et) Electrical How to wire your car from scratch. Details basic electrical theory & troubleshooting. Race cars, kit cars, street rods, restorations & trailers. Tools & techniques. Gauges, lights, Perret ale. mule aati eed SS = AM ants‘Most HPBooks are available at special quantity discounts for bulk purchases for sales promotions. (premiums, fund-raising. or educational use. Special books. or book excerpts. can also be created to fit specific needs. ‘For details, write: Special Markets, The Berkley Publishing Group, 375 Hudson Street, New ‘York, New York 10014. Cover photo: Bill Keller ‘The Penguin Putnam Inc. World Wide Web site address is ‘hutp:/www-penguinputnam.com HPBooks are published by ‘The Berkley Publishing Group A division of Penguin Putnam Inc. 375 Hudson Street, New York. New York 10014 © 1986 Price Stem Sloan, Inc. Printed in U.S.A 30 29 28 ISBN: 0-89586-238-7 All rights reserved. ‘This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form without permission. NOTICE: The information in this book is true and complete to the best of our knowledge. All recom- ‘mendations on parts and procedures are made without any guarantees on the part of the author or pub- isher. Because the quality of parts, procedures and methods is beyond our control, author and publish- ‘et disclaim all Habilty incurred in conncetion with the use of this information. Thanks ‘Thanks to the many automotive electrical suppliers and companies who provided photographs, drawings and technical information on their prod- ucts. Especially helpful were Bob Schlanger of Import Parts International, oeSed An awn Contents Introduction ..... Electrical Theory 6 ‘Charging System 14 Electrical Paths 22 Electrical Controls 28 Displays ... 38 Electrical Loads 49 Supplies ...... 60 Locating & Installing Components Designing & Drawing Circuit Diagrams Making a Harmess ......cccerreerersecteesees: Installing a Harness ..........c0se0sessees Rewiring an Electrical System .. Converting From 6 to 12 Volts ........ 128 Trailer Wiring .... 134 Wiring a Race Car 139 Metric Conversion CI 151 Glossary ... Index ......,Introduction | ‘Author Jim Horner beginning wiring job on Ron Fournier's street rod. Fournier isa professional Metal Fabrication race-car fabricator and author of Hi Handbook. Whether you" ‘race car, kit car or other vehicle from scratch, rewiring a collector car, or just wiring in a few ‘accessories on the family car, this book shows you how. What is this book all about? Well, let's say you're planning toassemble a kitcar, also called. component car or replicar. You select the kit of your dreams. Then you pick up a “donor” car to provide the Tunning gear. You lay out your tools and round up the other paraphemalia neces- sary to tum that pile of fiberglass and hardware into a real, driveable car. If you're only vaguely familiar with engine rebuilding, brake rebuilding, transmission rebuilding, and suspension assembly and alignment, you'll probably visit_a bookstore for the appropriate manuals—maybe even one or two of HPBooks" automotive guides. So far, so g00d, If youdon’t know how to do some- thing, you look it up and there's the pro- cedure in black and white. Work progresses nicely—until you realize your dream car is nearly done, but e's one critical thing missing. Until just this minute, you've completely over- looked the electrical system! With no fire in the wire, there's no heat in the street. 4 Panic! You contact the kit manufactur- er for help. With a sinking feeling, you hear them tell you that if they knew how to install an electrical system, they would have included the information in. their assembly manual. ‘You find that your local kit-car club isn't much help either. Their advice— the universal solution—is to jury-rig the wiring hamess from a donor carand hope for the best. This is hardly worthy of the craftsmanship you put into the show- quality paint and upholstery, the zoomy wheels and tires, and the super-trick en- gine work. All this good stuff, supported by an electrical system that looks like an ‘explosion in a wire factory? No wa; Do I need to tell you that help is at hand? In fact, in your hand right now? “But,” you may protest, "I don’t know the first thing about electricity. In fact, I'm almost afraid to change a light bulb for fear of getting shocked!" “This book has been prepared specifi- cally for you. It explains all you need to know to wire your ear from seratch. You'll learn how to select and install electrical components, design circuils, construct and install wiring hamesses, and test the systems, To enable you to accomplish these tasks, this book also explains electrical theory, wiring diagrams and test pro- cedures, It also includes a com- prehensive list of suppliers for just about everything you'll need for doing the job. ‘What if You aren’t wiring a ear from scratch? Maybe you're restoring an an- tigue or collector car. Or, perhaps you ‘want to replace or repair a tired wiring hamess or specific components in your old family car. Ifs0, you'll find a special chapter on rewiring that tells you how to. restore the electrical system to like-new condition, This book also includes sever- al chapters pertaining to vehicles —wiring a race car, ing, and converting a VW 6-volt system tw a 12-volt system, ‘One final note; Because this book‘Attemator is souree of current for all elec- trical components while engine Is running. also recharges bettery, whichis the other ‘electrical source in a car. This 90-amp job ‘could be used as power source for bumper full of driving lamps like those at right. Phat by Tom Monroe. started out as a how-to guide for wiring kit cars, you'll find a number of refer- ences to VW Beetle and Ford Pino ‘components—simply because they're two of the most common donor cars used as the basis for kit-car construction. But this in no way limits the application of the procedures to just these two car lines. ‘Nor should ite taken as an endorsement of the original cars or the kits based on them. Sa, if you're planning to build a late-model stock car, Chevette-hased MG replica, Baja bug, Corvair-powered Ferrari look-alike, rat-motor street rod, ‘or what-have-you, don’t worry. Electi- cal theory and wiring principles. apply equally well to your chosen project, AN OVERVIEW OF THE ELECTRICAL SYSTEM Someone once said & car needs only two things to run—fuel and electricity. Well, OK, three things, if you count air. But the point is this: A car depends on ‘only these three things for baste opera- ‘i “How can that be?” youask. “Today's ‘cars are so complicated.” Well, compare an old car with a modem one. If you look beyond the obvious, what do you find? ‘The basics are the same. Nowadays, it’s ‘only the application that’s more com- major types of electrical cars. High-power driving use a lol of juice, so batiery and (sources) and wires (paths) must be accordingly. Photo by Tom Monraa. plicated. Take electricity. ‘The essential electrical components in old cars and new ones are practically the same— ignition, starter, generator, bat- tery and lights. But today’s cars also come equipped with electric wipers, electric gauges, clectric windows—even electric mirrors. Most of today's extras are just that—extras. But all these com- ponents have one thing ineommon. They all need electricity to operate, So, before getting into the specifies of electrical theory and how to wire your car, let's take ‘a brief overview of the car's electrical system. All the com- Ponents mentioned here are discussed in detail in their respective chapters, ‘The electrical system ean be divided into three major parts: electrical sources, electrical douds—users of electricity — and electrical paths. Electrical sources consist of the bat- tery, which stores clectricity for starting the engine, and the generaior or alterna- tor, which provides electricity when the engine is running, Except in cases of extreme overload, a correctly adjusted charging system will produce: enough power to operate all the electrical devices in the car, with enough extra to recharge the battery. Electrical loads include all the de- Wires are the paths that carry current to from source to loads. In a car, they're bun dled into harnesses to tacllitate routing. This factory harness uses special molded connectors to attach wires to orto other harnesses. Photo by Jim Barrett. vices on the car that require electricity for operation. Some examples are the igni- lion system, windshield-wiper motor, heater-blower motor, hom, radio or tape deck, and lights, By the way, don't un- derestimate the electrical loads created by lights. It’s common for a car to have more lights than all the other loads combined —20 to 30 lights ean be found in a modem car. And, in some race-car applications, such as rally cars, off-road racers, and IMSA GTO and GTP cars, the electrical load from driving lights can be quadruple that of conventional light- ing systems. Electrical paths include wires, of course, But a car's steel body and frame are also paths. They're used as the retura path, or ground, between loads and the battery. And the various switches in the system can be included in the path cate- gory. Switches are located in the electri- cal path to act as asort of gate, permitting cleciricity to pass or to hold it back, as required ‘Together, these three parts form elec- trical circuits, which enable clectricity to perform useful work. With this brief overview in mind, turn the page and be- gin your study of electrical theory.electricity works. It's remotely possible for you to suc- cessfully wire a car without any idea whatsoever about electrical theary. Bul don't try it Why? It would be similar to taking a trip without a road map. You may have an idea of where you want to-go, but no clear-cut idea of how to get there. Or, perhaps more important, youdon't know What's involved in making the trip. So, I strongly suggest you lake the time to learn basic electrical theory before you try to wire your car. START WITH THE BASICS Based on many conversations I've had ‘with people over the years, I've come to the conclusion that, of all the clements that go into car, electricity is, by a wide margin, the most misunderstood. And ‘not just by the layman, either. Electricity is a hang-up for technicians and engi- neers, as well, I've also concluded that a great deal of this misunderstanding stems from the fact that electricity is invisible and form- Tess, so its nature can be perceived only 6 Electrical Theory When the like poles( + + or - —)oftwomagnets are closelo each other, they repel. The unlike oles (+ and —) attract each other. This phenomenon is the basic key to understanding how indirectly. Another reason for the mis- understanding is that electricity is not ‘often taught well in many schools, possi- bly because the instractors don't fully understand it, either. Tn the following section, 1 portray electricity as a phenomenon—which it certainly is—that ean be reckoned with and worked with, So, what is electricity? What is this force that sparks the sparkplugs and Tights the lights? Is it some kind of magic that only an engineer or scientist can un- derstand? No! Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary puis it like this: “Electricity is a fun- damental entity of nature consisting of positive and negative kinds...uswally in the form of electrical cure Mysterious, maybe, but not magic, Let's try to improve on Webster: © Electricity has positive and negative charges, © It is an invisible force. @ It-can be conirotled. © It can do work. © {tan flow in a current from place to place. © Itcan flow only ina completed circuit, ® [ican be “stored” in a battery Positive & Negative—In grade-school science, you probably learned that mag- nets are electrical in nature, with a north pole and a south pole. On some magnets, north is marked + (positive) and south is inarked — (segative). Put two magnets close to eachother and you'll se that like poles (+ + or — —) repel cach other and untike poles (+ —) attract each other. This separation into positives and negatives is called poiariyy. [t is the first important point about electricity, which will become clearer later. For now, just remember positive, negative, and the attraction between them. ‘The Invisible Force— You can't see electricity because it operates at an atom ie level. All matter is composed of atoms. They’re so tiny it would take mil- lions of them to equal the width of the period at the end of this sentenee. Atoms are composed of even smaller pareCOPPER ATOM ‘SOURCE OF MAGNETIC FIELD Sncglo ol local iow parts on lal tat sins o sone wariako Have Toney fei elcirana bls coer orbs: Wines ooly eld electron is forced trom its outer orbit, it is free to “hop” to another atom. Drawing courtesy of Chrysler Corp. ticles—protons, neutrons and electrons among them. The particles we're con- cemed with are the electrons. Electrons travel in circular paths around their atoms nucleus, like planets around the sun. In some materials— copper wire for instance— the outermost electrons aren't held too strongly. They're free to hop randomly from one atom to another, Each time an extra elec- tron hops into an atom, it pops another one loose. Because the activity of these free electrons is random, there's nothing directional about their movements There are two devices in a car's elec- trical system that are sources of excess free electrons: battery and generator, At one terminal there's an excess of free lectrons, and at the other terminal there’s.not enough, If you attacha copper wire betweenthe two terminals of a battery or generator, free electrons begin to push into the cop- per wire, The random movement of the copper’s free electrons begins to take on apatiem, Withpressure (voltage) bchind and a void ahead, the electrons move in a more-oreless orderly fashion in one di- rection. This directional flow of elec- trons in the wire is called electrical cuur- rent, Voltage is discussed later. Conductors, Resistors & Insulators — As mentioned earlier, the outermost electrons in copper atoms are held rela- tively loosely. Silver is another metal with loosely held electrons. Materials such as these are called conductors be- cause they freely conduct or carry elec- tron movement. Other metals conduct electricity, but not as well. In these metals, when a free clectron hits an atom, some of its energy gets absorbed, So when the next electron is freed, it doesn't have as much energy asthe first one did, This slowing of elec- tron movement is called resistance, and materials in which it occurs are called resistors. They conduct electricity, but tend to resist iis movement. Examples of resistance metals are nickel, iron and nichrome Materials whose outermost electrons are firmly held are called insulators, Be- ‘cause there aren't any, oF not many, free electrons available, insulators can't con- duct electron flow —note the difference between a resistor and an insulator. In- sulators include air, rubber, glass, wood, bakelite, cotton, and of course, the plas- tic insulation on electrical wire. So, metals are capable of conducting electricity, although some act as resis- tors. Non-metals generally act as in- sulators. UNDERSTANDING OHM’S LAW Like many things in nature, there's a law governing the basic properties of electricity. I's called Ofim's law, named for its originator, George S. Ohm, a Ger- SPECIAL NOTE ON CURRENT FLOW ‘There are two schools of thought on which direction electrons fow in a cit- cuit. Traditonal theory contends that ‘current flow is {rom positive (+) to (—). That is, excess tree negra positive terminal, through the circuit, and back paired eget ah pees etre ‘ment, this idea heaps placed by the modem theory that elec peneiactity lender epee speaking, when you wire a car it really dogsn't matter which theory you accept. But to avoid confu- ‘sion, this book assumes that current flow is trom positive to negative. That's the direction favored by tradition, so it is the direction implied by all standard ‘automobile-wiring diagrams, In my ‘opinion, i's also the direction easiest 10 explain and understand. And the in- tenthereis toexpiain how towire acar, ‘not how 10 pass @ graduale class in physics man scientist. Before I get to the formula, here's a simpleanalogy to help you understand it Get a piece of flexible tubing and bunch of marbles that will comfortably pass through the tubing. Begin by filling the tube with marbles. The marbles z_ CURRENT, VOLTAGE AND RESISTANCE | ‘one shown Is a resistor, called Drawing courtesy of Chrysler Corp. Resistors come in all sizes and shapes. Small tubular-shaped ‘ones are often used in electronic circuits, such as radios, Larger variable @ rheostal. One use of a Fheostat Is In a headlamp: switch to control gauge illumination. In this example, the plastic tube represents a conductor, and the marbies as moving electrons, or current. Thumb applying foreeto represents be ELECTRICAL FLOW ‘When greai many electrons begin moving from atom to atom at the same time, the result Is electron flow, which we call electricity. represent the movable electrons men- tioned in the first section. One marble equals J coulomb. Now push one new marble into the tube, You can readily see that the new marble next to it, and so on, until the last marble in the tube pops out. If this took one second, you have a flow rate of J ampere, or 1 coulomb per second. What made the marble move? Your thumb. It was the foree, or pressure, making the flow happen. The pressure exerted by your thumb represents velt- age. Suppose, while you're pushing one marble per second into the tube, a friend ‘grubs the tube and pinches it in a little. Now, you find it’s not as easy to push the marbles, The pinched-in section of the lube represents resistance, The amount of squeeze isohms. If your friend pinches harder, you have to push on the marbles harder to maintain the same flow rate. Ohm's law is the electrical Law tying your thumb, the marbles and your friend's squeeze together. It works like this: Thumb = marbles X pinch, or, volts = amperes X ohms, In mathematics, the LIGHT BULB Filament of common light bulb provides controlled resistance to current flaw. Light results when the current flow is great ‘enough to create heat. customary way to show this equation is: E=IXR Don't worry too much about _un- derstanding Ohm's law just yet. It is given here only to introduce you to the three important measurements in clec ity: volts, amperes and ohms, Later, afier I've discussed the work electricity does and something about circuit theory,CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR ‘When a wire conducts current it is sur- rounded iby © magnetic field, represented hore by 9 series of concentric rings sur- rounding the wire. This illustrates the basic Principle of electromagnetism, Drawing ‘courtesy of Chrysler Corp. V'll come back to Ohm's law and its ap- plications. WORK & ELECTRICITY In acar, electricity performs work in one of two ways: It creates heat or it creates magnetism. All electrical com ponents work on one of these two princi Ples, Electronic components like radios and some voliage regulators work on other principles. But you don’t have to deal with their inner Workings directly ‘when you wire a car, so these principles are not covered in this book. Just one word of advice when dealing with electronic components: Make sure they're hooked up correctly! Heat is created by resistance. Think of it this way: When electrical current moves through the wires and other con- ductors, they either permit easy passage or they ty to restrict current flow. Restricting flow isn’t exactly friction, but you can think of itthat way. When the electricity rubs its way through a resist- ance, the “friction” makes heat. It's sim- ilar to sliding down a rope. Your hands get hot from the friction ‘One of the main automotive uses of clectrical resistance is light bulbs. The bulb filaments get so hot they emit light It’s like when you use a coat hanger to roast hot dogs over a campfire. After a while, the coat-hanger wire holding the hot dog gets hot and begins to give off light ‘Other automotive applications of elec- trical resistance are the coils inside send- ing units of some instrument-panel MAGNETIC FIELD OF COIL. — —— LINES OF FORCE When current-carrying wire is wrapped into @ coll, magnetic field is concentrated enough to do work, such as in a motor, ‘solenoid or relay. Like-a simple bar magnet, Coll creates lines of force, and has polarity (North and South poles). Drawing courtesy of Chrysler Corp. gauges, the rear-window defogger, the cigarette lighter and the clicker mech- anism in tumn-signal flashers. Other automotive components convert electricity into magnetism. When current flows through a wire, there's a small magnetic field around it. It's almost too small to notice, But if you wind a lot of wire into a coil, the magnetic field is concentrated enough to do work. Electric motors work by magnetism. Basically, a magnetic field is generated by coils in the motor, which act on an armature that drives the motor shaft. The principles of electric-motor operation are covered indetail on pages 56-38. Electric motors used in cars include the wiper motor, washer-pump motor, starter motor, electric fuel pump, heater-fan motor, and motors for power windows and seats. Electric magnets also play a role in the operation of relays. Here, magnetic force is used to open and close electrical cir- cuits. A good example is the relay that operates some car hos. There's also a powerful relay in the starting motor. ‘These relays consist of a coil of wire wound around a core. For more onrelays and how they work, see page 33, CIRCUITS Up to this point, you've read about how electricity flows when voltage pro- vides the pressure to move electrons through @ conductor. This section de- scribes the actual paths electrons take These are called circuits, and they have certain specific characteristics you need motor or (battery or generator) aload (lamp, ‘other currentusing device) and a path (wires, cables or printed circuits). 1 series circuit the current has to flow ‘through each component in turn as ft folk lows the electrical path. Nate here that cur- to know about when you're wiring a car. Simple Circuit—Start with a battery. Hook a wire to the positive terminal Hook another wire to the negative ter- minal. Now attach the free ends of the wires to the terminals of a lamp. The Jamp lights. Let's see what you've done, You've provided a path from the battery positive terminal to the lamp, through the lamp filament, and back to the battery negative terminal. This is a complete cir~ cuit. The simplest kind of circuit includes a battery (electrical source), a load and some wire (electrical path). In the ex- ample, the lamp is the load because it’s ‘what is using up the battery's current to do work. In this case, the work is to provide light. ‘The single most important characteris- tic of a simple circuit, or any circuit, is a‘SWITCH IN SERIES. a terminal and end at the battery negative terminal, Without this set of connec- tions, current won't flow, If you want to tum off the lamp, you mist break the eircuit. You could dis- connect any of the four connections to do this. Disconnecting a wire to mm off a lamp isn't much trouble in a table-top experiment, but it would be intolerable in 4 car, So you can see that the simplest circuit is also an impractical circuit, Clearly, you need some sort of control to tum the lamp on and off. This brings upa second kind of eircuit—the series cir- cult, Series Circuit—Instead of disconnect- ing one of the wires to tum off the lamp, simply cut the wire between the battery positive terminal and the lamp. This cer- inly breaks the flow of current. Then tall a switch between the twocut ends. ‘With the switch in place, you can make and break the circuit any time you want by operating the switch. Now, electricity must flow first through the switch, then the lamp, on its ‘way from the battery positive terminal to the battery negative terminal. Electricity must pass through a series of com ponents, one at a time. That's why this is called a series circuit. ‘Suppose you want your circuit to have two lamps operated by one switch. How could you wire the second ane in? 10 in a paraitel circuit current has a choice; it can flow through each lamp separately. It ‘one bulb blows, other lamp stays on. You could cut the wire again and attach the new cut ends to the second lamp. Now, current flows through the switch, through the original lamp, through the second lamp and back to the battery. Notice again that current must passthrough one component to get to the next one. The advantage of this kind of circuit obvious. You don’t need any extra wire toadd the second lamp. But, there's a big disadvantage, If one of the bulbs burns ‘out, the filament inside actually burns in half, breaking the circuit. Current can't flow when the circuit is broken, so the other lamp goes out, too. You may remember the old-fashioned Christmas- tree lights that worked this way. You actually had to test each bulb separately to find the bad one, There's another disadvantage to the series circuit, too. It happens when you patahigh-resistance component in series with a low-resistance one. Current flow through the combined components may not be sufficient to permit the low- Tesistance component to operate, And, the order in which they're wired doesn’t matter. High-resistance _ components simply choke current flow. Later, when | get back to the applications of Ohm's law, the reasons for this should become clear. Parallel Cireuit—There's another way to wire a second lamp into your circuit. In a Serles:paraliel circuit, current can flow through each lamp separately, but has to flow through switch in series toget toelther lamp. One switch controls both lamps sim- ‘ultaneously. Thisis probably the most com- ‘mon circuit used in automotive electrical systems. This time, you won't disturb the original wiring. all, Instead, add twomore wires and the second lamp. Now, current flow- ing from the battery goes through the switch to the first lump—and to the second lamp —at the same time. Current can flow through both filaments at the ‘same time and back to the battery. There fare two parallel paths for current 10 follow. In a parallel cireuit, one bulb keeps ‘working even if the other bulb bums out, ‘The parallel circuit requires extra wire, though. Series or Paraillel?