this insecure state, preventive action can be taken to restore the system to the normal state. If a sufficiently severe disturbance takes place before such preventive action can be taken, the system enters the emergency state. Here, inequality constraints are not satisfied and system security has been violated. Emergency control action could be initiated in order to restore the system to at least the alert state. If emergency control is not effective or is not taken in time, the system starts to disintegrate and moves to in-extremis. In this state equality as well as inequality constraints are violated. Major portions of the system load could be lost. Emergency control action should be directed toward salvaging as many portions of the system as possible from collapse. Once the collapse has been halted possibly with some remaining equipment still operating within rated capability, the system enters the restorative state, with control action being taken to pick up all lost loads and reconnect the system. From this state,

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Dr. Hossam Talaat

the system can move to either the alert or the normal state, depending on the circumstances.

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Power System Operation& Control

Dr. Hossam Talaat

I.4 CONTROL TASKS I.4.1 General The control tasks indicated in Table 1.1 are given in terms of the component to be controlled so as to meet operating objectives. Conventional practice of power system operation has used mainly generator control to track random load demand. Modern trend in power system operation uses the concept of a controlled energy system wherein maximum effectiveness is achieved by making use of simultaneous control of demand, supply, and delivery. I.4.2 Supply (Generation) Control The necessity of continually effecting rapid increase and decrease in electric power to follow random fluctuations in customers demand has imposed a difficult and expensive task on generating units. Conventional energy conversion technologies have been loadfollowing, in the sense that their output might track the load demands placed on the system by the aggregate of its customers. Nuclear units are suitable primarily for constant (base) load, and are not adapted to load following. The energy input to the renewable energy technologies, e.g. solar energy and wind energy, will not be arbitrarily controllable, but will depend on metrological conditions.

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Dr. Hossam Talaat

I.4.3 Demand Control Direct control of load can serve two major purposes: to reshape load pattern in order to improve the efficiency of system operation and to supplement control of generation in order to provide greater flexibility in holding the mismatch between instantaneous supply and instantaneous use within necessary limits. Load management, which is an effective mean of controlling demand, has proved its effectiveness in controlling the demand while satisfying the customer needs. Several approaches of load management applied to industrial, commercial and residential zones are now available. I.4.4 Delivery Control Since AC lines are passive elements, Power flow in these lines cannot be inherently controlled. Additional equipment (e.g. shunt reactors, etc.) can be used to provide control on active and/or reactive power flow on the AC lines. The emerging technology of flexible AC transmission systems FACTS provides superior control for both active and reactive power. Power flow in HVDC lines is inherently controllable since these lines must be controlled in order to function.

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Dr. Hossam Talaat

I.4.5 System States Control Maintaining the system in normal state is one of the principal operating objectives. Should circumstances force the system into some other state, the basic operating objective is to restore it to normal using all available control means. It is necessary to establish an upper level control that continuously monitors the system status, detects transition from one to another state, and adjusts control objectives accordingly. I.5 CONTROL STRATEGIES A control/Energy management center is responsible for maintaining operating objectives through applying some control tasks which in turn are generated from the applied control strategies (refer to Fig 1.1). Tables 1.3& 1.4 contains a list of the principal control strategies with their objectives, control means, required information and mathematical tools. Fig-1.3 shows the time scale of power system operation functions with respect to other power system functions.

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Dr. Hossam Talaat

Table 1.3 Objectives and Control Means of Control Strategies Control Strategy Economic Dispatch Unit Commitment Load Frequency Control Voltage/ VAR Control Security Control Purpose Control Means

Calculating the most economical Generation generation level for each rescheduling committed unit for a given load Determining which units should be online to meet the expected load while minimizing the production cost Maintaining system frequency and tie-line power at their scheduled values Maintaining bus voltages and VAR flows at their scheduled values Improving system robustness against disturbances Generators start-up and shut-down Speed governor control Tie-line bias control VAR equipment: shunt reactors, SVC, series capacitors Generation redispatch Corrective rescheduling

Emergency Control

Load shedding Fast valving Rescuing as many portions of the Dynamic braking, system as possible from total Capacitor switching, collapse Exciter control Generator tripping Reducing system peak load through controlling non-critical demand loads Load Switching

Load Management

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Dr. Hossam Talaat

Planning Operational Planning

Level System/ Pool Control

Operation Control Protection

Voltage/Var Voltage/Var Control Control

Long term& strategic planning Long term& strategic planning Load Forecasting: short, medium & long Load Forecasting: short, medium & long Maintenance Scheduling Maintenance Scheduling Unit Unit Commitment Commitment

Automatic Automatic generation generation control control

Economic Economic dispatch dispatch

District/ Zone Control

Security Security Assessment Assessment Data Processing Data Processing Service Service Restoration Restoration Backup Protection Backup Protection Primary Primary Protection Protection 1 ms 10-3 10-2 10-1 Substation Substation Control Control AVR & Speed AVR & Speed Governing Governing Protection Protection 1 1s min 100 101 102 103

Station/ Substati on Control

1 hr 104

1 day 1 week 1 month 105 106 107

1 year 108

10 year 109 Time (s)

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Dr. Hossam Talaat

Fig-1.3 Time Scales for Power System Functions

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Dr. Hossam Talaat

Table 1.4 Mathematical Tools of the Control Strategies Control Strategy Economic Dispatch ED Unit Commitment UC Required Information Power plant data Network data Forecasted loads Power plant data Network data Forecasted loads Power plant dynamic models Power plant data Tie-lines data Network data Power flows Voltages Network data Power flows Voltages Network data Emergency Control Dynamic variations of : voltage, power, speed, angle, . Mathematical Tools Optimization techniques: Linear and nonlinear programming Optimization techniques: Linear and dynamic programming, Genetic Algorithms o Linear feedback control o Modern control techniques o Optimization techniques o Artificial Intelligence Methods o Matrix analysis o Sensitivity analysis o Optimization techniques o Artificial Intelligence Methods Optimization techniques

Load Frequency Control LFC Voltage/ VAR Control Security Control

Load Connected loads data Managemen Loads priority t

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Dr. Hossam Talaat

The security control is applied to two states: normal and alert states. The emergency control is applied emergency and Inextremis state. All other control strategies are applied to the normal state. The first three strategies, (ED, UC& LFC) are highly correlated to each other since they are applied through generation control. Fig 1.4 describes the relationship between these three strategies. The detailed description of the control strategies will be given in the following chapters.

Heat rate Curves

Load Load Forecasting Forecasting

Expected Load Governor/ Turbine Control

Unit Unit Commitment Commitment

Committed Units

Automatic Automatic Economic Economic Dispatch Dispatch

Power references

Load Load Frequency Frequency Control Control

Off-line Off-line Economic Economic Dispatch Dispatch

Tie-line power & Frequency Units

Power System

Fig 1.4 Generation Scheduling and control

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