I/C: KALLURI VINAYAK

Springs
A mechanical spring is an elastic member
(generally metal) whose primary function is to
deflect under load and then to recover its original
shape and position when the load is released.
Used for efficient storage and release of energy Used for efficient storage and release of energy
Strength and flexibility are two essential
requirements of spring design.
Spring Types
1. Helical springs (Tension / Compression)
2. Torsion spring
3. Leaf springs
4. Spiral spring
5. Belleville Springs
Leaf spring
5. Belleville Springs
Helical springs
Torsion spring
Spiral spring
Belleville Spring
Stresses in Helical Springs
( )
2 3 2 3
max
4 8 4 2 / 16
2 /
d
F
d
FD
d
F
d
FD
A
F
J
Tr
FD T

+ = + = + =
=
inside
inside
Spring Index and shear stress correction factor
d
D
C =
If we define the spring index to be as follows:
Then the foregone expression for maximum shear stress
can be expressed as:
3 2 3
max
8 4 8
d
FD
K
d
F
d
FD
s

= + =
3 2 3
d d d
Where K
s
is called as the shear stress correction factor and
serves to correct the shear stress estimated from the torsion
alone for the direct shear. Here K
s
is
C
C
K
s
2
1 2 +
=
For the standard springs, C ranges between 6 and 12.
Curvature effect in fatigue loading
Only in fatigue loading, the curvature of the wire
introduces more shear stress than estimated above
Hence that expression for maximum shear stress
needs correction.
Many factors have been suggested for correction.
Prominent are Wahl factor (K ) and Bergstrasser Prominent are Wahl factor (K
w
) and Bergstrasser
factor (K
B
).
These must replace K
s
when incorporated.
Curvature effect in fatigue loading: Wahl factor and
Bergstrasser factor
2 4 615 . 0 1 4 + C C
Static Loading, only effect of direct shear:
C
C
K
s
2
1 2 +
=
Fatigue Loading, effect of both direct shear and curvature:
Wahl factor (K
w
) or Bergstrasser factor (K
B
) is used
3 4
2 4 615 . 0
4 4
1 4

+
= +

=
C
C
K or
C C
C
K
B w
Fatigue Loading, effect of only curvature:
( )
( )( ) 1 2 3 4
2 4 2
+
+
= =
C C
C C
K
K
K
s
B
c
Deflection and Stiffness:
a a
a
Gd
FDN
Gd
N FD
F
U
y
d A d J DN l FD T
Gd
DN F
Gd
N D F
AG
l F
GJ
l T
U
2 4
3
2 4
2
2
4
3 2 2 2
4 8
: theorem second s o' Castiglian
. 4 / ; 32 / ; ; 2 /
2 4
2 2
+ =

=
= = = =
+ = + =
Q
a
a a
N D
Gd
y
F
k
Gd
N FD
C Gd
N FD
y
Gd Gd F
y
3
4
4
3
2 4
3
2 4
8
8
2
1
1
8
D/d, C index spring g Introducin
= =

\
|
+ =
=
+ =

=
Manufacturing processing at the ends and effect on total
coils
Compression Springs
Compression Springs
Formulas for the Dimensional Characteristics of Compression-Springs
Table 101
If interested:
For a thorough discussion and development of these relations, refer
Cyril Samonov, Computer-Aided Design of Helical Compression Springs,
ASME paper No. 80-DET-69, 1980.
SPRING MATERIALS
Music wire, Oil-tempered wire, Hard drawn wire, Chrome-
vanadium wire and Chrome-silicon wire
m
ut
d
A
S = strength, tensile Minimum
Use Table 10-4 for A and m.
Table 104
SPRING MATERIALS
Table 105
Mechanical Properties of Some Spring Wires
SPRING MATERIALS
Unless otherwise specified, use MSS criterion for static design for springs
because the primary loading nature is shear.
Table 106
Maximum Allowable Torsional Stresses for Helical Compression Springs
in Static Applications
Set removal or presetting
Is a process used in the manufacture of compression
springs to induce useful residual stresses
The spring is made to a longer free length than required and
then is compressed beyond the elastic limit by 30% of the
length
When the spring tries spring back, the plastic strain induced
opposes the same resulting in residual stress being set up
that are opposite in direction to the working stresses
Hence the springs behave stronger in service
Set removal must NOT be used for springs used in fatigue
loading
Critical Frequency of Helical Springs: Surging
Spring surge or surging of springs is the problem
and it is similar to the wave propagating in water
If one end of springs is held stationary and other
end is disturbed, the springs vibrates violently
Failure resulting from the resonance inherent in
surging is found to be purely due to torsional surging is found to be purely due to torsional
shear and occurs at 45
o
to the wire axis.
The governing equation for spring surging is the
wave equation:
2
2
2 2
2
t
u
kgl
W
y
u