—How do you de- cide when to use.aseries circuit and when touse a parallel one? You must ask your- self one question: “Do I want each com- ponent to get current independently, or do I want the current to flow through ane before it gets to the other?” The analysis may surprise you. ‘Think about this for a minute: What ‘would a switch do connected in Parallel to the Jamp- in your circuit? ‘None, Battery current would be available at the switch and lamp all the time. Any time the battery is connected to the cit- cuit, the lamp will light, regardless of switch position. The switch wouldn't ‘control the lampat all. For this reason, be sure the switch is always wired in series with the load it is supposed to control As mentioned earlier, one of the advantages of putting loads in seriesGround stud or ground bolt is used te pro- vide common grounding point for two or more components. Here, _taillamps mounted on fiberglass car body are ail ‘grounded to: car's metal frame at this one Pot, that if one load burns out—opens the circuit—the others quit working, too. So, make sure the loads are in parallel to each other. In many cases, you'll have a combination series-paratlel circuit. That is, the loads are parallel to each other, but the loads together are in series with the switch controlling them. A car's head- lamp circuit is a good example. Both the right and left lamp are operated by the same switch, But if one lamp burns out, the other one will stay on, It's also. possible to control one load. from several places. For example, you usc a door-aciuated switch at each car door to control a single dome lamp. Here, the switches are wired in parallel to each other, but in series with one load. Each switch permits current to flow through the lamp, regardless of the posi- tion of the other switch or switches. Single-Wire Circuits—Up tonow, I've described several simple circuits involv- ing a battery, switch, load and some wire. In every case, a second wire carried the current from the load back to the battery. Now for the shock—pun in- tended. Circuits in cars aren’ this way. Most use only one wire to carry current from the battery to the load. “But,” you might say, “the circuit needs that second wire to get the current back to the battery.” Wrong, Running a second wire from each load back to the battery would take a lot of wire, so the car's SHORT CIRCUIT ‘Short elreult occurs when current goes ai- rectly to ground, bypassing load. Shorts are Caused when bare copper conductor accidentally contacts adjacent conductor ‘or grounded metal part of car. Resulting ‘nigh current flow burns up wire, possibly ‘causing serious electrical fire. sheet-metal body and chassis are used as common retum path (ground) from the oad back to the battery. ‘One battery terminal—normally the negative—is attached directly to some ‘metal part of the car—the engine, chas- sis or metal body. When engine, chass and metal body are not connected di- rectly, you'll find large ground straps joining these components to form one large, continuous ground. Each load is connected tothe engine, chassis orbady. Usually the load component's entire case ‘or body forms the ground terminal. Because modern cars have the nega~ tive battery cable attached to the chassis, these systems are called negative-ground systems, Some earlier American cars and many imports have @ positive-ground system. This is especially important to remember because you can't install com- ponents with a negative-ground orienta- tion into a vehicle with a positive-ground system, Before going on, make sure you un- derstand how the’ single-wire circuit works. Remember—one wire supplies current to the load, while the car's metal structure acts as the second wire to com: plete the current path from the load back to the battery. It’s easy to overlook the metal body and chassis as conductors because they don’t look like wires, Short Cireuits—Unlike the other cir- ‘cuits already mentioned, the short circuit is not one you'll find imentionally en- gineered into a car. Instead, the short circuit is an accidental flaw that works its way into an electrical system. The following section on the applica. tions of Ohm's law, explains the elect cal theory behind a short. For now, let's look at the mechanical aspects. Consider this example: The wire be- tween the battery positive terminal and a load is accidentally grounded. In a car, this could be caused by a pinched or chafed wire, When a wire's insulation is cul, the exposed copper conductor may touch a grounded metal part of the: car. Current goes directly to ground, bypass- ing the load entirely. So, what happens? The wire may get hot—maybe even start to smoke. With- outa load in the cireuit, the current meets little oF no resistance, so it races through the wire fast enough to create heat. Soon, the insulation starts to burn and the wire melts. This is one reason why all electri- cal circuits in a car are protected with {fuses oF eireuit breakers, Circuit Protection— Side terminals on low-maintenance battery ensure that fumes emitted by battery do not corrode terminals. Because all car batteries create some hydrogen gas during normal operation, Provide good ventilation. through the top or side of the ease, form- ing positive and negative terminals, On past-type batteries, the terminal posts are tapered, with the positive post heing larger than the negative—11/16 in, and 5/8 in,, respectively, The size difference makes it less likely for you to attach the cables to the wrong posts, Ta- pered posts require a clamp-on cable ter- minal. Good-quality cable clamps are sized accordingly; cheap clamps are not. 16 Many battery manufacturers are offer- ing batteries with the terminals at the side of the case, rather than on top. Side ter- ‘minals are internally threaded to accept a mating cable with a built-in bolt Regardless of terminal construction, terminal polarity is always identified, either on the terminal or the battery case Positive terminals are identified with P, POS, +, or red paint, Negative terminals are N, NEG, —, of paint of some color other than red—often black. ‘Some batteries have removable capsta permit periodic checking of clectrolyte level. Distilled water is usually recom- mended for topping off low cells. Never add electrolyte. Many new batteries are “sealed for life.” The chemical composition inside the battery is such that very little hydn- gen gas is given off at normal charging voliages, so little of the electrolyte isconsumed over the life of the battery. Scaled batteries are preferred because they eliminate the need for periodic maintenance. The types with side ter- minals are designed 50 the terminals and battery cables are lacated below the bat- tery’s venthole, reducing terminal carto- sion. Gel cell batteries are specially con- structed to withstand severe shock, and are good for such applications as off-road racing. The plales on conventional batteries can short out when subjected to excessive vibration or shock. BATTERY RATINGS Two different systems have been used to rate battery strength, or output ability. ‘The present system was developed dur- ing the 1970s. In the earlier system, developed by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), a battery was rated in amp-hours. ‘Amp-hours are determined as follows: With the battery ambient temperature at 80F (27C), determine the maximum con- tinuous amperes the battery can deliver for 20 hours with cach individual cell maintaining at least 1.75 volts. Example; S continuous amperes X 20hours = 100 amp-hours. The amp-hour rating is a laboratory- oriented standard that’s useful only in comparing one baitery to another. The rating doesn't translate directly to any useful, real-world application. In the real world, the scenario may go something like this: You're driving at night, many miles from home, and sud- denly the charge indicator tells you the generator just died. Will the unassisted battery be ableto power the ignition sys- tem and lights long enough to get you home? The present rating system, called reserve-capacity battery rating, could tell you. Reserve-Capacity Rating—By defini- tion, the reserve-capacity rating is the number of minutes 2 fully charged 12- volt battery at £0F can be discharged at a constant 25 ampto maintain atleast 1.75 volts per cell —10.5 volts for the battery. ‘A 75-minute battery would last 75 min- ules under these conditions, a 110+ minute battery 110 minutes, and so on. Obviously, the higher the rating um ber, the longer the battery will detiver adequate current if the generator fails. To answer the question about that hypothetical dark night, you first add up the amperage requirements of head: lamps, taillamps and ignition system. Di- vide this number into 25 and multiply that answer by the reserve-capacity rating of the battery. This ives the actual number of minutes the battery will last under such conditions. Example: Ignition + two headlamps + ‘two taillamps = total amperes. o 2amp + (2X4.S.amp) + (2X 0.6 amo) ~ 122 amp. 25 standard amp + 12. car's amp = 2 amp (approx) 2X 75 minutes (reserve-capacity rating) = 150 min, = 2-172 hee, Cold-Crank Rating—Another way of rating a battery is to determine its ability to operate the starter motor under ex- tremely cold conditions. This is called the cold-crank raring. When temperature drops, the chemical reaction taking place inside the battery slows down. Using the SAE standard temperature of 80F, a bat- tery will put out 100% of its rated power. ‘At32F (OC) the available power drops to about 65%, at OF (-18C) it'sdownto only 40%. A.batiery's cold-crank rating specifies the minimum amperes a fully charged Hydrometer contains weighted float, which ‘on float ia taken at point where It protrudes from Hquid. 12-volt battery can deliver for 30seconds at OF without falling below 7.2 battery volts. Typical cold-crank ratings are 305 amp, 385 amp and 410 amp. It's not uncommon for a starler motor—depen- ding on engine size—to draw atleast 300 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF ELECTROLYTE SULFURIC WATER (H;0) 64% OF VOLUME 100% OF VOLUME 4) 36% OF VOLUME Pure water has @ specific gravity of 1.000; sulfuric acid a specific gravity of 1.635. By measuring the specific gravity at the electrolyte in a battery, you can determine the ratio between sufuric acid and weter, thus the amount of charge. 1.270 ls ideal, Drewing courtesy of Chrysler Corp. 17amp during cold weather. So, you can see how important cold-crank ratingscan be, particularly in Northern climates. Specific Gravity—Another battery characteristic related to temperature is the specific gravity of the electrolyte, made up of water and sulfuric acid. As a battery discharges, the electrolyte solu- tion contains less acid and more water, thus its specific gravity (weight) changes. Because acid is heavier than water, you can determine the approximate state of the battery's charge by comparing the weight of its electrolyte to the weight of pure water, or its specific gravity. A bat- tery hydrometer is used to make this comparison, Draw an electrolyte sample into the hydrometer and read the specific gravity on the Mloating scale. Most hydrometers are calibrated for the standard tempera ture of 80F., Add 0,004 to the hydrometer reading for every 10 degrees above SOF; subtract 0.004 for each 10 degrees below 80F. Most good hydrometers have both a floating scale and thermometer in the same housing, and a conversion table printed on the barrel. A fully charged battery will read 1.260; a fully dis- charged one will be inthe 1.110—1.120 other than reading the gravity requires expensive test equipment, but a local battery-service facility can perform these tests ifneeded. Instead of being too concerned with further testing of failed batteries, consid- cr eliminating the things that cause batteriesto fail. You can contribute to the battery's long, successful life by waich- ing out for these problems: © Defects in the generating system. © Overloads (using a too-smail battery). rt and corrosion on battery or cable srminals Damage to lead plates from operating a constantly undercharged condition. © Physical damage to the case. © Under-hood heat (placement near ex- haust system). BATTERY SELECTION Selecting a suitable battery for your project car is much more than just getting the right price. Once you understand the theory behind battery ratings, you need to know how to translate that theory into Cranking capacity is the single most important factor. The rule of thumb is to buy a battery with at least 1 amp of cold- crank rating for each cubic inch of engi displacement. This translates to a mini mum of 6 amp per 0.1 liter, considering there are approximately 61 cubic inches per liter. For example, a 1.6-liter stock VW engine requires a battery rated at 96 cold-crank amp. Because most replace- ment batteries are sold for engines with larger displacements, you may have trou- ble finding a battery rated this low. In other words, you probably won't have to worry about any battery, whatever the price, being inadequate for a stock VW engine. For largerengines, use the above. rule. There's also a mule of thumb for de- termining reserve capacity. Unless you frequently travel in remote areas, choose a battery whose reserve capacity permits you to drive the car with a failed a gener- ator for at least | hour. Then there's the matter of warranty. Because the price of a battery is roughly proportional to its warranty coverage, it's evident that you get basically what you pay for, at least with major brands. Be aware that warranties are prorated against time in service. That is, a S-year battery that's been used for 2 years may be warranted for 2/5 of the list price, not the full list price. As described below, this can vary Also concerning list prices, you may find new batteries sold at discounts con- siderably below “full lists.” This some- times results in the unusual consequence of your worn-out battery having 2 pro- rated value—based on full list—that's close to the discowmed price for a new battery. In such cases—and they're common—the warranty isn't worth much, GENERATOR Ifthe battery is the heart of your car's electrical system, the generator is second in importance. Actually, both interact so closely that it’s almost impossible to sep- arate their functions entirely. This sec- ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION Moving wire through magnetic field In- Guces voltage Into wire. If wire Is moved ‘one way. then the other, alternating current flows ine. Drawing courtesy of Chrysler tion explains how the generator provides current for the car's electrical system and how it acts to recharge the battery. ‘As mentioned in the battery section, all electrical needs are usually supplied by the generator while the engine is run- ning. An exception would be when the current demand of the car’s electrical system exceeds generator output. When this happens, the battery supplements generator output. Also, the battery pro- vvides all current needed to-start the car— that is, cranking the engine and supply- ing power to the ignition system. “To understand current generation, you need to know about an electrical phe- nomenon briefly discussed in the theory section—magnetism, A magnet has a north and south pole. ‘These create an invisible magnetic field ‘around the magnet. If you place the north pole of one magnet near the south pole of another, the magnetic field extends from ‘one magnet to the other through the inter vening space, or air gap. If you hold a piece of wire between the two poles at a right angle to the magnetic field, and move the wire up and down, voltage will be induced into the wire ‘This phenomenon is called magnetic in- duction. The direction the current flows depends on the direction of the magnetic field and the direction the wire is mov- ing. Current flows one way when you move the wire up and the other way when you move it down. Incidentally, you could hold the wire still and move theTYPICAL DC GENERATOR PULLEY AND FAN STATIONARY FIELD COIL [ROTATING ARMATURE (IOUCTION COIL) courtesy of Chrysier Corp. SIMPLE ee Simple armature consists of wire loop ro- ‘tated through magnetic field ta induce ot- rect current into wire, Armature of OC Generator has large number of loops Jaround laminated iron core. Draw wrapped Ing courtesy of Chevrolet Motor Divison. magnets instead—the result would be the same To make a useful generstor, this in- duced voltage must be harnessed. That is, mechanical energy—meving the wire—must be converted into to lee: trical energy—the induced voltage In the moving-wire example, repeat- edly moving a wire up and down in a magnetic field causes current to flow one ‘way, then the other, Because the direc- tions altemate, this is known as alternai- Direct current (OC) generator ie no longer installed in new cars. Output waa limited at iow engine speeds and nat satistactory for high current demands of modern cars. Drawing ing currene (AC). In a cas, the current always flows in one direction; from the battery to the Joad, This is known as direct current (DC). But, depending on the year of manufacture, your car will have either a DC generator or AC gener= ‘ator (alternator). The next two sections describe each in de DC GENERATOR ‘You should know al the outset that the DC generator is not used in madern cars. Although it is less complex than the AC generator, its output is inadequate fer the high current demand of most modem clectrical systems, particularly at low en- gine speeds. However, the DC generator was used on all cars until Chrysler introduced the AC generator in 1960. So, if you're re- storing an older car, you must deal with a DC generator. So car builders using a WW older than 1973. In an automobile generator, it would not be practical to rely on permanent magnets to provide the necessary mag- netic field, They aren't very strong and they tend to weaken with age. So, the DC generator has a set of electromagnets called field coils. These consist of numerous wire windings on iron-pole shoes, energized by the car's electrical system. The battery provides the initial current to energize the field, then the generator takes over and “feeds” itself when operating speed is high enough, In the moving-wire example, a single wire was moved through a magnetic field to produce current. But in a generator, a single wire wouldn't gencratc enough current tobe useful. So, a generator has a large number of individual wire loops wrapped around a laminated iron core called an armanuee, which is tured by belt driven by the:engine. The two ends of cach wire loop are attached to copper commutator bars. The bars are arranged ina circle atone end of the armature shaft such that the bars for each loop are posi- tioned directly opposite each other, ot 180° apart. The commutator bars are in- sulated from cach other and. from the armature shaft with pieces of mica. ‘Two carbon-based brushes, mounted 180° apart in the generator frame, rub against the commutator bars. This eon- figuration allows the pair of brushes to contact the commutator bars for one wire loop at a time. And because the armature is turing rapidly, the brushes contact Successive commutator pairs rapidly. Each wire loop passes its small voltage charge into a brush. Because there are 80 many loops, voltage flows from the gencrator in a practically constant stream. ‘Generator output is routed directly into the car's electrical system. If there's a heavy load at the moment, current flows through the load. If the load is current flows into the batiery positive terminal and through its plates, recharg- ‘ing the battery But what if there's a low load and the ‘battery is fully charged? What happensto all that current the generator is produc- ing? If the excess current were not con- tolled, the generator would continue to posh it through the battery, causing the electrolyte to overheat. Excessive gas- sing would take place inside the battery, boiling the electrolyte out of it, thus ruin- ing it. Obviously, there is a means of controlling excess generator output—‘with DC generators, also with earty alterna- tors. One shown at right is adjustable; this ‘one is sealed and must be repiaced if it gets ‘out of calibration. this is the function of the mechanical valiage regulatar. Mechanical Voltage Regulator—As noted earlier, the field coils of the gener- ator become magnets only when current flows through them, What if you could tum off the current to the coils when the battery is fully charged? And what if you could turn field current back on when system Voltage starts to.drop? That's ex- acily what the mechanical voltage reg- lator does. Here's how: ‘Current for the penerator's field coils must pass through aset of movable points in the voltage regulator. When the points are closed, or touching. current flows. If system voltage gets too high—battery is, fully charged—a specially calibrated electromagnet in the voltage regulator becomes strong enough to pull the points open, shutting off current to the coils. So, the field loses its magnetism and the generator stops generating. AS soon as system voltage drops below the calibra- tion point of the cleetromagnet, the points snap shut again, energizing the field once more. This regulation process happens constantly, at a rate of up to 200 times per second, It effectively limits the generator’s output to provide only what's, needed to power the electrical loads and maintain a full battery charge: Strictly speaking, a voltage regulator consists only of the electromagnet and 20 | Mechanical voltage regulater controls eur- ‘ent output of generator though set af mov- ‘able points and calibrated coils. Current flows when points are touching. On one ‘shown here, points are adjustable. For best erformance, keep points clean. Photo by Ron Sessions. point set just discussed. These are mounted in a metal housing, whieh also sontains a current regulaier, The entire unit is commonly referred to as the volt: age regulator ‘The current regulator comes into play when there are many loads working and high generator output is needed. In this ‘case, the vollage tegulator stays out of action, permitting maximum generator ‘output. But under these circumstances, 's possible for the generator to work so hhard that it burns itself out. Excess cur rent flow is the culprit, To guard against this, the current regulator—a second calibrated electromagnet and point set in the voltage-regulator housing—tempo- rarily cuts off field current if generator output current flow is too high. Most mechanical voltage regulators used in recent years are not adjustable, so there’s nothing you can do if the calibra- tion of one of the intemal components gels out of specification. Earlier models are adjustable, so consult the appropriate shop manual to seeiff yours is. AC gener- ators (alternators) use electronic voltage regulators, discussed below. AC GENERATOR (ALTERNATOR) In the early 1960s, the demands on a car's electrical system had become so great that the DC generator could not handle them. So, the alternator was de~ veloped. It is much more efficient than the DC generator, and isableto providea. great deal of current, even at engine i- dling speed. Like a DC generator, an alternator re~ lies on the relative movement of a wire Joop and 4 magnet to create current. But there are some major differences. In an alternator, the magnet rotates, while the wire loops are stationary. To provide electricity to make the magnet work, an alternator uses carbon brushes, operating against continuous slip rings— they're not segmented like a com- mutator, This means the magnet gets a constant supply of battery voltage, no ‘matter what position it's rotated to. The wire loops are arranged in the generator housing so the rotating magnetic field cuts through cach loop in turn. But, because the rotating magnet has north and south poles like any other mag- net, each wire loop gets a shot of “north” followed by a shot of “south” on each evolution. Remember that the flow di- rection of induced current depends on the direction of the magnetic field or move- ment So, each loop gets current induced in one direction, then the other, produc ing alternating current, But auto elec- trical systems operate on DC, not AC. The breakthrough that made alterna tors practical for use in DC electrical systems is an electronic device called a diode. It permits current to flow in one direction only. In.an alternator, alternat- ing current passes through a set of diodes. that change it into a series of one-way current pulses separated by intervals of no. current flow. Because these pulses happen so rapidly, the output appears to be a constant stream of DC current Electronic Voltage Regulator—Al- though the alternator originally was teamed with a mechanical voltage reg- jator, engineers soon found 2 way to transistorize regulator funetions. This led to the development of the ail- electronic voliage regulator. In time, its size was reduced to the point that itcould be installed inside the alternator housing. Tuhas no moving parts and is not service- able or adjustable in any way. Ifthe vol age regulator becomes defective, you re- place it. However, its electronic com- ponems are extremely reliable, 30 replacement isn’t often needed.IELO Coit SUP RINGS STATOR ASSEMBLY TYPICAL AC GENERATOR (ALTERNATOR) FRONT ALTERNATOR HOUSING Modern AC generator (altemator) ——_@----. ‘Arrowhead in diode symbol points in direc thon af current flow, it cannot flaw In op- posite direction, sadiode acts asaone-way electrical valve, transforming AC current to DC eurrent. GENERATOR SELECTION Because a generator is operated by an engine-criven belt, it uses a significant amount of horsepower. And the higher the output rating of the generator, the more horsepower it uses. In a race car or dune buggy, horsepower loss isa serious consideration. However, most competi- tion vehicles have relatively low current demands—ignition and fuel pump, mostly —so they can get by with a low: output generator. On the other hand, an off-road vehicle with a bumper full of driving lamps will require a high-output generator, thus horsepower must be rificed So, how do you know how big is big consists of a rotating magnet (field coil) and a stationary coil (stator). Brushes carry current into field coll via slip rings. Drawing courtesy of Chrysler Corp. electronic voltage regulator. Entire device is molded into |, weatherproo! ceramic and is not servicenble except by replacement. Because of their extreme reliability, this is not often required, enough? It all boils down to generator output, rated in amperes. The amperage ‘ourput must be at feast equal to the total current draw of all the electrical loads in the system, Otherwise, the battery must supply current to keep everything run- ning. There should also be enough excess ‘ouiput to keep the battery charged. Here are some guidelines: Restorations—Go with the factory- original part, ifauthenticity is important Just be sure generator output is up to specification. As extra insurance, have the old one rebuilt and tested by a gener- ator shop. Race Cars, Dune Buggies & Kit ‘Cars—Go at least one size larger than ‘magnetic field and one of North magnetic field. This reversal of the minimum needed to power all loads inthesystem. Add up the current draw of each electrical device you plan to use, including the ignition coi Everyday Vehicles—If you're just add- ing a pair of driving lights, a stereo, or similar accessory to your strect car, the factory-original generator should be adequate. But if you're into competing with the light output of the sun when driving at night, your driving lamps may overtax the standard generator, so it's best to go one size larger. Many auto manufacturers provide a higher-output generator on their cars equipped with air conditioning, and one of these factory generators may be suitable to handle the Accessories you're installing. If you're buying a used or rebuilt generator, or salvaging a one from a parts car, how do you determine its output? First, physical size isn't much of a clue, You must look for an identification code on the generator. It may be a color, a part number or the actual ampere rating. Compare the code to the manufacturer's specifications in the appropriate shop manual or dealer parts book 24Electrical Paths ‘Although wires and cables are both used to conduct electricity, cables are generally much heavier. From bottom to top: 18-gage wire, 14-gage wire, 12-gage wire and battery cable. Wires are the most obvious electrical paths in an automotive electrical system because they carry current to the various electrical components, The intemal cir- cuitry of some modem electrical com- ponents uses printed circuits instead of wires, so they are another type of elec- al path. To complete the circuit be- rween an electrical source (battery) and the load (electrical component) a return path, called a ground, must be provided. ‘As previously described, the engine block, metal body and chassis act as the Pre ground between the load and battery negative terminal ‘WIRES ‘Wires can be compared to water pipes, blood vessels or highways. They provide a path for electrical current to flow. The metal wire itself is called a conductor because it conducts, or carries, the cur- rent. The conductor is covered with in- ‘swlation to keep the current in its correct Path—prevent short circuits. 22WIRE GAGE SELECTION GUIDE 12-Volt WIRE GAGE FOR CIRCUIT IN FEET ‘Typical Electrical ApRTOX. System circuits Amp. Candle- ‘Air Conditioner 4220 Watts power 3° S| 710" 22s 0" Baci-up Lamps (2) a To so 0 © © oO oO m0 2 Brak Lar ee) Cigarette Uphter wo12 i 0 © © © © 2 2 © 2 Greck os Domne Lamo 1 a a a a a er) i a 3 6 Headlamps (2\(Low 69 46 0 © © © © © 0 wm 16 Beam) so © © 0 © © mo 20 1 18 Seen ee tes 6 72 ss 2 2 2 2 2 8 18 16 HeaterDDetrosier 6-10 7 8 0 20 2 © 2 1 1 16 16 ue ea 5 9 7 © 2 © 18 1 16 16 16 Instrument-Panel art wo 120 8 2 2 0 18 18 16 16 14 ee 188 W290 License Lamp 05 2 15 i410 6) Wee a a4 Eure sares (e 1G 1% 180 120 2 2 Ott Power Seat 25-60 CE DC Power Windows 20-25 20240160 OOO Sees ae 2 ms 1 m8 eC Tailiamps (2) 5 ‘Note: Length in feet represent total length of wire in ecu, using ground return, In twowrire circuits, be sure to include fotal length of both wires in circuit. Where 20.gage is listed in chart 18 gage is recommended far mechanical strength, Gage recommendations are for typical stat vehicles, based on a maximum veltaga drop of 10%. A general rule to follow is to use a Next, from the wire size chart at xOnE ‘wire size that gives a vollage drop of _ right, you find the resistance of 18 feet SAE ‘Ohms 0.5 voltoriess acrossthe length ofthe of 14-gage wire is 0.0028 ohms per Metric «AWG. per supply (B+ ta load), Here's an ex- foot. (mm2) (gage) __ 1000 Feet ample: Suppose you're wiring two driv= 05 20 300 ing lamps, each drawing 100 watts, 0.0028 X 18 = 0.05 ohm. 08 18 63 and the supply lead needs to be 18 feet 1.0 16 47 Jong. Should you use 14 gage wire? ‘With this information, you now have 20 4 28 From Ohm's law (E= 1X A), you all the variables of Onm's Law to solve 30 12 18 need to know the current draw of both the problem: 60 1. Hat lamps (I), and the resistance of 18 feet pon : a af wire (R) in order to calculate the = E=1(1Samp)XA(0.050hm)=0.75 165 a 03 voltage Grop across the wire (E). volt. 20 2 02 ‘Aderivation of Ohm's law—P (pow- 40.0 4 O14 ox inwalts) = 1X E—allows yout roms, youtindthal t-coge wire 50.0 o ont Ea soot oe Uae ee Ste eee 00 0.08 100-watt lamps: P (200 watts) + E (13.5 system vos) = 1(15 amp). ‘rop limit of 0.5 voit. So, you go to wire, which has a voltage rop of 0.0018 chmsitt: E = 1(15 amp) XR (0.0018 X 181.) = 0.49 volts.INSULATION STRANDED WIRE Wire usedin auto electrical systems should bba stranded ta provide maximurn flexibility with good conductivity. Example at left ‘shows individual strands that make up con- ductor. kéentical plece at right has notbeen unraveled. Diamondback shielded battery cable trom Taylor Cable Products Inc., features bealded-metal alloy shielding over con- ventional plastic Insulation for additional ratection and classy appearance. And no, Ht doesn't bite! Photo courtesy of Taylor Cable Products Inc. 24 Wire conductors ere coated with plestic insulation to prevent short clrculta should wire accidentally touch a ground. Drawing courtesy of Chrysler Corp. Factory wiring harnesses offen use striped wire called tracer wire. Adding a red tracer toa white wire, for Instance, provides an additional “color” for the harness designer to use. Tracers aiso help service technicians trace future wiring problems. Phato by Jim Barrett. Wire comes in many sizes and types. Some wire manufacturers call all their products wire; others prefer the term able, By my definition, the main differ- ence between a wire anda cable is size— that is, the effective diameter of the con- ductor, Because a cable must carry a great deal of amperage to operate the starter motor, or a great deal of voltage to operate the sparkplugs, it is relatively large in diameter. Wires, on the other hand, must carry relatively less amperage, so they have noticeably smaller diameters than cables. Throughout this book, the term cable is used to identify the main con- ductors used in the starting and secondary-ignition circuits and at the battery. All other conductors in the sys- tem are called wires. Sizes—The conductor diameter of a wire or cable is carefully matched to the amperage the wire is expected to carry. It is measured in one of two ways. ‘Gage is the standard SAE designation for wire sizes, usually refered to as AWG (American Wire Gage). Gages are not measurements of actual dimensi ‘but are arbitrary numbers that relative diameters, And, unlike di- mensional measurements, the Jarger the gage number, the smaller the wire. ‘Gages used in sutomotive wiring range from 10 (largest wire diameter) to 20 (smallest wire diameter). Cables range from 00 (largest) to 6 (smallest). The size distinction between wires and cables gets blurred at about gage 8. Gage sizes are in increments of 2, as shown in the chart on Page 23.‘The second way wire size is specified is by the area of the wire's conductor cross-section, expressed in square millimeters (mm’). ‘The chart on page 23 compares SAE wire gages with comesponding metric sizes. The chart also shows the relation- ship between electrical resistance and wire size, expressed in ohms per 1000 feet. The larger the wire size, the less the resistance; the less resistance, the greater the maximum possible current flow. ‘The wire-selection chart on page 23 shows the recommended wire gages 10 use for circuits of various amperages. The amperage draw of typical auto- motive circuits are also shown. Use the chart to help you select the correct-gage wire for the various circuits in your car's electrical system. ‘Conductor Materials—The conductor material used in car wiring is generally ‘copper, although some copper-clad alu- minum cable is available, Copper is used for its durability and low electrical resist- ance. ‘Conductors come in several strand ‘configurations for various uses. Because ‘of its relatively large cross-section, sin- gle strand wire is least desirable where flexing is likely to occur, so itis rarely, if ever, used for automotive wiring. stripe on wire with waterproof marking pen. Mutltiple-strand wire, with its large number of relatively small individual strands, is less likely to fracture from repeated flexing. Generally, for any given overall wire gage, the greater the number of strands, the more flexible the wire. For example, 18-gage wire can contain seven strands of 26-gage wire, 19 strands of 30-gage wire or 41 strands of 34-gage wire, For best flexibility, select wire containing the maximum number of strands for its gage. Rope-stranded battery cable is often specified where extreme flexibility is needed to facilitate routing, Braided ground straps, a form of cable, used to be commonly used as bat- tery ground cables, Smaller versions are sometimes used to ground the engine to the chassis, or sheet-metal body to the chassis, if rubber mounts between these assemblies restrict electrical continuity. Insulation—Regardless of size, all wires and cables have one thing in common—they need an insulative covering to keep the electrons in their correct paths, Years aga, wire and cable insulation was made of braided clo today's cars use wires with a more- durable PVC plastic insulation. Several specialty houses carry cloth-insulated wire for antique or collector cars. See the supplier's list on pages 152-153. Whether cloth or plastic, automoti wire insulation has several important characteristic Insulation color is the first charac teristic, Each wire of a factory-made wil ing hamess has its own unique color. ‘This was done so each circuit could be identified as the car was being built, and for diagnosing a problem. Think of wire colors as street names. Sometimes, a factory-made hamess has more wires in it than there are single wire colors available, In this case, the designer specifies a second color, called a tracer, which is a contrasting stripe running the length of the wire. For in- stance, by adding a white tracer to a red wire, you have distinguished the wire froma plain red one. Tracers are always chosen to contrast with the base color of the insulator, and may come ina number of colors, though purple and orange trac- cers are rarely seen In designing circuit diagrams and building hamesses for your project car, you have complete control over the choice of wire colors. And, because you're going to take extra care in eon- structing your harness, wire by wire, you probably won't have much need for trac- ‘er wire. This is just as well, because tracer wire is not readily available in the aftermarket, anyway. If you must use tracer wire and you can’t find any, you can make your awn by using a waierproof marking pen to draw acontrasting stripe along the length of the wire. Another way to make a tracer, though less desirable, is to mark the terminal ‘ends of the wires with a dab of paint. ‘There are several disadvantages to this method. First, the paint may chip off. ‘Second, there’s no way to distinguish the ‘tracer wire except at the end. Third, ifthe wire turns out (0 be too long, and you cut it short, the tracer may end up on the ‘garage floor Finally, labels can be purchased at many electrical-supply outlets, for the sole purpose of marking wire ends for identification purposes. See page 142 ‘One more thing about color: On American-built cars, black wires are almost always used on the ground (—) side of a circuit, However, in the 25thousands of factory hamesses made, there are probably some exceptions to this rule. German cars use brown —the color of carth (ground)—to indicate ground. Red always means bot (+) although other colors are also used for hot wires in aharness. Imagine the confusion if every feed wire in the hamess was the same color! The red-for-positive convention also applies to the battery positive cable and battery-feed wires 10 the generator, fuse panel and ignition switch. In most cars, these are the wires that are always hot, even when the ignition switch is off. ‘Again, you may find exceptions. ‘Another important characteristic of a wire’s insulation is its durabitiry. If you were buying wire by the truckload like an auto factory does, you could order wire with insulation to fit your specifications, But most of us buy wire by the spool at local auto-supply stores. To be sure you're getting wire with insulation best Suited for most common vehicle applica- tions, stick with name brands. Packard Electric, adivision of General Motors, is perhaps the most widely known wire manufacturer, Another brind widely available in paris stores is distributed by IT &T. Depending on application, the tem- perature rating of wire insulation can be important, Wire for common applica- tions has insulation rated at &5C (185E). ‘This rating is adequate for most common applications, However, if you're build- ing a race car, use wire with an insulation rating of at least 105C (221F). For more on high-temperature wire insulation for race cars, see page 140. Whatever brand you buy, don't skimp ‘on quality to save a few dollars. In the Jong nun, it’s false economy if the insula- tion melts from under-hood heat or di solves in grease and causes a short ci cuit. Bumed wires or a car fire is a high price to pay for bargain-basement materi~ als, PRINTED CIRCUITS Wires and cables aren’t the only con- ductors found in a vehicle's wiring sys- tem. On newer cars, some factory installed components contain printed cir- cuits (PCs) that conduct electricity just like wires do, You'll find printed circuits most often in original-equipment instru- ment clusters because they providea sav- ings in labor cost for the factory. ‘There was a time when each instru- ment and light bulb in the instrument cluster was wired separately. This, in- cidentally, is the way you'll wire in- dividual or add-on instruments in your project car. Nowadays, car manufacturers are looking for ways to reduce hand labor and its related costs, to keep car prices under control. The one-piece printed cir- cuit does this nicely. And its nearly error- Factory instrument clusters often use printed circuitry. Foil paths are adhered to flexible plastic carrier. Each electrical component in cluster has @ terminal that contacts the ‘eppropriate foil to complete the circuit. 26 proof design provides higher quality in mass-produced cars. ‘A printed circuit consists of metal foil current paths adhered to a flexible plastic backing (PC board). Each lamp socket and instrument connector plugs into the ssircuit at the appropriate place. A cavity is provided for plugging in the wiring- hamess connector. As longastheharness is correctly made, circuit continuity is virtually assured. Chances are, you won't run into a printed circuit in restoring a collectible or antique ear, or if you're installing in- dividual instruments, as mentioned ear- lier. But, if you're installing an entire factory-made instrament cluster in your [project car, there are several important things to consider when dealing, with Printed circuits, First, the harness you make for your ‘car must be identical to the one used in the car the cluster was originally de- signed for. The best thing to dohere is to cutthe printed-circuit connector from the hamess in a junked car, leaving about | foot of wire extending from each cavity. ‘Then, when you build your own harness, ‘connect the wiring directly to the cut-off wites, following the factory’ sorientation diagram for each circuit. If this isn’t en- tirely clear, it will be when you read the chapters on circuit design and harness construction, “Treat a printed circuit gently. It's ru ‘ged enough to withstand years of service inside a car's instrument panel, but it won't hold up to manhandling. Once a foil circuit is scraped off or broken, there's no practical way to repair it. So, take care when removing or installing the. hamess connector—be firm and de- liberate, but don't use a twisting motion. ‘When installing lamp sockets, be surethe foil is not damaged by the socket tabs. To illustrate this point, I recently had to replace the printed circuit in ane of the family cars. The instrument.clusier illumination and tachometer suddenly and simultaneously quit working. The ‘problem turned out tobe acircuit-ground foil that was damaged when the car was built, It held up for several years, but ‘eventually either road vibration or nar- mal expansion and contraction caused it to fracture. Problems like this can be particularly frustrating to trace becauseInstrument-panel hamess is connected to printed circuit with a pushin connector, Sides of cannector contact folls. on printed Sircull f you plan to use an OEM printed circuit in your car, cut attached wires at least 1 foot from terminal, if possible, to allow plenty of splicing room. they tendo act, locate but impossibleto repair, Fellure due to fracture in fol circult, Is much more difficult to locate, and equally impossible to repair. Printed circuits don't handle excess current flow too well. In fact, fuse. Damage like this (arrows) [s fairly easy to Although easy to overlook, ground circuits are necessary part of electrical path. Most components are self-grounded through their mounting Insulator. You'll need to run separate ground wire as shown at right. the break was hidden under the edge of ‘one of the lamp sockets. ‘(GROUNDS Almost every circuit has one current ‘path that’s easy to overlook, even though iW's the biggest. It is the car's entire ssiructure—chassis, engine and metal body. Together, they form a common return path ot ground. They're all grounded to the battery's negative tet- minal. Many electrical components ground directly through one of these, simply by being bolted in place. This type of electrical path is sometimes called a self-ground, meaning the com- ponent doesn't need a separate (floating) ground wit In modem, lightweight cars with numerous plastic body components, as well as in fiberglass-bodied cars, non- conductive body parts won't carry cur- rent, so separate ground wiresare needed for self-grounded components. attached ‘screws to metal body, frame or engine (lett). Such components won't ground through fibergiass body because it acts as an to these. The ground wires are attached to the metal chassis at a convenient point, Often, ground wires for several com- ponents connect to a single ground ter- minal or stud. Ifthe component you're installing was designed to have aself-ground, you must provide a means of attaching the ground ‘wire to the component. Often a ring rer- ‘minal, page 63, can be used on the com- ponent’s mounting stud, aaElectrical Controls The driver's interaction with most mechanical systems in a car is through ‘some sort of contro! device. And usually, the device being controlled performs the same way each time the control is ap- erated. The steering wheel is one ex- ample. Although the end effect is to cause the front wheels of the car to change their angle to some degree or other, the driver's input is always the same—he tums the steering wheel, a Tittle or a lot, and the front wheels re- spond accordingly, In an automotive electrical system, control devices can be placed in three main groups—switches, solenoids and relays, and rheostats, Switches are used to tum circuits on or off. Most switches are intended to be operated directly and consciously by the vehicle's occupants—the headlamp ot radio switch, for instance. Others are op- erated by the occupants only as the con- sequence of performing some other ac- tion, Door-jamb dome-lamp switches are good examples. The switches are op- 28 Installed on Chevy $-10 off-road racing pickup truck are not fancy, but they're high-quality, rellable switches that are easy to operate under racing conditions. Photo by Tom Monroe. erated indirectly by opening and closing a car door, Still other switches are operated by conditions in a cat and may of may not come under human influence. For ex- ample, the park switch inside a windshield-wiper motor is operated by a cam inside the motor housing. Solenoids and relays automatically activate electrical devices or secondary circuits, either as a result of some action taken by the driver or by changing con- ditions in the ear, For instance, the sole- noid for the starter motor is activated ‘when the ignition switch is tumed on to start the car. Rheestats control the amount of re- sistance in a circuit, thereby controlling the amount of current fed to an electrical component. The dimmer control for instrument-panel illumination is an ex- ample. The type of electrical control operated directly by the driver is almost always a switch or rheostat, although the par of the control actually being operated may take the form of a