|
|

\
|
=

Here, u is the displacement, k is the spring stiffness, l is the length of the

spring, g is the acceleration due to gravity, Wis the weight of the active part
of the spring
Contd.
The solution to this differential equation give the natural frequency of
vibration:
W
kg
m =
W
kg m
f
2
=
m = harmonic number
2 2 2
DN d d
( )( )
weight Specific
4 4
2 2 2
=
= = =

a
a
DN d
DN
d
AL W
The fundamental frequency, for m=1, should be from 15 to 20 times the
forcing frequency to avoid the resonance and hence in turn the surging of
the spring
Redesign to effect this normally involves increasing k or decreasing the W
STABILITY:
A compression spring is stable if it does not buckle under the
load
(
(

|
|

\
|
=
2 / 1
2
'
2
'
1 0
1 1
eff
cr
C
C L y

D
L
eff
0

=
( ) G E
E
C

=
2
'
1
( )
E G
G E
C
+

=
2
2
2
'
2

( )
2 / 1
0
2
'
2
2
2
1
(

< >
E G
G E D
L
C
eff

For absolute stability and buckling not to occur,

Slenderness ratio
Elastic constants
End -condition constants () for helical compression springs
Table 102, page 522
Helical Compression Spring Design for Static Service
A helical coil spring force-deflection characteristic
is ideally linear.
For very small deflections, and near closure,
nonlinear behavior begins as the number of active
turns diminishes as coils begin to touch.
The springs operating point to the central 75 The springs operating point to the central 75
percent of the curve between no load, F = 0, and
closure, F = F
s
.
F
s
= (1 + )F
max
Helical Compression Spring Design for Static Service
In addition to the relationships and material
properties for springs, the recommended design
conditions are:
Spring index range : 6 C 12
No of active turns range : 3 Na 15 No of active turns range : 3 Na 15
Robust linearity : 0.15
Factor of safety at closure : n
s
1.2
4
cost) material (relative - fom merit, of figure The
2 2
D N d
t

=
Helical coil compression spring design for static loading.
From Table A-28; 1051
A music wire helical compression spring is needed to
support an 89 N load after being compressed 50.8 mm.
Because of assembly considerations the solid height
cannot exceed 25.4 mm and the free length cannot be
more than 101.6 mm. Design the spring.
Springs are almost always subject to fatigue loading.
Automotive engine valves are supported by compression
springs that are subjected to millions of cycles of
operation without failure.
Shot peening is used to improve the fatigue strength of
Design for Fatigue Load:
Shot peening is used to improve the fatigue strength of
dynamically loaded springs. Shot peening can increase
the torsional fatigue strength by 20 percent or more.
Springs are designed for infinite life based on
Zimmerlis data.
Zimmerlis Data: Shot Peening
A cold working process used to produce a compressive
residual stress layer and modify mechanical properties of
metals
Entails impacting a surface with shot (round metallic,
glass or ceramic particles of 1/64 inch diameter) with glass or ceramic particles of 1/64 inch diameter) with
force sufficient to create plastic deformation
Zimmerlis Data:
The best data on the torsional endurance limits of spring steels are
those reported by Zimmerli and discovered the surprising fact that
size, material, and tensile strength have no effect on the endurance
limits (infinite life only) of spring steels in sizes under 10 mm.
Unpeened springs were tested from a minimum torsional stress of
138 MPa to a maximum of 620 MPa and peened springs in the range
138 MPa to 930 MPa . The corresponding endurance strength
components for infinite life were found to be components for infinite life were found to be
ut sy ut ut su
sm sa
sm sa
S S S or S S
MPa S MPa S
Peened
MPa S MPa S
Unpeened
557 . 0 35 . 0 67 . 0
534 398
:
379 241
:
=
= =
= =
Design for Fatigue Loading Based on Zimmerlis
Data
criterion. failure fatigue a apply then and
, , , , , , , ,
min max su sy e m a m a
S or S S F F find given F F
min max min max
2 2
F F
F and
F F
F
m a
+
=