knob, lever, handle or push button Often, the driver operates the control of a mechanical or electrical system be- cause he’s sensed the need to do so from. something he's observed. The action could be in response to something di- rectly observed in the environment— such as operating the hornto warm achild darting into the road, Or, it could be a result of observing a condition by means of a display. For example, you dim the headlamps for an approaching car be- cause you notice the headlamp high displays are designed to. convey informa- tion, their design and location are also influenced by human factors. Displays are discussed on pages 38-48, In the following discussion on con- trols, a distinction is made between ori- ginal equipment manufacturer (OEM) controls that are installed in a car at the factory, and aftermarket controls that you can buy at auto-parts stores or through mail-order parts catalogs,Good example of how OEM switches ean be Intagrated. Each contro! is easily identified by touch. Headlamp switch is conventional Push-pull type, while attached fog lamp switch Is operated by 2 rotating thumb tab (lett), Small slider switch for slectricmirrors (Fight) selects right side or left, depending on'which way itis moved. Mounted directly above It, “joy stick” Is used to contro! mirror-head movement. OEM controls are almost always de- signed for specific jobs and fit into spe- cially designed mounts and bezels. Be- cause of their single-purpose design, they don't lend themselves to kit cars and custom applications as easily as the after- market controls do. SWITCHES In its simplest form, a switch is noth: ing but an onJoff device capable of clos- ing and opening a circuit. Switches. come OEM switches are often difficult to adapt to a habby car. For ‘oxample, this heater control is built into @ plastic bezel that would be hard to relocate without a tot of rework. Windshield-wipes switch mounted onsteer- Ing column of late-model GM car would be ail but impossibie to adaptto location other than original. When you encounter such a situation, you'll have to use your ingenuity to adapt aftermarket controls. ima wide variety of configurations. Some are seemingly complex in operation but their basic funetion is to tum equipment on and off. Most switches are normally open, meaning when they're relaxed, the cir- cuit is open, er disconnected. In fact, some switches are spring-loaded to re- turn automatically to the OFF position when you remove your finger from the switch. These are called momentary-on OF momentary-contact switches. Most Most OEM headlamp switches contain built-in circult breaker for headlamp circuit. Park and talliamps, sithough controlied by same switch, usually rely on separate fuse. ‘momentary-on switches are operated by a putsh button. Some switches are made with built-in circuit protection in the form of a circuit breaker or fuse. Aftermarket switches.are more likely than OEM switches to have this kind of protection, because the after- market switch is often used to contro! an accessory circuit added to the car by the fuse or breaker docs away with the need to find a vacant slot in the 29SWITCH SYMBOLS SPST {| spoT Sufich symbots portray switch function graphically. From lett ight: wt ol ie (SPST) switchs used to control single circuit. Single-pole, double-throw (SPDT) switch can select between two different circults, and will operate only the one selected. two entirely separate circuits with one control. Both cireults areeither OM or OFF at switch can selectbetween four different circuits, teoat.atime. tis essentially twoDPST (DPST) switch can car's fuse panel, However, if the switch you're using has no built-in cirewit pro- tection and there's no place in the fuse panel to add another, use an in-line fice. This is simply a fuse and fuse holder wired into the circuit between the load and the power source OEM switches usually don’t have built-in circuit protection beeatise most original circuits route through the car's fuse panel, One notable exception, par- ticularly in American-built cars, is the headlamp switch—instesd of using a fuse in the fuse panel, the switch contains a self-resetting circuit breaker. Circuit breakers are covered in depth on pages 35-36. Switch Types—Switches can be catego- rized by their efectrical function. or how the switely actually works, Within each category, you may find several different kinds of switch actuators, deseribed |a- ter, Single-pote, single-throw is the sim- plest kind of switch, with only two positions—ON and OFF. It's often re- ferred to in parts catalogs by the initials SPST. Contrary to 2 popular misconcep- tion, the pole does not refer to the actuator, but the movable element inside the switch that makes and breaks the cir- cuit. Inmost switches, youcan'teven see the pole unless you remove the housing. Push-button-operated SPST switches tum the circuit on when pushed, and off when released, This is the most common: form of momentary-on switeh, which is the kind of switch you'd use on your house for the doorbell, Race-car starter 30 buttons are another example. Also, a switch that activates a windshield- washer pump is of this type. Another type of push-button switch turns the cir- cuit on with the first push and off with a second push. You'll occasionally find rotary SPST switches operated by a knob, but they're not common in cars. Regardless of the type of control. the SPST switch has one characteristic that distinguishes it from all other switches. Because ithas only one pote andonly two positions ON and OFF —itcan control only one circuit. The SPST switeh has two terminals, one connected to the bat- ny and! one to the load. ingle-pole, double-throw is the next mast-complicated switch. Its abbrevi- ated name is SPDT. This switch also has only one movable element inside, but it has three terminals outside, One terminal connects to the battery. The other two connect totwo separate circuits or loads, ‘This means one load of the other can be connected to the battery, depending on the position of the switch actuator. Some SPDT switches have three actuaior positions ON, OFF, ON. This is ealled acenter-offswitch, Iteontrols one load in each of the ON positions, and breaks both circuits when the sctuator is in between. Some SPDT switches are the momen- tary-on type. Double-pole, single-throw switches are next in complexity, The abbreviation is DPST. This switch has only two positions ON and OFF, But unlike the SPST switch, it has to independent poles. each connected to its own circuit. “There are four terminals, two for each pole. The DPST is really two SPST switches in a common housing, with common control actuator. Ht is used to operate two separate loads sim- ltaneously Double-pole, double-throw switches are the most complex of the common aftermarket switehes, OEM switches, on the other hand, can become almost grotesquely complex in function, but that is another matter. The DPST switely has two independent poles, each with two t's simply two separate SPDT switches in one housing, electrically independent of each other, operated by one contro! actuator, The DPDT switeh has six terminals, three for each pole, DPDT ewitches come in two designs—ON, OFF,, ON and also MOMENTARY ON, OFF, MOMENTARY ON. All the switch types mentioned above —no matter how complex—serve only to turn eiteuits on or off. Another type of switch, called a singlepole, multiple-throw switch, allows you to select various settings on multiple-speed devices, suchas heater fan, The switch is wired to a series of resistors that eon- trol the current being fed ta the device. Typical seltings are: OFF, LOW, MED, HIGH. Switch Actuators—Although switches can be categorized by electrical function, they are usually identified by actuator type, The actuator is the part you touch to operate the switch, stich as.aknob, togele or push buttonToggle switches are readily available in aftermarket and come with a wide variety ot ‘actustors (control handles). When select- Ing a toggle switch, be sure It has correct ‘combinations ot poles and throws for eir- cults It will be operating. ‘Toggle switches have a tapered han- dle, usually operated by flipping it with your fingers. Some manufacturers call this a bar switch because the actuator resembles a baseball bat in shape, The operation of a toggle switch should offer elastic resistance; that is, resistance that builds, then decreases as the contact po- sition is approached Rocker switches are a more stylized versionof the toggle switch. The actuator rocks like a playground teeter-totter. You operate the rocker by pushing one end or the other with your fingertip. Like the toggle switch, the operation of these switches should offer clastic resistance. Push-button switches are self-ex- Planatory. A button, often round, pro- trudes from the switch body. It's ap- erated by depressing the button with your fingertip. Push buttons should have a concave surface for best finger contact, ON/OFF types should offer an audible, feelable click as the button is pushed. Resistance should build with increasing pressure, and suddenly release as the switch operates Rotary switches have a knob that is designed to be tumed. On some switch- es, the knob has a pointer to indicate switch position, Rotary switches are not often used in automobile systems, except possibly to control a heater fan. Rotary switches are far more common in electronic devices such as radios, It is desirable that a rotary switch offer a dis- cemable detent at each selector position, with resistance decreasing as the detent is approached, Minimum distance between You eccidentally bump Into It. (= es a3 Race car Ignition switch setup Includes toggle ON/OFF switch with Indicator lamp and ‘momentary-on push-button start switch. Actuators are protected by rubber “boots” to reduce dirt and dust infiltration. Side view shows mounting and wiring details. Prewired ‘and promounted to brushed chrome panel, this setup is available trom Longacre Auto- motive Racing Products. Photos by Jim Barrett. detents should be 1/4 inch, The following chart compares the de- sirability of variqus switch actuators against operating characteristics. RHEOSTATS One of the technical terms for a rheo- stat is a variable resisior. This term is appropriate because it indicates how the theostat works. Rheostats are also re- ferred to as potentiometers. A piece of resistance wire, usually in cail form, is connected at one end to a battery feed. The other end of the resist- ance wire isn't attached to anything. The wire going from the rheostat to the load is attached to a movable element called 4 wiper. The wiper is arranged so it rubs against the length of the resistance wire. When the wiper is close to the battery: feed end of the resistance wire, the theo stat adds little extra resistance to the cit ‘cuit, As you slide the wiper to the far end of the resistance wire, current flows through increasingly more resistance to get tothe wiper, reducing current flow to the Within the design range of the rheo- onColl of resistance wire in ‘switch is a rheostat, used to control Intensity of gauge illumination. Because resistance wire heats up during operation, H is in- Stalled in heatproot ceramic housing. stat, you ean dial in no resistance up to high resistance, or any amount in be- tween. This gives you precise control over the amount of current being fed to the load. The most common use for a theostat in a car is the dimmer for the instrament-pane! illumination lamps. In most OEM headlamp switches, the dim- ‘mer rheostat is operated by twisting the headlamp knob. Rheostats designed for automotive ap- plications are usually not capable of carrying high current without buming out, Circuits with high currentsin need of variable resistance are usually controlled by a single-pole, multiple-throw slide switch, The selector for a three-speed heater-blower motor fits this category. The selector switch regulates motor speed by selecting various resistors in series with the motor. In the LOW posi- tion, the full set of resistors is selected. Each higher speed bypasses one more resistor, until, in the HIGH position, all resistors are bypassed, providing full current to the motor. The resistors are capable of carrying high current without burning out. They do get hot, though, so they're usually located in the blower air- steam, GUIDELINES FOR SELECTING CONTROLS Regardless of the nature of the control device, you must consider several objec- when selecting one. ‘Switches mounted on backside of OEM air conditioner grille. Rheostat at top is used to First, the control should be capable of pesforming its function effectively when itis operated as it is designed to. Second, it should be suitable for use in terms of feel and the limitations of the human hand. These two objectives are usually met by a single design, If it fits your hand, it probably will function the way it was intended. For mass-production cars, the de- signer must take into account the entire range of probable drivers, from the smallest to the largest—or in some cases, for a compromise between these extremes, When you're selecting the controls and their locations for your proj- ect car, you're dealing with your own physical characteristics, and possibly those of a few of your family members. So your choices can be more selective, ‘When selecting a control for a particu- lar electrical component, it must be clec- trically compatible with the device it's going to operate. Beyond that, there are several other factors ta consider, listed in the chart below. Inthe chart, discrete means being able to select and hold a specific setting. For example, a simple ON/OFF switch is capable of sclecting and holding two specific settings. Quansitative and con- tinuous mean being able to select a vari- able setting. An example is the rheostat that controls the brightness of in- strument-panel illumination. Another ‘example is the multiple-throw switch that selects various heatcr-fan speeds. ‘Another consideration in selecting a ‘control is the way you're able to identify . For instance, in the chart below, shape ‘and texture is listed as an identifier. This means you can identify a specific control by feeling its shape and texture. But, as SWITCH IDENTIFIERS The term identifier refers to haw you identiy a switch, ‘Good for lew ilumination, Limited by number of textures: land shapes available. Hard to detect with gloves on. Location ‘Good for low Murinaton, Limited by space requirements. Color ‘Good visual entiication, but must be viewed directly; requires ilumination. Label ‘Good visual identification i large. Must be viewed sirectly. Requires lumination.. (Operating Method ‘Good because switch ean usually be operated only one way. Must be tried belore identification is certain SWITCH ACTUATORS Actuator Type ‘Function Push bution ‘Activation Toggle switch ‘Activation. discrete setting Rotary selector Discrete setting Knob Discrete, quantitative, continuous setting Lover ‘Quanttative, continucus setting{took this GM starter solenoid apart so you ‘could see the movable core clearly. Core is attached to forked lever to move drive gear when starter is operated, you can seein the Characteristics.column Of the chart, it's hard to discem shape or texture if you're wearing gloves. When designing the instrument panel on your car, make sure the type of switeh actuators you choose are compatible with their locaiion on the pane!. For example, if a headlamp switch and windshiel ‘wiper switch have the same shape and operate the same way, they should not be positioned next to each other. Otherwise, ‘you might turn off the headlamps instead oof turning on the wipers. ‘A final consideration is the way the switch mounts to the instrument panel, Make sure the mounting method is com- patible with panel thickness and with the clearance available behind the panel for insallation, So before you buy yourswitehes, refer to pages 76-77 to make sure the switches are suitable for their positions and can be installed without difficulty. SOLENOIDS & RELAYS ‘Two definitions are in order because many people incorrectly use the term solenoid interchangeably with the term relay. About all they have in common is that both rely on an electromagnetic coil for operation. A solenoid is anelectromechanical de- Newer cars rely on relays, such as this one, to operate computer-controlied emission devices. Computer's low-current circuitry ‘Operates low-current relay, which in tum operates high-current device. vice consisting of a electromagnetic coil surrounding a movable metal core or plunger, When the coil is energized, the magnetic field pulls the core until it’s centered in the coil. Usually, there's a retum spring to pull the core back to the tuncentered position when the coil is shut off, The movable core can be connected Typical Ford starter solenoid. Although It acts as a relay in the battery-to-starter cable, it contains a movable core, so is cor- rectly called a solendld. to various mechanisms that move each time the magnetic coil is energized. A relays an electromechanical device consisting of an electromagnetic coil, fixed core and a movable armature. The armature, attracted by mags core, moves whenever the sized RELAY-OPERATED DRIVING LAMP DRIVING LAMP Driving lamp circults often use @ relay. Although there are several ways to hook up in ‘Shealry, thie hookup perealts driving lomp ‘hat you cannot accidentally leave high-current accessory lamp turned on.Fusescome in many sizesandratings. Amp tings of glass-capsule fuses are often re- ical size—the larger the fuse ng— ot a hard-and-fast rule, Always check raling stamped on fuse. ‘The distinguishing feature, then, is the core. In a solenoid, the core moves to do the work. In a relay, the core remains stationary and the armature moves. Solenoid & Relay Applications —The mechanical aspects of solenoids and re- lays largely determine how they're used. Solenoids are most often found in starter systems, On GM starters, for instance, there's a large solenoid on top of the ‘starter motor, [t moves the starter-drive mechanism into engagement when the ‘starter is actuated. In Ford starter systems, the solenoid is ‘mounted to theinner fender or firewall. It serves as an elecirical switch between the bautery and the starter motor, When the ignition is turned to the START position a small current energizes the solenoid oil, This pulls the movable core, which in tum operates the heavy-duty switch controlling starter-motor current. In both starter-system examples, a solenoid is used because the application calls for a large amount of motion and a large amount of foree, Solenoids are ex- cellent for this purpase. Relays, on the other hand, are usually used in more precise applications. The motion of the movable armature can be made to operate delicate devices, such a set of electrical contacts. Relays areofien used (0 control secondary electrical cir- cuits. 34 ‘Autofuse is latest design used in new cars. Fuse element is readily visible through transparent plastic body. Two metal blades plug into matching sockets in fuse panel. For instance, you're installing a high- power driving limp, and you want it to come on with the headlamp high beams ‘only, But you feel the headlamp circuit in ‘your car won't carry much more addi- tional amperage. The answer is a relay. Wire it so the coil is energized by the ccar’s high-beam circuit. The coil won't draw much current, so the amperage of the headlamp circuit isn't increased much. Runa feed wire from the battery to ‘one of the relay’s armature terminals, then wire the driving-lamp switeh and lamp to the other armature terminal. To protect this circuit, wire in a fusible link oor inline fuse. The relay manufacturer provides the hookup instructions. If you lose them, refer to the section on testing, page 127, to determine continuity through a relay. ‘Here's how your new circuit will work: If you tum on the driving-lamp switch, nothing happens. Why? With the high beams off, the relay coil is relaxed, ‘0 the armature passes no.current and the driving lamp stays.off, But when the high beams are tured on, the relay coi ‘energized, allowing the armature to con- duct battery voltage directly to the driv- ing lamp. The lamp lights without draw- ing excess current from the headlamp circuit. An added benefit of this setup is that most states require the driving lamp to tum off when the headlamps are German cars use ceramic-body fuses. Ex- posed fuse element is recessed into shal- low groove on body. Pointed metal cap on each end makes contact with fuse panel. dimmed. The relay insures that you'll never forget. CIRCUIT PROTECTION If you could be sure every circuit and electrical component in your car would work without problems for the life of the: car, you woulda’ t need circuit-protection devices. But you can't be sure, socircuits need some type of device to prevent them from overloading, which can damage both wiring and electrical components The three hasic circuit-protection de vices used in cars are the fuse, the eireuit breaker and the fusible link. Fuses—These are the most common form of circait protection in automotive electrical systems. You ean partially de- duce their function from the definition of the word fiese—to melt or become liquid from the application of heat. Excessive amperage in a circuit can cause a con- ductor to get hot. Even wire can even- tually get hot enough to melt, particularly when a short circuit occurs. In designing a eireuit, you must select wire that will safely carry the expected (normal) amperage plus a safety mary If this margin is exceeded, the wire will overheat and eventually melt or ignite surrounding items—that is, unless you install the correctly rated fuse in the cit cuit, in series with the load. Whenamperage is exceeded, the fuse melts be- fore the wire or electrical device is dam- aged. Fuses come in various configurations (shapes) and in various ratings. The shape of a fuse has little to do with its effectiveness. Rather, fuse shapes arede- ter 'by the manufacturer. The rating of a fuse is the maximum number of amperes it will flow without melting. In the United States, there arc two styles of fuses in widespread use. The glass-capsule fuse has exisied, largely unchanged, for decades. Gen ally, you'll find a metal cap on each end of a short glass capsule, or tube. A strip of special metal joins the two caps and is visible through the glass. The metal strip is the actual fuse material —it's the part that melts when current flow exceeds the fuse rating, The glass protects the sometimes-delicate metal strip from ‘mechanical damage and insulates it from accidental short circuits, while providing ready visual access when you need to inspect for a bumed-out (blown) fuse. Drawbacks of the glass-capsule fuse include; © Fuse length is often related to its amperage rating. This means you may not be able to use a different amperage rating when you add or remove a load from an existing cireuit. © A special tool is needed to remove glass fuses from the fuse pane] without breaking them. © It’s possible for the metal strip toblow ide the metal cap, where its condition ly © Fuse ral a arcerbossd i in the metal end cap oreiched on the glass capsule. In either case, it’s often difficult to read the marking without removing the fuse. These disadvantages are partially offset by several advantages: © Because they've been in use fora time, glass-capsule fuses.are inexpensive and readily available, © The fuse’s condition is usually—but not always—obvious when visually in- spected © Aftermarket fuse blocks are readily wailable for custom applications. So are in-line fuse holders, The Ausofuse was first used in some GM cars in the mid-"70s and is now used on all new GM products. It's finding its way into new vehicles from other man- vufacturers, as well. These fuses are readi- ly identified by their shape, ‘The rectangular fuse body is transpar- ent plastic with two metal blade terminals ‘protruding from the back. The top of the fuse is molded to provide an easy finger grip. Two recesses in the top provide a ‘convenient test point, even with the fuse installed. Like the glass fuse, the Auto- fuse canbe visually inspected by viewing ‘the fuse element through the fuse body. Some advantages to consider: ‘@ Easy to install and remove without tools. ‘© Easy to visually inspect. Test points are also built in. ‘@ Fuse-amperage ratings are boldly printed on the end, and can be easily read “© Can be carried or stored without fear ‘of breakage, ‘These advantages are partially offset by several disadvantages: # Must be pulled from the fuse panel for visual inspection. © Cost, Because these fuses are relative- ly new to the market, their prices are not yet competitive with glass fuses. ® Availability is improving, but glass fuses are more widely available. © Require a special fuse block, just be- coming available in the aftermarket, The best source is still a salvage yard, German cars use a variation of the glass-capsule fuse. It has a body of solid ceramic, with the fuse clement fitted into a groove on the outside. The element is formed at both ends into cone-shaped metal caps that fit into spring clips in the fuse block. Although the fuse element is readily visible, it’s vulnerable to dam- age. And, the end caps are prone to oxidation, which can seriously hamper current flow. Incidentally, the ceramic- type fuse is color coded for easy reading of amperage rating. Volkswagens typi- cally use 8-amp (white) and 16-amp (red) fuses. ‘Circuit Breakers—A circuit breaker is a more~ ‘ated protection device ‘than a fuse. It uses a thermally sensitive ‘element that snaps open when overheated ‘by excessive amperage. But afier a short ‘cooling-down periad, the circuit breaker resets itself—some types must be reset manually—and begins passing current Plug-in circuit breaker (left) fits same panei 3 Autofuse (right). Breaker can be sub- ‘stituted for like-rated fuse, provided you understand consequences explained in text.I successfully used one of these break- erain an electri motor ciroult that drew just enough excess current on start-up to blow ‘a.conventional fuse. DO NOT use a breaker rated higher than the fuse, however. again, There is nothing to replace. So, if cast is no abject, consider using circuit breakers to protect the wiring in your car. 1 found a listing in the JC Whitney cata- log for circuit breakers ranging from 5 to ‘50 amperes, but at a price comparable to about 10 glass-capsule fuses. If excellence is your style, use them, In addition to their durability and Teusability, the impressive “high-tech” ce of a row of circuit breakers may make them worth the extra cost. In the chapter on race-car wiring, I explain how and why race-car builders use cireuit breakers instead of fuses. Circuit breakers of the type just dis- cussed are housed in small metal cans about the size of your first thumb joint. ‘There are two threaded terminal studs, insulated from each other, The studs are vused to attach the circuit breaker to the wiring, using ring terminals. Don't use these studs for mounting the circuit breaker! A circuit breaker designed for panel-mounting has a flange for that pose. If there's no flange, the wiring wi ‘support it. Personally, | think the un- mounted kind appear somewhat crude, Also, you must install them so their ter- minals don't accidentally contact metal parts that could ground the circuit, caus- ‘ing a short. ‘A second type of circuit breaker is the fuse-clip type, designed to snap into a standard glass-capsule fuse block. The slip type has the reset advantage of the 35stud type and carries a similar price tag. But don't get carried away with a wholesale change from glass-capsule fuses to clip-type circuit breakers until you've tried them. Make sure there's ‘enough room for them to fit side-by-side in your particular fuse block, There's a third type of circuit breaker used on many cars. These are built into the components they protect. For stance, most headlamp switches used in domestic cars contain a cireuit breaker for the headlamp circuit only. Other ‘components controlled by the headlamp switch rely on fuses in their separate c cuits. True to form, this bui breaker resets itself after cooling down. Headlamps that slowly flash on and off indicate a short in the circuit, and that the circuit breaker is doing its job. Some clectrical-accestory motors also have built-in circuit breakers, but their Purpose is twofold. First, they protect the circuit from normal electrical overloads. But they also break the circuit if the motor Overheats dangerously. For stance, this could occur if a windshiekd- froze to the glass. circuit breakers usually go through life without need of attention. But when you're trying to diagnose a perplexing operating problem, be aware that the circuit may include one of these breakers, An Argument Against Circuit Breakers—There’s some controversy among electrical experts whether fuses or circuit breakers arc better. Those favor- ing fuses mention several drawbacks of circuit breakers. Oneis the higher cast, A more important one, though, is the automatic-reset function on many circuit breakers, which appears at first to be a strong positive feature. Opponents of circuit breakers rightful- ly point out that after an autornatic-reset circuit breaker cools, it permits current 10 flow again. Ifthe cause of the overload is still there —and it probably will be — the circuit breaker again heats up and breaks the circuit. This on-off-on-off cycle re~ peats until the problem is corrected. Un- fortunately, during the on time, current flows unimpeded. If the circuit breaker’s trip point is too high, the om periods may be long enough to overheat the wiring, just as though there were no circuit pro- 36 tection, Opponents of circuit breakers consider this a major safety hazard, They may be right. The use of circuit breakers in place of fuses calls for some common sense. you notice an on-off cycle occurring, im- mediately shut down the affected circuit, then find and correct the problem before using the circuit again. The idea that circuit breakers pose a major safety hazard can be countered by noting that almost all OEM headlamp circuits are protected by an auto-reset circuit breaker in the headlamp switch. ‘The theary here is that it’s better to have flickering headlamps than to suddenly have none. Then, there are special considerations. For instance, the wiring and circuit breaker protecting a race-car fuel pump should be “sized” so they will handle more current than the pump! The reason is simple: It's better to finish a race and possibly win thousands of dollars than to save a $50 electric fuel pump. Itall boils down to choice. If you think you're likely to ignore the intermittent ‘warnings of auto-reset circuit breakers, use fuses and carry sufficient spares. Or, in some eireuits, you may be able to use the type of circuit breaker that resets manually by means of a toggle switch. “These are the type used on race cars, and are readily available. On the other hand, if you've gained enough experience to wire a car from scratch, you can probably deal with auto-reset circuit breakers and benefit from the unique protection they offer. Fusible Links—If you're building an electrical system from scratch, you may not even be aware of fusible links, But if Fuses used in German cars, as typ- sec eene il ae pote aatoeree Normally, contact is made Paul her Gorptoely Oper ar uit. Buildup may oocur over a period of time, current Attache! sean hs a asulat Ses re eke You laa oe gives your car a “high-tech” look. CURE FOR Samper FUSE FAILURES. For correct functioning, the LED re- quires a resistor wired in series, A 1,000-ohm, 1/4-wait resistor is used with a 12volt system. For 6-volt sys tems, use a 680-ohm resistor. Begin by noting the positions of all ‘the fuses, then remove tham. Solder a. STEGER Gre AIG fumon as woll as a Rar RS aH Spee Soe ee ‘emporarily hold the two leads of an LED Oneitete hiel eeaator and tna seine ip, If the LED revorse tho leads. ‘When the LEDIights, carefully solder it knowing LEDs are always on guard, ready to let know before corrosion buildupFusible link is used to protect circuit hat carries battery current to car's.elecirical system through ignition switch or fuse panel. easily identified by plastic tag that reads "fusible link.” On factory cars, they're often wired between battery terminal of starter sole- noid and main bulkhead connector, as shown here. In Ford sole- hold shown on page 33, | used a 14-gage fusible link to protect a 10-gage wire feeding the electrical system, which is correct, as ‘explained in text below. Photo by Jim Barrett. you're servicing or modifying an OEM hamess, you may encounter one of these mysterious devices. I call them mys- terious because few people know they exist, and fewer understand them. Like any other fuse, the fusible link is designed for cireuit protection. But in this case, the circuit being protected is thecar’s entire electrical system, or most of it. The fusible link ly installed circuit between the battery and ignition switch, or between the battery and fuse panel, or both, Consequently, all the electricity used by the car, except to operate the starter motor, must flow through the fusible Tink(s). A fusible link is simply a length of wire sized two gages smaller than the wire it's attached to, so it becomes the weakest link in the circuit, Remember, wire gages are only even numbers, so the fusible link is four digits smaller. This means that a 12-gage wire would be pro- tected with a 16-gage fusible link. After- market fusible links are often packaged with the notice: “This link protects a 12- ‘gage circuit,” or whatever is appropriate. ‘What distinguishes the fusible link ‘from ordinary electrical wire is that its insulation is burn-resistant, If. fusible link is overloaded, the con- ductor material melts, just as a fuse ‘would. But, because the fusible link is usually hidden somewhere inside the wiring hamess, its insulation must pro- ‘vide heat protection for the surrounding wires link ‘ou can recognize a failed fusible ‘appearance. Although it won't the insulation looks different— charred, blistered or discolored—in the area where the link melted To replace a fusible link, find the crimp attaching it to its wire. Often, one end is a ring terminal and the other is crimped to the wire. Seldom do you find a link spliced into the middle of another wire. Cut the erimp as needed and install a replacement link—each application has its own part number. Then make sure you find and fix the cause of the failure before powering up the system, Other- wise, you may be making a career of replacing fusible links! Does your project car's electrical sys- tem need a fusible link? Hard to say. If you wire your car following the advice in this book, you will probably use more fuses in your car's electrical system than ‘you'd find in a factory-built car, so over- loaded circuits shouldn't be a problem. If this is the case, the only advantage of having a fusible link would be to protect the main feed wire to the ignition switch and fuse panel against a massive over- load, such as @ short-to-ground in the feed wire. However, fusible links are so readily available and so inexpensive that Tthink they are worth the extra effort to install. You can buy lengths of fusible link at any good auto-supply store, often with a ring terminal and crimp connector already attached, Fusibl links aro gold in packages lx this, ‘sary fitings. Rating Is printed on completa with neces: package. Fusible links are sold in Ak come lenge eteran, but youre have to provide fittings for them, CIRCUIT PROTECTION TIPS ‘Do not skimp on circult protection, In other words, don’t try to get by with only a few fuses or circuit breakers. Sure, ‘you can use a high-rated fuse to operate three or four circuits all at once. But it's far better to give each major circuit its ‘own correctly rated fuse or breaker, Likewise, never under any circum- stances design a-circuit without any pro- tection. Ifa short or overload occurs, the weakest link is going to burn, even if it's inthe harness you so lavingly assembled. Design your cireuit-protection system soit canbe easily added to later. The way 1a do this is to provide a fuse block with several extra sockets, This is far better than the makeshift method of using add on fuse taps, which are good for little other than overloading existing circuits. If you have repeated problems with fuses blowing in the circuit, don't arbi- trarily install a higher-rated fuse—and don’t bypass the fuse entirely, either! Remember, fuses don't blow without a reason. And if they blow repeatedly, the reason is serious cnough to warrant care~ ful diagnosis. The same holds true with circuit breakers. On the other hand, a one-time blown fuse can be the result of something obscure, like a defective or marginally rated fuse, or some sort of transient con- dition in the circuit. If replacing the fuse cures the problem and it doesn't recur, don’t get upset looking for a problem you'll probably never find. a7Practically speaking, the instrument panel displays your car's vital signs ev. ery time you glance at a gauge or in- dicator lamp. How you use your vel largely determines the amount of in- formation you need and in what form you need it. For an embarrassingly long. time, domestic auto manufacturers were con- vinced that none of their customers ‘wanted to know any more than “how fast” and “how much gas.” Everything else was monitored by indicator lamps, aptly dubbed idiot lights. Driving enthu- siasts had only two choices—buy an im- port or add gauges to their American car. Somewhere along the way, Detroit got the message, Nowadays, you can find full instrumentation as standard or op- tional equipment on nearly every car line. If you're adding gauges or other dis- plays to an existing car, or building a car from scratch, the aftermarket offers a Wide variety of choices, in style as well asin price and reliability. There’sa list of ‘major suppliers on pages 152-153 ‘This chapter describes the various sys- tems and components you'll be dealing with when outfitting your car. It also includes enough theory and related in- formation to help you make well- informed choices. 38 Some specialty suppliers otfer prewired gauges mount treet-rod gaul to different panel situations. This race-ca ion tat inserts for easy mounting available from Longacre ‘Automotive Racing Products, uses prewired Stewart Warner gauges mounted in labeled, brushed-sluminum panel. Photos by Jim Barrett. CHARACTERISTICS OF DISPLAYS Anything that conveys information ‘can be categorized as a display. Howev- ‘er, in a car's electrical system, the three types most often used are warning and indicator lamps, gauges and buzzers. Displays depend on causing a stimulus, either tothe driver's sense of sight (lamps and gauges) or sense of hearing (buzz- ers). The effectiveness of the device de- pends on its ability to intrude into the driver's consciousness and make an im- pression. Then, if he understands the meaning of the impression, thedriver can take the necessary action, Regardless of the nature of the display device, you must consider several physical characteristics Of the display when selecting one. As used in the following text, the term discrimination something and ing haw important it is. In the case ‘of displays, there are several kinds of discrimination you need to consider ‘when designing the instrument pane! of your project car. Visual discrimination of adisplay de-pends on its shape, size, color or indi- cator-needle position, A good example of indicator position isthe hands on aclock. You soon kam to tell time by the position of the hands, even if there are no numbers on the clock face. The same is truc in a car's ine strumentation, For instance, on an oil- Pressure gauge you associate needle po- sition with the part of the dial that's re- garded as safe. Color discrimination is often associ- ated with warning and indicator lamps. It isalsoassociated withthe needle position om some gauges. That is, some gauges have color bands printed on the scale, 80 a quick glance shows you if the needle is in the red, green, or whatever. This way, ‘You can tell status without looking at the numbers on the scale. Red traditionally represents danger, so warning lamps, such as those used to ficate high temperature or low oil pres- sure, are often red. Conversely, indicator lamps that merely convey information ‘usually some colorother than red. For instance, bluc is frequently used for headlamp high beams, green for turn sig- nals, Auditory discrimination, of course, relates to hearing. In a car, a buzzer is either buzzing of it isn’t, But you ean discriminate between differences in the buzzer's frequency {high or low pitch) and its intensity (loud or soft), although these sound qualities aren't often impor- tant in a cas’s information systems. The benefits of auditory versus visual displays are portrayed in the chart below: Relative discrimination means com- paring two or more stimuli to-each other. In a.car, there's not much need for this, unless you happen to have temperature gauges for both engine coolant and en- gine oll. Here, a wise driver will make frequent comparisons, because a sudden rise in coolant temperature with little or no immediate change in oil temperature is a good early warning of coolant loss For more information on interpreting gauge readings, see pages 46-48, Absolute discrimination means tak- ing reading without comparing it to another reading. This kind of discrimina- tion stands on its own merits. A sim plified example is the GEN light used to indicate generator outputonacar without avoltmeter or ammeter. If the lightis off, you can presume everything is OK—if it’s on, something’s wrong. It's either one or the other, so there's no compari- son needed. Types of Displays—The information given by a display can be used to further describe it, Static displays are those that never change. In acar, the only static displays in the electrical system are the identify- ing labels you may choose to place next to various controls, lamps or gauges. Dynamic displays, on the other hand, are the ones that do change constantly. They ate used to depict conditions of a variable. For instance. the fuel-level gauge — constantly—sometimes gustingly quickly —moves from FULL to EMPTY as vou drive, 10 display the rela- tive condition of the fuel level. Similarly, the voltmeter needle is constantly mov- ing, usually in small increments, as the car's clectrical system copes with chang- ing loads. Also, a tachometer or speed ometer changes with engine or vehicle DISPLAY CHARACTERISTICS ‘Auditory vs. Visual Olsplays Characteristic ‘Auditory ‘Visual Message Simple ‘Complex Duration ot Massage Shot Long Use of Information Nol referred to tator Referred to lator Driver Response Immediate ection No immediate action Preferred Location ‘Location tao bright Location too nolay for visual display or ‘or auditory display with many visual stimu speed, respectively. Although warming and indicator lamps don’t actually move, you can think of them as dynamic, because they do have two modes—ON and OFF. Quantitative displays are dynamic displays that present the value of a vari- able, For example, the fucl-level gauge just mentioned tells the quantity of fuel in the tank, eitherin gallons or indegrees of fullness. Status displays present the condition ofa system. The high-beam indicatorand tum-signal indicator are displays of this type. So is the rear-window defogger ON lamp, and others of the simple ON/OFF type. ‘Warning displays are used to alert the driver of a dangerous or unsatisfactory condition. The GEN lamp. low-vil- pressure lamp and high-temperature lamp fall in this category. So do buzzers. Representational displays are found ‘on some newer factory-built cars, but are still uncommon in project cars, Honda automobiles probably are to be credited with introduction of the little pictogram showing the top view of the car with tiny color bars to indicate doors or hatch ajar In my estimation, these displays have little more than novelty value, The same can be said of the lighted-bar graphs, currently in vogue in some instrument panels, to represent engine rpm, road speed and other vital information usually Portrayed more clearly by conventional pauges. INDICATOR LAMPS VS. GAUGES First, take time to consider exactly what information you need the instru- ‘ment panel to provide, and how you want it to be presented, Otherwise, you may end up with an instrument panel full of expensive overkill. “How came?” you mightask. “Aren't gauges regarded 3 an automotive good thing?” The answer is yes and no. How much docs your driving style de- ‘mand that you know about your car's vital signs? How much do you already know, of are willing to lear, about in- readings? not sure of the answers. to these questions after reading this section, you may be better off sticking with in- dicator lamps and spending the extra 39Race drivers usually dispense with speedo intavor of large, accurate tach with rev imi- ter, Shawn here is the RPM Limiting Pro Tach trom Mallory Ignition. Italse has shift- point indicator lamp, set by dial at bottom ight. Photo by Jim Barrett, ‘ou know enough about what makes a car tick to correctly interpret gauge readings, you probably dowant i know what your oil pressure is, at idle, You'll notice right away if a read- ing isn’t quite normal, You'll watch to sce if it was just.a temporary fluctuation. ‘And you know trends are important. Gradually dropping oil pre: indicate aneed to adil, failing pump, or some other condition that could get much worse before an indicator lamp would finally come on. The needs of a race driver are diff ent, too, For instance, lap times are i portant in track racing, while speed in miles-per-hour isn't. So, race cars usual- ly don’t have speedometers, but they do have a large, accurate tachometer posi- tioned so maximum rpm is straight up. The tach may also have a rev limiter that prevents the driver from over-revving the engine The race driver isalso concemed about oil pressure and temperature, coolant temperature and fuel pressure. If he’s racing a VW-based vehicle, he'll wantan oversized charge indicator because the cooling fan is driven by the generator belt. So, what's best for you? Only you can answer that, For me, the optimumsystem for a street car contains: tachometer, speedo-land odometer-assembly with trip odometer, — coolant-temperature 40 Race drivers also depend on large indicator lamps that quickly grab attention. Thess Pro-Lites trom Auto Meter indicate low oil ‘and fuel pressure; here, they're mounted on tach for best visibility. Photo courtesy of ‘Auto Meter. gauge, oil-pressure gauge, voltmeter, ammeter, fuel gauge, vacuum gauge and a clock—nine gauges in all, I'd also ‘want indicator Lamps for low oil pres- sure, charging system, high beam and tum signals. I've never seen a factory- built car with exactly this combination, 0 when I designed the instrument panel for my Bernardi component car, you can be sure my wishes were all met! Indicator-lamp systems will be cov- cred first, followed by a discussion of the various instrument systems, explaining ‘what each gauge is for and how it op- erates, INDICATOR LAMPS & SWITCHES Regardless of which operating system is monitored by an indicator lamp, the lamp can tell you only two things—yes orno, Yes, the coolant is too hot. No, the oil pressure is not too low. No, the gener- ators not supplying enough current. The coolant-temperature and oil-pressure lamps are operated by omoff switches, Indicator-Lamp_ Switches—indicator lamps convey their information by light- ing when something is wrong in the sys- tem being monitored, Because this re= quires nothing more than simple current flow, an indicator lamp can be controlled by an SPST switch. Indicator switches ‘are usually called by the name of the system they monitor: oil-pressure switch, coolant-temperature switch, and 30 on, When you look at an indicator-lamp switch, you'll see that it has only one terminal. This is because the switch is wired in series with the lamp and forms the ground end of the circuit, The circuit iscompleted to ground through the body of the switch, Battery voltage is available at the lamp: current flows only when the switch closes to provide a complete path to ground. You'll appreciate the logic of this when you wire your earand realize it would take twice as much wire if current ‘went first to the switch, then to the lamp, and finally to ground Temperature switches rely on a temperature-sensitive bimetallic element operating. a set of contact points, The switch is an SPST type, normally open, With increased temperature, the bi- metallic element changes shape, causing the points to clase at the calibration tem- perature, ‘The element is contained in the switch body and extends into the coolant to take a direct reading, By carefully choosing the shape, composition and tension of the bimetallic element, the designer can caii- brate the switch, or determine its critical switch-point temperature ‘The temperature switch resembles a short bolt, inthat ithas athreaded portion and a bexagonal head. The sensing ele- ment is housed in an extension beyond the threaded part, Atthe head, you'll find the single terminal that attaches to the ground side of the lamp. American manufacturers use a stand- ard-taper pipe thread (NPTF) for tem- perature switches. The taper ensures a pressure-tight