=
3 3
8 8
2 2
d
D F
K and
d
D F
K
F and F
m
W m
a
W a
m a

= =
= =
Zimmerlis Data (Gerber criteria)
su
sm
sa
se
su
sm
se
sa
line load given for cordinate tion Inter
S
S
-
S
S
S
S
S
S
|
|

\
|
= =
|
|

\
|
+
2
2
sec
1
1
limit endurance the find Then
S
sa
and S
sm
are from
Zimmerlis data.
S
su
= 0.67S
ut
Factor of Safety,
a
sa
f
S
n

=
m
a
sm
sa
ut
se
se
su
sa
F
F
S
S
r
rS
S
S
S r
S
= =
(
(

|
|

\
|
+ + =
2
2 2
2
1 1
2
Refer Table 6-7 ; page 307
Zimmerlis Data (Goodman criteria)
su
sm
sa
se
su
sm
se
sa
line load given for cordinate tion Inter
S
S
-
S
S
S
S
S
S
|
|

\
|
= =
|
|

\
|
+
sec
1
1
limit endurance the find Then
S
sa
and S
sm
are from
Zimmerlis data.
S
su
= 0.67S
ut
Factor of Safety,
a
sa
f
S
n

=
m
a
sm
sa
se su
su se
sa
F
F
S
S
r
S rS
S rS
S
line load given for cordinate tion Inter
= =
+
=
sec
Refer Table 6-6 ; page 307
Zimmerlis Data (ASME- Elliptic criteria)
sy
sm
sa
se
sy
sm
se
sa
line load given for cordinate tion Inter
S
S
-
S
S
S
S
S
S
|
|

\
|
= =
|
|

\
|
+
|
|

\
|
2
2
2
sec
1
1
limit endurance the find Then
S
sa
and S
sm
are from
Zimmerlis data.
S
su
= is to calculated
from Table 10-5
page 526
Factor of Safety,
a
sa
f
S
n

=
m
a
sm
sa
sy se
sy se
sa
F
F
S
S
r
S r S
S S r
S
line load given for cordinate tion Inter
= =
(
(

+
=
2 2 2
2 2 2
sec
Refer Table 6-8 ; page 308
Tension/ Extension springs: end preparation
Combined axial tension and
bending stress at A
Only
torsion at
B
Side
views
Tension /Extension springs:
Improved design
views
Analysis of stresses in tension springs
( )
( )
( )
( ) d
r
C
C C
C C
K
K
d d
D
K F
A
A
A A
1
1
1 1
1
2
1
2 3
2
,
1 4
1 4
by given curvature, for factor correction strss Bending
4 16
moment bending tension axial combined to due A at stress tensile maximum The
=

=
=
(

+ =

( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) d
r
C
C
C
K
K
d
FD
K
B
B
B B
2
2
2
2
3
2
,
4 4
1 4
by given curvature, for factor correction strss Torsional
8
by given is B at stress shear torsional maximum The
=

=
=
=

Extension spring
F
A
B
( )
( )
( ) d
r
C
C C
C C
K
d d
D
K F
A
A A
1
1
1 1
1
2
1
2 3
2
,
1 4
1 4
4 16
=

=
(

+ =

( )
d
FD
K
B B
3
8
=

Stress is to be computed at three locations

C
( )
( )
( ) d
r
C
C
C
K
d
B
2
2
2
2
2
,
4 4
1 4
=

=

3 4
2 4
8
3

+
=
=
C
C
K
d
FD
K
B
B C

INITIAL TENSION IN CLOSE-WOUND TENSION SPRINGS

When extension springs are made with coils in contact with
one another, they are said to be close-wound.
Spring manufacturers prefer some initial tension in close-
wound springs in order to hold the free length more
accurately.
( ) ( ) ( )
E
G
N N coils of number Active
d N C d N d D L
ky F F
b a
b b o
i
+ =
+ = + + =
+ =
,
1 2 1 2 : length Free
No of body coils
INITIAL TENSION IN CLOSE-WOUND TENSION SPRINGS:
The initial tension in an extension spring is created in the
winding process by twisting the wire as it is wound onto
the mandrel.
When the spring is completed and removed from the
mandrel, the initial tension is locked in because the spring
cannot get any shorter.
( )
MPa
C
e
C
i
|