seal without need for se ing compound, which Would hamper rent flow to ground Some European auto manufacturers also use the NPTF system, although the ‘metric system is most common on pop- ular imports. This isn’t @ problem with waming-lamp switches, though, because you'll likely stick with the factory switch anyway. Some special considerations for gauge sending units are discussed later, Pressure switches are used for oil- pressure indicator lamps. In this applica- tion, the switeh is a normally closed lype—unless sufficient pressure is ap- plied, the switch remains closed (on), providing a ground path for the warning lamp. In other words, oil pressure keeps‘When | aid out instrument panel of my Ber- nardl component car, | made room for all instrumentation | wanted: nine gauges, five warning lamps and assorted switches. On the road, everything performs just the way Vd hoped, the switch open (off) until the pressure drops below a critical level, closing it ‘The pressure switch threads into a hole intersecting anoil galley inthe engine. A small hole in the switch body permits pressurized oil toenter the switch, where it acts on a flexible diaphragm. Dia- phragm movement operates .a set of con- ‘tact points that open.or close the waming- lamp circuit, depending on diaphragm ‘position, ‘The oil-pressure switch is calibrated to ‘open the contact points above a specific oil pressure. Because oil pressure is largely proportional to engine speed, an idling engine will have normally low Pressure, except when used in race cars, ‘The switch is calibrated not to open at idle pressure, which would cause: undue concem for the driver, But this characteristic is the major shortcoming of the oil-pressure-lamp system. The differ- ence between aormally low idle pressure ‘and dangerously low operating pressure is narrow. ‘As a result of this narrow margin, many engines have been ruined becausea warning lamp didn't come on until 100 late, [ speak from a painful first-hand ‘experience from my teenage years. An ait-cooled VW engine sump holds fess than 3 quarts of oil tobegin with. My VW engine developed a gasket leak that drained all the oil in less than 200 miles of driving. The oil-pressure lamp eame Chevy V6 powered hot rod was scratch-bullt by Ron Fournier (author of HP's Metal Fabrication Handbook). Instrumentation is laid out ust like on arace car. Alt ‘are spread completely across dashboard, cockpit Is narrow enough that even farthest (gauge is within easy view. ‘on justin time to announce a completely fried engine! Charge-Indicator Lamps—Of the three primary indicator lamps, this is the only one that operates without a separate switch, When you first start your car, the generator needs an extemal supply of ‘current to get itself started—thisis called excitation. Current, provided by the bat- tery through the ignition switch, flows through the charge-indicator lamp on its way to excite the field windings in the generator. Naturally, with current flow- ing, the lamp lights. As soon as the generator begins generating currenton its ‘own, the voltage regulator allows some ‘of this current back to self-feed the gener- ator to keep it excited. When this hap- ‘pens, the indicator lamp goes out because itnowhas B + on both sides, and current ‘ean no longer flow through it There's usually a resistor of about 15 ohms in parallel with the lamp, It carries 4 large percentage of the current neces- sary to excite the generator, allowing the lamp to carry a much smaller load. So, if the lamp filament bums out, the 15-ohm resistor is still in the circuit ¥o carry cur- rent to the generator Guidelines for Selecting Indicator & Warning Lamps—Size, brightness, and the petiod of time available for observation are all important con- siderations when choosing indicator or warning lamps. Lamp colors. that most ithough gauges Location of oll-pressure warming lamp switch varies from engine toengine, but is always in an oil galley. On this 2.3liter Ford engine, it's at the rear, high on the head. Switch takes reading as far from oll pump 8 possible, 10 indicate that there's ade- quate pressure throughout the system. quickly attract attention are, in order: red, green, yellow and white. Tn addition ta lamp color, background. color and the amount of ambient light also affect visibility. Obviously, even a red lamp is not going to stand out well against a red instrument panel on a bright, sunny day, So consider these points: For best visibility, choose a lamp color that contrasts with its background, If the lamp has good contrast with the background, and ambient light is very bright, the waming-lamp color is less important than its rlative brightness. When contrast between lamp and back- a1Charge-indicator lamp (left) illuminates dimly as the charge rate drops toward zero; glows brightly when generator output is zero. My car also has voltmeter and am- metér, $0 It's not serous that Indicator lamp is partisity obscured by steering wheel rim. Examples of analog ‘quuges. Athough ol Pressure gauge provides a pal scale that {gives useful Information, It Is “hidden” at ‘Bottom of tach, rather than being ina more Prominent spot. Ditia voltmeter, gauges—especially fuel ‘gauges—should be mounted outside driv- ‘ers compartment. Photo courlesy Auto 42 ground is not strong, follow the color order just listed for best detectability GAUGES & SENDERS Unlike an indicator lamp with its yes! no message, a gauge tells you how much, Generally, the information is displayed by a movable needle pointing to a cali- brated scale. This type is often called an analog gauge because the needle posi- tion and numbers on the gauge corre- spond to directly measurable quantities, That is, so many degrees of needle move- ment represent so many pounds per square inch, revolutions per minute, de- grees of temperature, and so on. A second type of gauge has recently become fashionable. It'scalled a digitai- readout gauge because it presents i formation directly in numbers. Digital gauges are used almost exclusively in high-priced factory cars, although some are becoming available in the after- market. ‘You may find digital gauges more di ficult to read than the analog type. With an analog gauge, you soon become so familiar with the normal needle position that you can read the gauge without actually looking at the numbers. For proof of this, think about the designer clocks you've seen that don'thave numb- ers on the face, yet you can tell time on them, even at a glance, by the position of the hands. With the analog gauge, you can frequently and instantaneously check your car's condition. This is not so easy with digital read- outs. Because they can present only one number at a time, you must consciously read and interpret the numbers each time you consult them. These gauges don't ‘show an overall scale that you can readily compare the isolated readings against. ‘This can divert your eyes and attention from the road for an uncomfortably long time. Besides, what good docs it really do to know that your coolant temperature sxactly 181F? Or that your oil pressure is exactly 58 psi? Also, studies in the field of ergonomics have proven that an- alog gauges are easicr toread thand gauges. If you get the idea that don’t like digital readouts for normal use, you're right! On the other hand, they're great for diagnostic equipment, such as monitor- ing and recording test values. An ex- ample would be. thermocouple-gauge readouts when you're monitoring exhaust-gas temperatures. Types of Gauges—Both OEM and aflermarket gauges fall into one of two major categories—mechanical or elec- trical. Because this is a book about elec- trical systems, mechanical gauges are ‘only briefly described here. Most gauge manufacturers offer both types—you scan contact them for additional informa- tion on their mechanical gauges. Mechanical gauges for temperature and pressure require plumbing in the form of tubing to transmit information directly to the gauge. For instance, mechanical temperature gauges utilize a sealed bulb and tube (capillary tube) somewhat like a medical thermometer. The gauge needle is moved by the ex- panding fluid inside the tube. The tube must not be sharply bent and must be guarded against breakage. In my opin- ion, these requirements seriously limit installation convenience. Pressure-operated mechanical gauges require that the pressurized liquid actual- ly be piped into the back of the gauge. Leakage is always a concem. In fact, mechanical fuel-pressure gauges must never be mounted inside the passenger ‘compariment because of the potential fire hazard. Because these gauges are usually mounted in the engine compartment, their practical use is usually limited 10 ‘oul-of-car readings. They're sometimes used on race cars, mounted outside the passenger compartment within the driv- er’s. view. Mechanical oil-pressure gauges arc acceptable, though un- ‘common, in passenger-car instrament panels. Mechanical gauges do have one dis- tinct advantage over comparable electric gauges. The mechanism of the gauge is not limited to the 90° needle movement of electrical gauges. In fact,a 270° swing iscommon on mechanical gauges. Great- er needle movement translates directly to ‘more accurate interpretation of readings. Also, the needle must move farther to get from the safe zone to the unsafe zone, which means that your eye will more readily catch an incorrectly positioned needle. This is the main reason race-car drivers prefer mechanical gauges.Some gauges are available inmechani- cal form only, These include vacuum gauges and. turbo-boost gauges. Most speedometers are mechanical, although some of them have been electrified suc- cessfully. You need to consider this if you're building an instrument panel from scratch. Some manufacturers havea rela- tively limited selection of specdometers and other mechanical gauges, so match- ing all your gauges for style may take some extra effort. Electrical gauges and their sending units are designed to convert a physical condition intoan electrical signal thatcan be transmitted overan ordinary electrical wire, then convert the electrical signal into a meaningful visual display A big advantage often cited in favor of electric gauges is that corresponding mechanical gauges require hydraulic plumbing, capillary tubes, mechanical drive cables, or other difficult-to-route and space-consuming transmission de~ vices. Electrical gauges operate by several principles, but the two most popular by far are the thermostatic principle and the electromagnetic principle, also called the balancing coil or aie-core principle. Thermostatic gauges are found only factory installations. 1 have mot dis- covered examples of this type in the aftermarket except as OEM replace- ments, The balancing-coil gauge is the only kind sold for aftermarket in- stallations and is used extensively in fac- tory installations, as well Thermostatic Gauges—Thermostatic gauges work on a bimetal principle, A strip of two dissimilar metals bonded together is anchored at one end and is attached by linkage to a movable pointer at the other. Because the two metals ex- pand and contract at different rates, the bimetallic strip will bend when heat is applied, causing a corresponding move- ment of the pointer. The heat needed to operate the pointer is provided by a small heating coil ‘wrapped around the bimetallic strip. Cur- rent flow through the heating coil is reg- ulated by a variable resistance in the sending unit, as discussed later. So, as current flow varies, the heating coil changes temperature, bending the bimetallic strip, which moves the poin- ter. By calibrating the variables, the gauge designer can make the pointer position ‘correspond directly to whatever physical condition is causing a resistance change inthe sender. One side effect of the direct link between the bimetallic strip and the pointer is that when the engine isshutoff, the pointer swings to the low position as soon as the bimetallic strip cools, and stays there. Because heating-coil output in a thermostatic gauge is related directly 10 voltage, a potential problem could devel- op. If the gauge operated on 12 volts, and lem voltage were low, it would give aan incorrect reading, To counteract this, thermostatic gauges are designed to oper- ate al a voltage lower than 12 volis— about 7 or 8 volts, A small constant voliage regulator (CVR) reduces whatever the system volt- age is at the moment to a constant gauge voltage. This ensutes relative accuracy lunless system voltage is dangerously low to begin with. In that case, you have problems to deal with other than womry- ing about gauge accuracy! Cost and complications of the CVR and its requisite radio-noise-suppression filter are two reasons aftermarket gauge manufacturers and many auto man- ufacturers have gone entirely to the balancing-coil-gauge system. Balancing-Coil Gauges—The main advantage of balancing-coil gauges is they operate accurately on whatever bat- tery voltage happens to be, without need of aCVR. Inside a balancing-coil gauge, there are two electromagnetic coils wound around a plastic core at right angles to cach other. The pointer shaft runs be- ‘(weenthetwocoils and has a metal arma- ture on which both coils can act. When the system is shut off, there's nothing to ‘act onthe pointer, soit assumes arandom position until the system is tured back on, This, of course, distinguishes the balancing-coil gauge from a thermostatic one. The two coils are wired in series, so current flows first through one coil, then the other coil, and finally to ground, The two coils are connected to terminals on the gauge case, which are marked B, | or + for the feed side and G or = for the ground. Check the gauge instruction sheet for exact markings, A third wire from the sending unit taps into the circuit between the two coils and connects to a third terminal, usually marked S for sender. The sending unit used with balaneing- coil gauges must be capable of offering a variable resistance in direct proportion to changes in the system being monitored. Let's use the fuel-level gauge as an ex- ample of haw a typical balancing-coil gauge works, For this discussion, the gauge coil closest (0 the battery feed will be called the coil (for empty), and the one closest ‘CONSTANT VOLTAGE REGULATOR (CVR) BIMETALLIC. ARM HEATING Com, REGULATED OUTPUT VOLTAGE Set CONTACTS WIRING DIAGRAM SYHBOL CVR cutaway shows heater coll wrapped around bimetallic arm. Currers (at eystern voit- age) flows through heater until arm bends to close contacts. System voltage is appiled through points, Aer a moment, arm cools enough to open polnts, and cycle repeats. The ‘short bursts of electricity through paints are sc close together that they average cut atless than system voltage. Drawing courtesy of Chrysler Corp. 43gauge cluster ‘assembly and Is'attached to printed circult by snaps. When I built my car, | discarded this whoie assembly and installed VDO ‘gauges instead. ‘This CVR Is supported by to ground the F coil (for full), When current is applied to the coils, the E coil creates a magnetic field that tries. to attract the pointer armature to it, But the Fcoil also creates a field that counteracts the E field. Current flow through the E field remains constant, while the strength of the F field is governed by the variable resistance of the sender. ‘When the fuel tank is full and sender resistance is high, current tends to flow through the F coil, strengthening its field, so the pointer indicates FULL. ‘When fuel level goes down, so does sen- der resistance, Now, current flows where resistance is lower—through the sender—and current flow through the F coil drops. This weakens the F field, and the pointer armature is attracted toward EMPTY. Pressure and temperature gauges work similarly. ‘Tachometers—One characteristic com- mon to all electrical tachometers is, although they may not be attached di- recily to it, they're operated by a signal from the ignition coil. This signal is then processed electronically into needle movement representative of engine rpm. ‘There are several things to consider when selecting a tachometer. First, you ‘must match the tachometer to the number ‘of cylinders in the engine. Some tachs are designed for a specific number of cylin- ders. Multi-use tachs are designed with a selection of terminals that correspond to the number of cylinders, ora tiny dial on back that serves the same purpose. ‘Sender for oll pressure gauge Is physically larger than temperature sender because it contains @ presssure-sensing diaphragm. [BALANcING-com GAUGE es SENDING UNIT TEMPERATURE Oe 4-ANP FUSE THERMOSTATIC GAUGE BIMETALLIC ARM TYPICAL TACH HOOKUP STANDARD IGN. groutule ofnor fo grounded tough vant able resistance of Sender. Differences in ‘magnetic field cause needie to move. You just hook up the feed wire to the appropriate terminal or move the di: the desired position, Second, be sure the tach you buy is compatible with the voltage of your ear’s electrical system. |, electrical tachometers don’t re- quire a sending unit. As mentioned car- lier, they are wired directly into the igni- tion circuit, usually on the battery nega- tive (— ) side of the coil. With the older point-type ignition systems, this is a straightforward connection. However, follow the wiring instructions that come with the tachometer. Qn clectronic-ignition systems, con- sult the OEM shop manual for factory ignitions or the instructions that come Diagram shows typical tach Installation, ‘wired to battery negative side of coll. There -areexceptions, 80 check car's service marr Ual and tach manufacturer's instructions, Drawing courtesy of Auto Meter. with the aftermarket ignition. Also, dis- cuss compatibility with the auto-parts dealer or the tach manufacturer. Installa- tion directions vary too much to list all variables here Finally, some highly specialized after- market tachometers come with 2 built-in rev limiter that shuts off the ignition coi for a brief period if a pre-selected rpm is exceeded. This protection device is worthwhile for race drivers whose driv- ing conditions may make them more just right for you, too! peal wiring considerations for rev-limiter tachome- ters are supplied by the manufacturer.Sending Units—You've already scen how electrical gauges interpret the ¥: able resistance in a sending unit to di play the car's physical conditions. Op- erating principles of sending units are discussed here Electric gauges operate on varying re- sistance in the sender circuit. Sending units convert a physical condition— pressure, temperature or fluid. level into a specific electrical resistance that is interpreted by the gauge head. As with indicator lamps, battery voltage is ap- plied first to the instrument, then flows through a single wire to ground through the sending unit Temperature sending units rely on an electrical clement that Varies its resist- ance in proportion to temperature, Most electrical conductors display an increase in resistance as temperature rises. However, there's one unique family of conductors that behaves just the op- pasite, They're called thermistors, and their resistance decreases as temperature rises. Thermistors are made from the ox- ides of cobalt, eopper. iron or nickel. The advantage of usinga thermistoras a send- ing unit is that it isa solid-state device — ‘no moving parts to go out of order —and calibration is builtin when the thermistor is compounded. Here's how the thermistor functions as, sending unit: When temperature rises, thermistor resistance drops. This allows more current to flow through the thermis- tor and the gauge, moving the gauge nee- dle upward on the temperature scale. Other temperature sending units rely on a specialized rheostat inside the send- er housing. A bimetallic strip or coil changes shape with variations in tem- perature. Mechanical linkage converts bimetal movement into rheostat-wiper movement, which provides variable te- sistance. Because they're more prone than thermistors to lose calibration or otherwise malfunction, the rheastat sending unit has fallen into disfavor. You're likely to see one only on an older car, They're casily distinguished from the thermistor type because of their large sive ‘A. coolant-lemperature sending unit usually threads into a hot-water passage in the engine. Most of these sending units come in a variety of standard thread COOLANT-TEMP, SENDER: SENSING ELEMENT: FUEL-GAUGE SENDER RESISTANCE WIRE ‘The thermistor-type ws how oach wire toop is attached to a pair of com- mutator bars. Commutator bars are contacted by a pair of brushes. As armature turns, cammutator bars are continually moving past brushes, making each loop into a momen- tary electromagnet, 87‘STARTER MOTOR DRIVE YOKE RETURN SPRING POINT STARTER DRIVE YOKE ACTUATOR “Lh DRIVE YOKE COVER, ‘usner 2 saonze spacen — FUEEVE souioro PIVOT PIN. MOVABLE POLE SHOE motor remo los honey metel part evoperting the eet of ed ool, nekie, rusture le free to wpin on bering contaived in endl conta rtesy of American Motors Corp. Startor housings. Brushes are called rorque, is directly proportional to current flow. That's why a motor puts out its maximum torque when its speed is lowest, when CEMF is lowest, An elec- tric motor operating against a load that drags down its operating speed causes the motor to averheat, The heat is caused by high current flow at work. The cument is relatively unresisted because at low motor speeds there's little CEMF gener- ated. Perhaps now you can see why an electric mator can be called an “educated short circuit.” To summarize, when cur- rent is first applied to the motor, it can flow almost entirely unimpeded. Torque, which is proportional to current flow, is also high. As motor speed eases —it does so rapidly—CEMF increases, automatically limiting current to a safe rate, 58 ined in brush holders In end housing. Drawing cou Motor Components—Most of the com- ponents have already been described in the discussion on how a motor works, although in basic form. These and the remaining ones are described in detail here. The motor housing is a heavy iron frame to which the field-coil cores, called pole shoes, are aitached. The field coils are wrapped around the pole shoes and are insulated by a coating on the wire. The wire loops described earlier are contained in the armature, a kind of axle shaft that rotates within the motor hous- ing. Each loop terminates in a pair of commutator segments. These metal seg- ments are insulated from each other and from the armature shaft. Thin sheets of mica axe often used as the insulating material. ‘The armature is supported by bearings or bushings assembled into the motor housing. Finally, a pair of insulated brushes, beld in insulated pockets within the housing, are positioned to rub against the commutator bars. Terminals are wired to carry current to the field coils and brushes, Electric-Motor Types—Large, power- ful electric motors, such as starting motors, use electromagnetic field coils. ‘Smaller motors, such as those used for windshield wipers, power windows and the like, may use a permanent magnet in place of the field coils. The permanent- motor is less expensive to build, and is more than adequate in low-demand applications. Power output is a limitation of the permanent-magnet motor. Size-for-size, its output is not as great as that of a field-coil motor. In OEM applications,TWO-SPEED PERMANENT-MAGNET MOTOR [Electric motors come in all sizes, shapes andapplications. Inthese examples, the motor ia thacylindrical shape. From lettto rightare: in-tank electric fuel pump and filter, windshield- ‘washer pump and electric door-lock actuator. Corrugated part on door-lock actuator is the: lock drive rod. Motors are permanent-magnet type. Door lock actuator is reversible, permanent-magnet motors generally operate through a torque-multiplying gear train. You'll often find the higher- powered field-coil motors attached to a {gear train as well, This may be more for slowing down the action than for torque though. 0 install a custom motor- ized feature in your car, be aware of the ‘output limitations of the permanent- magnet motor, Better safe than sorry, ‘The available speeds of multi-speed motors may be provided by one af three ‘common methods: resistors, shunt wind- ings or multiple brushes. ‘A typical resistance-controlied motor is the heater blawer. The control switch mit from a variety of resistors that different amounts of current to flow. Remernberthe peed and power of ‘a motor are governed by the strength of the armature magnetic field, created by current flow. Reducing current flow ‘weakens the field, slowing the motor. Motors with a shunt coil have two ‘windings in the field coil—the usual one and a much smaller one threaded throughout. With the main coil enet- gized, the motor runs fast. With the shunt also ‘energized, the main field is weakened, slowing the motor. This type cof circuit allows two speeds, and is used in many GM wiper motors ‘The speed of a permanent-magnet motor can be controlled by a set of multi- ple brushes. As mentioned earlier, the ‘common location for brushes is 180° op- posite each other. If you could hold one brush stationary and somehow rotate the ether one in the direction opposite to armature rotation, the effect would be something like advancing the ignition on rushes at 100 par are used, motor une at slow speed. When high-speed brush and common brush are used, motor runs faster. MW high-speed brush could be moved farther clockwise, motor would eventually begin to slow down and stop. an engine. ‘The motor would run faster — up toa point. If you rotate the brush too far, the motor will slow down and finally stop. I's not practical to make.a motor with a movable brush—although it’s been tried—but it is practical to add a thind bnish im an advanced position. By select- ing this brush with the contro! switch, you can make the motor run faster. This is a common method of achieving two speeds with a permanent-magnet motor. 59this set of terminals and electrical suppiles from DRI industries. t contained all the kinds of terminals needed to wire my ear, although | had to buy extra quantities of some. AS an added bonus, they offered @ wire crimper at a discounted price, along with the terminal This chapter covers the minor com ponents that don't fit well into the categories discussed in previous. chap- ters. Many are items you'll be using by the dozen, anyway. FUSE PANELS To be absolutely truthful, you don't need a fuse panel in a car's electrical system, Instead, you can use an in-line fuse holder in each circuit, However, using these holders instead of a fuse pan- el is impractical—assembly is difficult and they are not always convenient when 1 fuse needs to be replaced. Fuse panels make wiring and fuse replacement much easier, ‘There's a wide variety of fuse panels to choose from, depending on the "donot car you're taking your electrical com- ponents from, and whether you want to use glass-capsule fuses, Autofuse-type 60 fuses or ceramic fuses. Small panels for all three are available in the aftermarket ‘Or, you can remove a serviceable panel from adonor car and adapt it to your car. On page 36, an argument is presented both for and against the use of circuit breakers versus fuses. If you decide to use fuses, you'll need an appropriate fuse panel. Selecting an Aftermarket Fuse Panel—There are only a few things to consider whea choosing an aftermarket panel. First, of course, is the type of fuses you'll be using. Then, you must make sure the panel will fit into the space available. Many aftermarket man- ufacturers make fuse panels of varying lengths, so you may need to buy a variety ‘of sizes to accommodate the space and fuse requirements of your car. Many aftermarket’ fuse panels also include—or are a part of —another kind used to connect major wiring hamesses. Terminal blocks are usually made of an insulating fiberboard with the electrical conductors riveted in place. Frankly, I haven't seen too many general-purpose afiermarket fuse panc!s that have impressed me much. I suggest that if you've chosen fuses over circuit breakers, go the rest of the way and adapt a used, factory-type fuse panel, as de- scribed below, Adapting a Used Fuse Panel—If you remove and adapi a fuse panel from an existing car or truck, there are a few things to consider: First, if you're building a kit car, the manufacturer may make specific recom- mendations, Check to determine why a particular panel is required. It may be that you'll be taking large enough por-tions of the hamess from the donor car aand the fuse panel is an integral part of it, Ifthe decision is up to you, be sure the pane! will accommodate the style and number of fuses you want, making al- lowance for adding circuits at a later date, You may need to refer to chapters 10 and 11 to determine this, Neal, be sure the panel you've chosen will fit the allocated place in the car. Measure if you're not sure Finally, check to be sure the vehicle wasn’t involved ina fire and that itdidn’t suffer massive electrical damage Charred wiring is a definite sign that you're looking in the wrong car! Then disconnect the battery, if the donor car has one. Remove the screws or bolts holding the fuse panel in place, then pull as much of the existing hamess loose from the under-dash area as you ean, Finally, cut wires free from the harness, leaving at least I foot of wire attached to each cavity in the fuse panel. The wire ends will be spliced to the new hamess when you install it, soleave as much wire length as possible TERMINAL BLOCKS Before discussing terminal blocks, 1 explain what bulkhead and harness con- nectors arc used for in factory in- stallations, This may help you see why they're not needed in your project car. When a car goes down the assembly line, wiring is installed in sections called harnesses, There's a harness for the in- strument panel, one for the front lighting, one or more for the engine, one for rear wiring, and perhaps several more for op- tional equipment, Each hamess is designed to go into the car at specific points of assembly, usual- ly before upholstery, dash-panel cover and other interfering parts are installed. ‘This means that individual hamesses eventually must be connected ta each other to form the completed electrical system, Various hamess connectors make this a relatively simple, hard-to- mess-up job. At the point where the har- nesses pass through the firewall or bulk- head, the outside harness plugs into the inside harness by means of a huge bulk. ‘head connector may have wp to 40 or 50 cavities, ‘Terminal blocks aren't used often in You could use a fuse holder like this for ‘every circult in your ear: Jeep Corperation ‘used to do just that! But modern thinking Is {0 put all your fuses Into one panel. ‘GM uses tip-down fuse panel in most ofits care, These are convenient to service and ‘simply push up andlock when you're done. minimum. Wires on this one are cut shorter that but could be made to work. ‘Small tuse blocks for giess-capsule fuses ‘come in various sizes and shapes, can be ‘assembled into larger panets. Photo by Jim Aflermarket fuse panels come in several configurations. This one sccomodates Autotuse. Several units can be ‘stacked as shown. | bought ming by mail order from Rion Francis Wire Works. Production cars rely on # bulkhead con nector to attach harnesses outside of body to those inside. Because many wires are ‘crowded into a fairly email spac, these are ‘sometimes called “high density” con hector 61Fuse panel and main wiring harness trom my Pinto donor car. Panel mounts under dash. Engine harness (left) passes through bulkhead and pluga into back of panel, factory wiring jobs. Auto manufacturers rely more on specialized bulkhead con- nectors and hamess connectors as those described. Such connectors are custom- designed for a specific car and are effec~ tive in reducing incorrect’ wire con- nections on an assembly line. But they're noteasily adapted to aproject car, nor are be entirely different. You can install the ‘wires at your convenience, rather than at the demand of an incessantly moving assembly line. You can take the time to install the wires one ata time, or you can ‘construct partial harnesses similar to the ‘ones used in the factory, to be installed and eventually hooked together. Chapter 1 describes: two harness-construction methods, For now, let's assume that you have decided to make two or three hamesscs—one for the car's passenger compartment, another one for under the hood, and perhaps a third one for the instrument panel. How do you connect the various hamesses? You use terminal blocks. ‘A terminal block is usually a plastic or resin casting with two rows of screw heads showing. Each screw is separated from its neighbors in the row by small partitions, But, each screw in one row is electrically connected by a hidden bus bar tothe screw directly opposite itin the other row. Suppose your under-hood harness contains eight wires that must connect to amaiching set of cight wires inthe under- 62 Terminal block connects oneharness to an- other, Each screw in left column is electri- cally joined to adjacent screw in right cok ‘umn. A barrier insulates each palr of match- ing screws trom pairs on either side. dash hamess. This is a simplified ex- ample, because there are usually far more than eight wires in an under-hood har- ness. When you install the under-dash hamess, you'll run the eight wires through a bole in the firewall and attach each toaserew in one row on the terminal: block, To complete the job, attach the eight under-hood wires to the screws in the other row, making sure that each pair of wires is attached to matched screws. Ring terminals are commonly used to connect wire ends to terminal-block screws. ‘What you've just done is connect two hamesses together without using solder or solderiess butt connectors. Bothsolder and solderless connectors would work, but they're inconvenient to: disconnect readily for later service or diagnosis work. In addition, terminal blocks make it easy to change wires around if you make a mistake or if you want to add another branch to a particular circuit. As with fuse panels, it's a good idea to choose a terminal block with a few extra terminals for possible future circuits. FLASHERS Generally, there are two kinds of flasher units—those for turn signals and those for hazard flashers. Although they are similar in appearance —ofien differ- ing only in color—and they have identi- cal terminals, tum-signal flashers and hazard flashers are usually not in- terchangeable. An exception is when trailer lamps are added to the circuit, as Starting at bottom, first wires connected to the one directly opposite. So is second wire. Third laft wire connects to third and fourth right wires, which permits operation ‘af two devices from one voltage source. described on the facing page. ‘Turn Flashers—These units are what make the front and rear turn signals and dashboard indicators flash on and off. All factory cars built after 1967 also have side-marker lamps. In most of these, the front markers also flash. ‘The tum flasher has a set of movable ‘contact points and a heating coil operated ‘by current flowing through the unit. Dur- ing tum-signal operation, current flows through the paints, then the heater, the I switch and finally the lamps, Front and rear turn lamps selected by the ‘turn-signal lever turn on. When the heat- ‘er warms up, it temporarily opens the points, and the turn-signal lamps go off. As soon as the heater cools, the points ‘close and the cycle repeats. If one exterior wm-signal lamp is ‘bumed out, there’s not enough current flow in the circuit to make the heater work, so the remaining lamp simply ‘comes on and stays on. So do the tumn- signal indicators on the dashboard. This is a safety factor intended toalent you that the turn-signal lamp is bummed out, Com- ‘pare this to the operation of the hazard flasher, below. Hazard Flasher—The hazard flasher is intended to operate all four tumn-signal lamps simultaneously, Because the flasher is an emergency device, it's de- signed to operate even if a tumn-signal lamp is burned out. [n fact, it will operate with only one of the four lamps function- ing. “The hazard flasher also depends on aTurn-signal flashers and hazard last Jook alike and have identical terminals. But they are not intended to be interchanged unless you understand the consequences, ‘explained in text below. set of movable points and heating ele- ment, but the configuration is entirely different from the tun-signal flasher. In the hazand flasher, the points are normal- ly open, so when you first tum on the flasher, current flows through the heater and lamps. Because of the high voltage drop across the heater, the lamps de not light. As the heater warms it closes the points, which shunt all current directly to the lamps, lighting them, With nocurrent flowing through the heater, it cools and reopens the paints. Then the cycle re- eats. Interchanging Turn Flashers & Hazard Flashers—Ordinarily, you don’t. Although the terminals are iden- tical, and both units will make the tum signals flash, you shouldn't use a hazard flasher in a tur-signal circuit. Itdefeats the safety-design intent of warning you of a bumed-out lamp. Thereis one exception, though. When ‘you're pulling a trailer, the added load of trailer lamps on the turn-signal cireui best handled by a hazard-flasher us They are also sold on the market as heavy-duty flashers, which is another name for the same device. Just be sure to reinstall the regular tum-signal flasher after you're done pulling the trailer. SOLDERLESS CONNECTORS Solderless connectors are used to make permanent junctions. They fall into three general categories: solderless ter- ‘minals, solderless butt joints and solder- Jess closed-end connectors. Within these HAZARD FLASHER lamps and heater coil at ‘same time. The flash rate depends on load created by lamps. categories, you'll find both insulated and non-insulated connectors. Connectors discussed here are general purpose, as compared with the specialized con- nectors used in factory hamesses, All solderless connectors have one im- portant feature in common. They can be permanently attached to a wire without use of solder, And, they are neither removable nor reusable, The easiest way to remove a solderless connector from a wire is to cut the wire as close as possible to the connector. ‘There’s one additional, and unique, kind of solderless connector described at the end of this section. It's a removable snap splice connector intended to join a Wire to one that’s already in use. These are often used to add trailer witing to a car's electrical system. Solderiess Terminals—These are used at the ends of wires that are attached to ‘components or other wires. Insulated and non-insulated types are available, Insula- tion is either full-collar (entire terminal) or crimp-area (barrel only). Solderless terminals fall into. three general categories, depending on the shape of the terminal's “business end.” Ring terminals are used w attach a wire to a threaded stud on a component. Common applications include terminal- block screws and studs on Ford-type starter solenoids. They are alsoused with screws or balts to attach ground wires to a car's metal body or chassis. An advantage of the ring terminal that it cannot disconnect itself from Hazard flasher is not dependent on number ‘of lamps in-eirevit. Current flows to lamps, then to heater, in turn. screw orstud, evenif the fastenerloosens slightly—the screw or nut must be re: moved. Insome instances, thiscould bea slight disadvantage if you need to dis- connect a terminal. Duc to the nature of their installation procedure, ring terminals do not come with full insul: collars. Once in- stalled, the ring portion of the terminal ‘cannot come into contact with anything but the the stud of screw it’s attached to, They are, however, available with in sulated crimps. Spade terminals are also used on threaded studs or screws, The advantage spade terminal has over a ring terminal is that it is forked soit ean be removed by loosening the fastener enough to free the ‘egs of the terminal. However. this could also be a disadvantage because the wire may disconnect if the fastener becomes loose, Spade terminals are also installed in ‘such a Way that they cannot be provided with insulating collars, but are available with or without crimp insulators. Disconnect terminals come in both male and female versions. Depending on application, the female type may or may not need a full insulating collar, Both kinds are also available with no insula- tion and with crimp insulation only. The female disconnect terminal is actually a type of socket, and it's usually on the feed side of a connection. Often, the female terminal is insulated by a built-in collar. This protects the terminal from shorting if it comes in contact with a 63Neatness counts. Keep terminals organ- ized and labeled to minimize errors. when you're working under pressure, This assoriment came with a full set of labels, Small lerminal kit is inexpensive, nandy for quick repairs. Photo by Ron Sessions. Use ring terminals to attach ponents with threaded stud or minais. Ring termina! at top is non- insulated for use with shrink wrap. One at battom is insulated, and is suitable when using several terminats in close quarters. i can also slip out! Bentstip terminal at bot- ‘tom Is less likely ta do this—you can buy ‘these prebent, oF as | did, bend tips of con- ‘ventional terminal with needie-nose pliers. ‘grounded component or metal part. Female disconnect terminals are most ‘often used to attach a wire to the built-in male blade on a load component. A good ‘example is the headlamp. The back side ‘of the lamp has protruding male blades, while the wires that connect to the head: lamp are fitted with female disconnect terminals, ‘The male disconnect terminal is in- tended to plug into a matching female disconnect terminal, It’s usually used on the wire being fed; that is, it’s not often found on the feed side because it could accidentally short if it touched anything grounded. Male solderless terminals 64 Male and female disconnect terminals plug together. Ones shown here have insulated barrels only; other types are fully insulated. When using disconnect terminals, make sure they have same blade width. usually do not have built-in insulating collars, but they are available with or without erimp insulation, Solderless Butt Connectors—These are used to join two wires end-to-end, oF butted. Hence, the name. The butt con- nector is tubular in shape, with a full ulator covering it, The wires to be joined are inserted into opposite ends of the buttand are crimped in place. It's also possible to use a butt connector to join Wo Wires to one, again depending on the size of the connector opening. However, a closed-end connecter is preferred for joining three or more wires. Closed-End Connectors—These are When connecting male and female ter- minals, be sure they're pushed all the way together. shaped something like an old-fashioned derby hat. The crown of the hat is large enough to accommodate several wires at ‘once, while the brim of the hat is large enough to fit over the wire’s insulation, ensuring an insulated connection. Other than their ability to accommodate-a larger number of wires, closed-end connectors may be regarded as interchangeable with butt connectors, Like other solderless connectors, closed-end connectors are installed by crimping. Snap-Splice Connectors—This is a reusable connector used to join two wires ‘without need of cutting and splicing. Itis commonly used 10 tap into existing wirseg baad Butt connector is used to join wires end-to- ‘end. Here, it has been crimped onto one ‘wire; other wire is ready tobe inserted. Note short amount of expased conductor, Female disconnect terminals are often used to attach wires to components. t com- terminals. are widely separated, no Insulation fs needed. But if area is at all crowded, use insulated terminals for added Protection against short circuits. ing, such as when you add a trailer con- nector to a car. See page 138. The snap-splice connector opens on a hinge, When it's open, you'll see a groove to accommodate the insulated original wire and another dead-end groove to accommodate the wire you're adding. To complete the connection, hold the two wires in place and close the lid. ‘Then use a pair of pliers to squeeze the sliding metal contact into place. When the comact moves, it pierces the insulation of both wires simultancously, providing continuity between them, A second flap snaps shut over the metal contact to protect it from shorts. Mutti-wire disconnect terminals are usually ‘Rolantty protected—that is, they can be plugged together only one way. These molded-plastic connectors are usually sold with short lengths of wire attached. This ones fully insulated, See page 83 tor mora Information, Phote by Jim Barrett. Snap-splice connectors. are sized accord: ing to wire gage. Of all connectors men- joned, these are only ones that can be reused. One shown here has abuilt-n fuse. To Install, insert wires into slots provided and follow directions In photo at right. itis ot necessary to strip Insulation. Although a snap-splice connector should be regarded as permanent, it can ‘be removed and reused. Be sure there's no current in the wires before removing Open the flap to gain access to the hinged lid. Pry open the lid and remove the connector from the wires. Push the movable metal contact back to its origi nal position, The connector is now ready for reuse, Be sure to tape carefully over the wire insulation that was pierced by the connector. Battery-Cable Terminals —These are available in 2 number of configurations, determined by the type of battery being used, All can be divided into two basic Closed-end connectors for automotive use are installed by crimping. Don't confuse them with type used for house wiring. This ‘one is: used fo join two wires—larger ones could be used to join three or more wires. Make sure connector insulation covers ex- posed conductors of all wires, Use pliers to snap lid shut. It will pierce insulation and make contact without cut- ting conductor. types: clamp- and lug-type terminals. ‘Clamp-type cable terminals are used on batteries with top posts. The terminal is designed to slip over the post, and is then tightened with a clamp bolt, Be- cause the positive post on a battery has a slightly larger diameter than the negative post, high-quality clamp terminals are sized accordingly. Cheaper kinds are not. Lug-type cable terminals are used on batteries with side terminals. They're also used at the other end of the battery cables where one cable attaches to the starter solenoid or starter motor, and the other to ground on the engine block or 65BATTERY-CABLE TERMINALS Se. FLAG TERMINAL, T-TERMINAL, CO =o BAASS COMPRESSION TERMINAL Cable terminals for top-post batteries in- clude standard flag terminal (top left), right- ‘angle terminal (top right), and T-type ter- minal (botiom) for connecting two or more batteries in series. Ones shown are in- Stalled by crimping. ‘TEMPORARY REPAIR Least desirable are temporary terminait: ‘that clamp to cable by tightening two bolts. chassis. The lug terminal is flattened and hhasa hole for an attaching balt, In fact, it Tooks much like a large ring terminal, Generally, battery-cable terminals are attached 10 the cable by crimping. This requires a special crimping tool. Small battery-terminal crimping tools are clamped in a vise or struck with a ham- mer fo operate the crimping jaws. Larger types work much like the crimping tools used on small terminals, except they're much bigger. To install compression terminal, simply strip battery cable, slide compression nut ‘onto cable end screw nut into terminal, Photo courtesy af Chrysler Corp. ‘Some universal terminals are installed to the cable by a clamping screw or set of screws, These are best reserved for emergencies — they're far too crude for a professional installation Another type of terminal attaches to a cable by means of a crimping nut. A cable is slid into the terminal and the crimping nut is tightened. It works on a principle similar to that of aferrule fitting on a copper water pipe. It provides a quality, finished appearance. ‘Compression terminals attach to cable by tightening brass compression nut. Lett: Compression terminals for top and side post batteries. Right: Quick dis- connect terminals use stud-type connec tion with wing nut for quick removal and installation of cables, Photo courtesy of Chrysler Corp. MISCELLANEOUS: HARNESS SUPPLIES ‘This section covers all the mis- cellancous components you'll need to makea wiring hamess—except the wire, which was discussed in an earlier chap- ter. These include grommets, insulators, hamess wraps, ties and clamps. Grommets—When making a hole through a body pane! for routing wires, use a grommet to cover the ragged edges. Although this is mandatory for holesmade in sheet metal, it is often over- looked for those in fiberglass. This is a mistake for two reasons. First, fiberglass strands can eventually cut through the wire insulation. If this happens t0 adja- cent wires, there's potential for a short circuit. Second, a correctly fitted grom- met provides protection against the intra- sion of water, fumes, air and dirt. If the fit is not close enough, seal the openings silicone seal to ensure a weather- tight fit Grommets are usually made of rubber of a rubberlike material. There's a groove