\
|

=
5 . 6
3
4 9 . 6
231
is, stress torsional d uncorrecte of range Preferred
105 . 0

PROBLEM
A hard-drawn steel wire extension spring has a
wire diameter of 0.9 mm, an outside coil
diameter of 6 mm, hook radii of r
1
=2.55 mm
and r
2
= 2.1 mm, and an initial tension of 5 N.
The number of body turns is 12.17. From the
given information: given information:
(a) Determine the physical parameters of the spring
(b) Check the initial preload stress conditions
(c) Find the factors of safety under a static 24 N
load.
Solution:
( ) ( )
( )( )
mm N
Gd
k
turns
E
G
N N
C C K
d D C
mm d OD D
b a
B
/ 885 . 3
9 . 0 10 79
57 . 12
10 198
10 79
17 . 12
254 . 1 3 4 / 2 4
67 . 5 9 . 0 / 1 . 5 /
1 . 5 9 . 0 6
4
3 4
3
3
=

= =
=

+ = + =
= + =
= = =
= = =
( )( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( )
mm y L L
mm
k
F F
y
mm d N d D L
mm N
N D
Gd
k
o
i
b o
a
14 . 25 89 . 4 25 . 20
89 . 4
885 . 3
5 24
25 . 20 9 . 0 1 17 . 12 9 . 0 1 . 5 2 1 2
/ 885 . 3
57 . 12 1 . 5 8
9 . 0 10 79
8
1 1
1
1
3 3
= + = + =
=

=
= + + = + + =
=

= =
( )
( )( )
( )
( )
| |
( ) range. preferred in the not is It . 1 . 102 7 . 24 8 . 126
5 . 151 7 . 24 8 . 126
5 . 6
3 67 . 5
4 9 . 6
231
07 . 89
9 . 0
1 . 5 5 8 8
is stress initial d uncorrecte The
min
67 . 5 * 105 . 0 max
3 3
MPa
MPa
e
MPa
d
D F
i
i
i
uncorr
i
= =
= + =
|

\
|

+ =
= = =

( )( )
( )
15 . 536
9 . 0
1 . 5 24 8
254 . 1
8

3 3
1
1
= = =

B
MPa
d
D F
K
( )
( )
( )
526 . 1
15 . 536
55 . 818
S
55 . 818 1819 45 . 0 S 45 . 0 S
1819
9 . 0
1783
d
A
S
9 . 0
1
sy
ut sy
190 . 0 m
ut
3 3
1
= = =
= = =
= = =

s
B
n
MPa
MPa
d
Contd.
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
25 . 1364
25 . 1364 1819 75 . 0 S 75 . 0 S
, 1021
9 . 0
4
9 . 0
1 . 5 16
15 . 1 24
15 . 1
1 67 . 5 67 . 5 * 4
1 67 . 5 67 . 5 4
1 4
1 4
67 . 5
d
D
d
2r
C
is A at bending hook end in the situation The
ut y
2 3
1
2
1 1
1
2
1
1
1
= = =
=
(

+ =
=

=
= = = =
A
A
S
MPa
MPa
C C
C C
K
C

( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) 595 . 1
513
55 . 818
, 513
9 . 0
1 . 5 24 20 . 1 8
2 . 1
4 66 . 4 4
1 66 . 4 4
4 4
1 4
66 . 4
9 . 0
9 . 0 1 . 5
d
2r
is B at hook - end in situation The
336 . 1
1021
25 . 1364
3
1
2
2
2
2
1
= = = =
=

=
=

= =
= = =
B
y
B
B
A
y
A
y
n MPa
C
C
K
d
d D
C
S
n

Close wound like helical coil

extension spring
Negligible initial tension
The ends connect a force at a
distance from coil axis to apply a
torque
Wound with a pitch that just
separates the body coils to avoid
TORSION SPRINGS:
separates the body coils to avoid
intercoil friction.
The wire in the torsion spring is
in bending
Free
End
Free
end
location
Back
angle
Angular
rotation,
proportio
-nal to Fl
TORSION SPRING
Fixed
End
location
angle
For all positions of the moving end + = = constant.
turns partial ; body turns
integer
360
integer
= =
+ = + =
p b
p
o
b
N N
N N

Bending Stress :
The bending stress can be expressed as
2 2
1 4 1 4
' '
C C
K and
C C
K
factor correction stress is K where
I
Mc
K
+
=

=
=
3
3
32
,
32
) 1 ( 4
1 4
) 1 ( 4
1 4
d
Fl
K is equation bending the
d
c
I
and Fl M ng Substituti
unity than less also and K than less always is K
C C
C C
K and
C C
C C
K
i
i o
o i

=
= =
+
+
=

=
Torsional stiffness:
( )
radians
E d
Ml
d E
Fl
EI
Fl
l
y
e
4 4
2 2
3
64
64 / 3 3
: deflection End

= = = =
The end deflection is bending of a cantilever beam whereas The end deflection is bending of a cantilever beam whereas
the coils undergo bending action under M = Fl requiring
application of Castigliano theorem.
Strain energy in bending,

=
EI
dx M
U
2
2
b b
c
DN DN
c
E d
MDN
E d
FlDN
d I
EI
dx Fl
EI
dx l F
F F
U
l
b b
4 4
4
0
2
0
2 2
64 64
64 /
2
= =
=
|
|

\
|
=
|
|

\
|

The Force F will deflect through a distance l
Torsional stiffness
( ) ( )
a t e b a e
b
b
t
e e c t
N
E d
MD
N N N
D
l l
N
Defining
D
l l
N
E d
MD
E d
Ml
E d
Ml
E d
MDN
E d E d
4
2 1
2 1
4 4
2
4
1
4
2 1
64
; ,
3
3
64
3
64
3
64 64
(rad), deflection angular total The
= + =
+
=
|

\
|
+
+ = + + =
+ + =

Stiffness expressions in torque/radian units:
b c
c
DN
E d M
k
64
4
= =

( )
2 1
4
64
3
l l
E d M
k
e
e
+
= =

Stiffness values in torque/turn values (i.e 2 rad /turn) :

a t
s
DN
E d M
k
64
4
= =

2
4
'
= =
E d M
k 2
4
'
= =
E d M
k
( )

2
3
4
'
= =
E d M
k
Torsional stiffness

2
64
'
'
= =
a t
s
DN
E d M
k

2
64
'
'
= =
b c
c
DN
E d M
k
( )

2
64
3
2 1
'
'

+
= =
l l
E d M
k
e
e
a t
s
DN
E d M
k
8 . 10
4
'
'
= =

b c
c
DN
E d M
k
8 . 10
4
'
'
= =
( )
2 1
4
'
'
8 . 10
3
l l
E d M
k
e
e
+
= =

Tests show that the effect of friction between the coils is such that the
constant 10.2 (i.e 64/2) should be increased to 10.8
Torsion spring supported on round bar or pin:
c b
b
N
D N
D
+
= n deformatio after and before balance volume from , '
'

When the load is applied to a torsion spring, the spring winds up, causing
a decrease in the inside diameter of the coil body.
Ensure that the inside diameter of the coil never becomes equal to or less
than the diameter of the pin, in which case loss of spring function would
ensue
The helix diameter of the coil D becomes
( ) ( ) | |
b
'
c b
c b
N D A N D' A
N
= +
+
( )
pin
pin c
b
pin
c b
b
pin pin i
D d D
D d
N
D d
N
D N
D d D D D

+ +
=

+
= = =
'
1
'
'

The new inside diameter D
i
= D d makes the diametral clearance
between the body coil and the pin of diameter D
p
Design of Torsion Springs for Strength:
Static strength
m
ut
d
A
S =
Table 106
First column entries in Table 106 can be divided by 0.577 (from distortion-
energy theory) to give