in the outside diameter that snaps over thecedgcof the hole in the panel. The wires pass through a hole in the center of the grommet In selecting a grommet, consider several dimensions: First, the diameter of the hate in the grommet must be just large enough to contain the wires. The hole in the panel must be just large enough to accommodate the diameter of the barton of the groove, Finally, the groove must be just wide enough to fitthe thickness of the material the hole is cut in. With fibes glass, this last dimension is difficult to match because most grommets are made for sheet metal, which is ner than most fiberglass. If you can’t find a grommet to fit your needs, wrap enough layers of electrical tape around the wires to wedge them into the hole. Allow enough stack on both sides of the panel so the wires are not strained against the edge of the hole, Insulators—An insulator is any materi- al that prevents shorts between adjacent wires or between wires and grounds. Obviously. automotive wire is man- ufactured with an insulative covering— usually PVC plastic—so it doesn’t need additional insulation. But wire con- nections may. ‘Shrink wrap, also called heat-shrink tubing, is commonly used to insulate wire connections, [is manufactured in a variety of lengths and diameters, and comes in several thicknesses. The least expensive type is a thin-wall plastic tube that shrinks to about half its original dia- meter when heated. High-quality, thick-wall shrink wrap is preferable because it is less likely to split when heated enough to yield max- imum shrinkage. A thick-wall shrink ms Grommets come in numerous sizes to accommodate a single wire up to a large bundle. sim Barrett. When drilling hole In panel tor grommet, make sure panel reaches bottom of grom- met groove. Choose grommet with a groeve width that matches jpanol thickness. To minimize wind or water leaks, wire bundle should fit grommet opening snugly. Shrink wrap tubing comes in many sizes and colors. Use to insulate and reinforce Junctions of wires. See instructions on pages 116-118. Photo by Flon Sessions. Wire fastening kit from Cal Term includes assortment of nylon ties, grommets, nylon ‘clamps and rubber-insulated metal clamps. Photo by Ron Sessions, 7wrap also provides extra support at ter- minal ends to prevent wire fatigue at the connection point. The most expensive type contains a hot-melt adhesive that runs into the connection to provide addi tional protection against moisture penetration, Alpha FT-105 is one brand of high-quality, thick-wall shrink wrap—there are others. Check the Supplier's list on pages 152-153. For in- formation on installing shrink wrap, see pages 116. and 118. Electrical tape is another form of sulation, I mentioned it not because good method, but simply to give me the opportunity to beg you to resist using it, Morcover. it looks terrible, it is suseep- tible to heat, and the adhesive may de- teriorate i , causing the insulation to drop off unexpectedly. Electrical tape is not recommended for harness wraps, either, Harness Wraps—To bundle wires into hamesses, you can either use nylon ties, described below, or one of the harness ‘wraps described here, Each method has advantages and disadvantages. Using ties is perhaps the easiest way to bundle a hamess, so this is the bundling method described in the chapters on making and installing a harness. On the other hand, a comrectly installed hamess wrap can give the hamess anneater appearance than ties. Wraps also provide additional protection from heat, grease, dirt and abrasion. Split loom is a flexible, conugated conduit made of black polyethylene, The -conduit is split lengthwise for easy inser- tion of wires. After the wires are in- serted, the seam springs back to a closed position and remains tightly closed. Loom tape is 2 non-adhesive vinyl tape used specifically for wrapping har- nesses. Because it is non-adhesive—it adheres to itself and nothing else—a ppicce of shrink wrap is used at each end ‘of the wrap tokeep the tape from unravel- ing. For more information on installing loom tape, see page 141. As mentioned, electrical tape of other adhesive-type tapes make poor hamess wraps. Ties—Nylon ties are narrow strips of plastic with a row of teeth molded into their entire length. They are available in many widths and lengths. Atone end, a clamping block grips the teeth of the tie when the tie is pulled through, They are easily installed without tools, However, they are one-way; that is, they can’t be loosened easily, so you must cut them to remove them Nylon ties are used to bundle wires into hamesses. Because the wires are not under much strain after the harness is installed, don't go overboard with size. Because width and length increase together, I found that 6-inch ties are long, enough, though a little wider than need be. But, narrower ones are often in- conveniently short. Tie mounts allow you to use ties to attach the hamess to Mat surfaces. The mount is a small plastic block with a slot through it for the nylon tie to pass through, The back of the mount is self adhesive. A stronger mount includes a hole for a #8 screw to attach the mount, Harness Clamps—There are several types of clamps and clips to attach the hamess to the car's frame or body. Wiring straps are plastic straps with prongs or legs on one end that push into a predrilled hole. The other end has.a barb. After wrapping the strap around the wires, install the barb into the hole pro- vided. The barb expands the prongs be- hind the panel, locking the strap into place. It's possible 10 pry one of these straps loose without destroying it, but they're not designed for frequent dis- assembly. Wiring straps are available in a variety of configurations that all work essentially as described here ‘Spiral wrap Is a good alternative to corrugated split loom. It par- mits branches tobe placed anywhere along lengthol harness. One Grawback is that it has to be “screwed” onto wire bundle. This is time ‘and makes itineonvenient toadd arremove awire atter the harness is finished. Photo courtesy af Chrysler Corp. 63 Factory hamesses are usually covered with corrugated spilt leom. IIs also available in the aftermarket in a wide variety of sizes.Rubber-insulated metal clamps and nylon cable clamps are excellent for attaching wires and harnesses to most surfaces, Each type requires a single hole in the panel or frame rail for attachment, ‘The clamp canbe installed with a nutand bolt or with arivet. Either method is fine, but a Pop rivet is less time-consuming to install and costs less. One drawback of these clamps is that cer ize, Another drawback is that the holes in the larger-size clamps are too large for rivet attachment—the rivet head will pull through. In this case, you'll need a backup washer under the rivet head. Push-on frame clips are good for attaching hamesses to the edges of thick panels or chassis rails. These spring-steel clamps can be clipped on without using tools, and they're fairly easy to remove or oe Sih ‘The number of wires they'll ed, so they are best used for fiiy smal bls, or for snglc or dou: ble wires running to a remote location on the car, They are best for adding an accessory circuit to a car that’s already wired. FRAME CLIP <>) This example Inches apart along harness, ‘UNIVERSAL TIE STRAP Gyr (MOUNTING TIE STRAP Fe. Nylon ties are avallable in numerous sizes and several colors. Length and width In Together as you progress up through th sizes. Ties eve eowy to natal and remove with wire cutters, but cannot be reused. Everyone has a preferred harness: ‘wrap. Mine is nylon ties. They can also be used with nylon tie mounts to attach har- ness to car. PD, ‘demonstrates correct use of nylon ties neat, install tle on main harness Immediately on either WIRING STRAP Plastic wiring strap hes prongs thet push Into predrilled hole. Barb at other end pushes Into slot, spreading prongs. Push-on frame clip attaches wire or har- ‘ness to edge of chassis flange. No tools are needed, pues clamps {ee} Provide good isolation for harness as protecting wire in- fulation Rutbecineuaied metal comps {bottom are superb tor tight retention of hamesses. Bath kinds are Installed to fat surtace with rivet or screw. ‘This clamp installation demonstrates: two imitations. First, clamp Is slightly too large for agood ft—thenext smalter size wastoo ‘small. Second, notice that | had to use a washer behind the rivet. Hole in clamp was, too large and rivet would have pulled through, 69final adjustments. When a Detroit car designer works on a new idea, he first tries it on large, full-size drawings. He checks for in- terferences, operating space and other important factors. This is time-con- suming, but the drawing board is the cheapest place to make mistakes and find solutions, Next comes the hand-built Prototype car, costing hundreds of thousands of dollars. Here, the design- er’s concepts are transformed into a full- size mock-up, where any oversights are caughtand corrected. After revisions and more tryouts, the new car design is put ino production. Ifa mistake makes it this far, it will be repeated thousands of times! ‘Your project car is similar to that first prototype. You probably won't have blueprinis to work from, so your con- cepts become permanent during the try- out stage. So, you should work carefully and deliberately to avoid oversights that ‘you'll have to live with for thousands of miles. 70 Locating & Installing Components CHOOSING COMPONENT LOCATION Due to manufacturer's design or legal requirements, some electrical com- ponents must be installed in a specific location. On kit cars, for instance, body design and engine requirements dictate the basic location of many components, These are called fixed-location com: ponents. Depending on the project car you're building or modifying, other’ com- ponents can be installed practically any- where you want, These are called optional-location components. A few components fall between these two categories, as discussed later. Fixed-Location — Components—As mentioned, where you install fixed location components is usually de- termined by legal requirements, vehicle design, or both. Headlamps are one ex- ample, There are minimum height re quirements in every siate, If you're ilding a kit car, the kit design further ‘Designer of my component car determined where headlamps would go, but I stllhhad to make the dictates headlamp location—in the grille, fenders, separate buckets of what- ever. So, you often don’t have many cchoices—or any—in determining head- lamp location. Other components, such as taillamps, also fit this category. Optional-Location — Components— ‘These are components whose location is. not dictated by law or car design. The fuse panel is one example. Within rea- son, you can install it in any convenient location—inside the glove box, behind the dash or under the seat, for example. Fixed or Optional? —There are some gray areas—components that may have designed location but can be installed elsewhere. The battery is one. For in- stance, a kit carmay include a rectangu- lar battery well in the engine compart- ‘ment, But you're freeto put the battery in another location if you want, provided there's good ventilation and enough room. With all components — fixed, optional or in-between— you still must follow the‘Size, number and location of talllamps is often dictated by local or state laws. Be sure location you've chosen will conform. Ins pret legal sprint cr, Ron Fournier located betty behind ‘seat In tall of car, for Improved weight distribution. This also placed battery within a few feet of rear-mounted alternator. basic principles of observation and test- fiting before permanently installing them, This is true even if a kit-car manu- facturer has designated specific locations for components. That being said, all components discussed from now on will be lumped intothe general category com- ponents, with none of the above dis- tinetions being made between types again, Mechanical Factors—Like the fixed- location components just discussed, glass bady was molded with battery shel in place. ‘This battery location was dictated by two factors. First, the fiber- jecond, this location places battery within about 18 inches of starter motor, components influenced by mechanical factors are located by considerations be- yond our control, Function and environ- ‘ment dictate the basic location of these ‘components. Obviously, the starter motor, dis- tributor, and other such engine- mounted components cannot be moved from their designed location. But consider the other related mechanical components. For in- stance, if the slater motor requires a separate starter relay, the relay must be ry Mustang is mounted at reat, along with fuel cell and ry-sump oil reservoir. The sacrifice: long cable run from battery ta engine. Photo by Tom Monroe. installed close to the motor. You may pick the exact spot on the inner fender ot firewall for the relay, but physical re- quirements determine its general loca- tion, “The same principle applies to the igni- tion coil. Itmay be mounted to the cylin= der head, engine block or inner fender at your discretion, but it still must be in close proximity to the distributor. Itdoesn’t take much thought to realize that wiring-hamess location is 71LOCATING AUXILIARY LAMPS a5 headlamp location = mh on de | LIGHT-MOUNTING RECOMMENDATIONS thd by stale equations, is chan Indeates the mourting specications prolrred (amrican fan ee eames tt aenany Acconci) he Sed be crated 3 ‘mounting ae unless Hedleed ikary lights. Chart courtesy of KC Hilites inc. a plan to drive the car on a public soot, ve UGHTS ae ware al he Bee areas aed Suate [mn |drive outol state, they're subjectto | Alabana Gel a el the laws of states in which you travel. | Alaska 2 3 ota 2 bee ‘as te iV on 2 2 12:30 2 24-42 X ie nasi trong a es, i ioe of Me 2 lee mau rear ‘Arkansas 2, 2 1299 «920 «mez 218-42 : shes ra L Calton x 2 We 2 pe 2 we ene le Se neve si Connecticut 2 2 12:30 3 2a 2 1eaz the chart. Forinsiance, rool-orrolibar-| OG 3 iu lee i ae Wakes a 2 2 12:30 2 wee 2 iad mou ee ee Lighe 1 2 12:30 2 24-42, : te dies bua retort eae Georg o 2 teat meet teas ed—usually by pulling the fuse— Kaa, 2 2 ie 2 2 lee isu no mn te ‘sro 2 2 fe 2 eB tat sovicelstocheckwihyourlocalmotor | lava" if 2 am ae 7 tee vehicle a | Soe i 2 2 3 tes : = 122 se tctg aa a 2 2 em 2 tue 2 oa : va oe ‘i te sas Penmiee 2 ean 3 Bea 2 1642 lamps as low as practical, pre- feos Ba 7 = ie a pre Marylar a = 129, - - 2 16-42 below at ee ‘Michigan: 25) 2 12:30 — 2 2 ind dust, rd botior tumnatog te | teccecrs i eb F Re PER road directly in front of you. Messour i =u ge - et © yon i =i be = = 3 ea Siete St gp te i] headlamp level, aaa that Neo thcoaiiss |e a 2 ea" ee eee ote ie Nene 2 2 tea cerca: lame me opel ‘Now Jersey - : tae ote aoa ted : is i ae ips where | ‘will be 2 = = : = eee) StF ae i ke fe Os 2 2 12-30 2 26-42 2 16 i bRiziz 2 (a) - = - = oa f Se ie fe es wots i == =: ya) ae pertnds i} - m0 1 24-42 1 La me = - = 3 Raz = 2 20 maz 2 eae vega 2 2 = ~ 7 fashington 2 2 1 2 enviar} foe ot me ft Isconsin 213) 2 12 Min, - - x (4ab) aera 2 2 12-30 1 24-42 1 (2) Total of two fog of oo tats per (Sen wt "aren Gincorearanayrmecn oan eree ke avon (3) Must bem (oA arte ls aca aet Most: ' Saates have laws governing mounting (4a) Bolove Poalignt centers re inetaling oer follow thea! Phot by Sn Barat 72fluenced by mechanical factors. Har- nesses should take the shortest practical route to the components they serve. Har- ness location is further dictated by structural members to which the harness must be attached. Hamesses cannot be routed across open spaces, and they must be protected from engine heat and mov- ing parts. So, the important considerations of mechanical factors are component func- tion and component environment, These considerations are further discussed un- der the heading Clearances, below. Although some preceding remarks about mechanical factors may seem rather obvious, they were made for a ‘good reason. They'll help enable you to distinguish mechanical factors, which you cannot control, from human factors, which you can and must control Human Factors—The science of hu- ‘man engineering deals with how various human factors—anatomy, physiology, psychology and so on—relate to the de- sign and positioning of machines, in- struments and controls. Its aim is to-de- sign products that will serve the user in the intended way. Here, the term applies to how you relate to the controls and displays in your car Human engineering is both com. cated and given to a lot of 5 buzzwords. However, some basic princi- ples can be used to help you determine the locations of electrical components in the passenger compartment of your proj- cet ear, There are two basic ideas to consider when you're designing for human fac- tors. The first is wo be sure the design permits maximum effectiveness and effi- ciency when you use acontrol of look at a display. The second is related to your safety while operating the device or look- ing at the display. Can you do so without causing something "undesirable to happen? For instance, if the headlamp switch and windshield-wiper switch are next to cach other, have the same shape and ‘operate the same way. it may be possible to tun the headlamps off instead of tum- ing the wipers on, This could be dis- astrous on 3 dark, rainy night! Such a design violates the mules of good human engineering, of ergonomics. yy) ‘This fuse panel s located under instrument panel next to driver's right knee, whore there was plenty of room for panel and associated wiring. It is easily accessible, clase to electrical distribution panel (ter- ‘minal strips with 92 connections), and pro- fected from accidental contact by moving Ideal hom location is near the tront, pro- tected from direct road splash and away from suspension. steering and engine-fan ‘components, Ming Is mounted at bottom of ‘engine compartment, bracketed to chassis. rail near front crossmember. “So, consider human factors early inthe design process, and do it in a systematic way. These factors also apply to select- ing gauges, indicators and controls. Con- trols are discussed on pages 28-34, gauges and indicators on pages 38-48, CLEARANCES Nate: This section is concemed with clearances for component installation only, It does not cover wiring, except as it relates to clearances for eonnection to components, Clearance for wiring- hhamess installation is discussed on page Allow enough room to route and connect wires to components. These wires attach to six terminals of DPOT wiper switch on my car. This photo makes it look worse than it actually is, but the wires still constitute fairly large bundle to deal with in close quarters. wires to service it—don't forget to provide ground wire if motor is mounted to fiber- glass. Be sure to allow enough room for ‘Operation of attached mechanical arm and linkage—it Is powerful and ean actually break things that get in the way. 102. This chapter deals with the finc- tional location of the components. the wires will cventually attach to. Wiring requirements are covered in the follow- ing three chapters ‘A poorly fitted component may look bad, function poorly or be inconvenient to operate, It may also be difficult or impossible to service, or get inthe way of servicing a neighboring component. The obvious cause of such problems is poor planning. Determining clearance for a com ponent consists of asking yourself a nr‘isretor loosen le suey dcieled ey ercine mewvieehrer: OEM alternator brackets are heavy castings or stampings. Here. | Used top altemator bracket for mounting ignition coll to keep it close to distributor. ‘This starr solenoid is ideally located—within inches of and within about 14 inches of starter motor, minimizing ‘cable lengths. Ford brake switch is designed to belocated diroetly on brake pedal arm. | had to add a wiring clamp ta keep wires from gotting pinched by up-stop of clutch arm next to 74 Master cutot! switch Is used to kill car's: ‘entire electrical system. Large handle on ‘switch is removable for security. Because thia car has. computerized fuel injection ‘system, wo provided an always-live circuit, bypassing this switch, to keep computer's long-term memory alive. Note how harness mock-up follows hoop shape of radiator sup- port. twouldhave been shorter torunharness straight across, but Htwould have been vutnerable to damage and have looked terrible, Location of electric fuel pump is well planned—below tuel-tank level for good Gravity feed to pump, close to fuol tank to help prevent vapor lock on hat days, and well protected within car's tramework.series of questions. How well youanswer them, or whether you answer them, will largely determine how well the com- ponents fit into their ated spaces and how well they function. There are four clearance considerations in planning component locations: clearance for i stallation, clearance for associated wire ing, clearance for operation and clear- ance for service. Ina practical sense, all four clearances are interrelated and overlapping, So, necessary to define them only to make ‘you aware of the great number of factors that can cause a component not to fit Also associated with these clearance factors are the ideas of careful examtina- tion, careful planning and careful test- fitting. These will be covered after Lex- plain the four clearance factors. Clearance for Installation—This is simply a matter of space. Is there enough room for the component where you want it to go? Are there any structural memb- ers in the way? Can doors, hood and ‘other movable body parts operate through their full range without interfer ig with the component you're install- ing? Can the component operate without interference from adjacent components? See Clearance for Operation, at right. 1s there a way to get the component into the position you' ve selected? Does the com- ponent have tobe installed before or after another one to avoid interference during installation? ‘Clearance for Wiring—Once the com- ponent is installed, can you get the associated wiring to it? Is there enough room for the wire connectors’ Is there enough room for your hands and tools to install the connectors? Wires and con- rectors are bulkier than they look when space is cramped. Is there enough room for the wiring harness? The harness bun- die can become bulky and difficult to bend when space is limited. ‘Clearance for Operation—If the com- ponent isa switch or knob, can youreach it from the normal driving position? Is there enough room for your hands and fingers to operate it without interference from adjacent components? Can it be op- erated when you're wearing gloves or mittens? Does the switch handle contact -an adjacent component in any of its posi- tions? If the component has moving parts, is there room for these parts to operate in all positions? A good example is the linkage ‘on the back of the windshicld-wiper motor. If there are several moving parts. close to cach other, all of them should have room to operate freely, regardless. ‘of position, Clearance for Service—If the com- ponent eventually fails—it eventually: will, youknow, and at probably the least Instrument panel tips out for easy service. We provided loop in ‘Gouge feed wires to accommodate this feature. As you can see, ‘wiring was done before car's outer skin was installed, making ita ‘snap. convenient time—will you be able to replace it? Is there room around the com- ponent 0 make adjustments? Is there room to unplug the wire connectors for test purposes? GUIDELINES FOR COMPONENTS Many of the components listed in this section will be optional-location com- ponents in your car—perhaps all of them, If you're installing optional- location components that aren’ men- tioned here, follow the general guide lines just discussed—and use common sense, Battery—As mentioned earlier, the battery may have a design-limited loca- tion. If not, locate after considering the following: © Can it be securely fastened down? © Will it be easy to get to for checking and adding water—unless it’ sthe newer, sealed-for-life type? # Is it close to the starter motor? keeps long, heavy battery leads toa mini- mum and reduces unnecessary voltage drop. Gauges—On kit cars, gauge location may be dictated by kit design— particularly in a replicar, where au- thenticity may be important. On produc- tion cars, the location of add-on gauges may or may not be dictated by the SPECIFIC Race car's angled instrument panel provides optimum gauge visibility and switch access from driver's seal. Ozus Vé-turn fasteners allow quick panel removal for pit repai tioned so red line is straight up. Photo by Tom Monroe. Tach is post 5instrument-pane! design, depending on the car and the gauge being installed, Even though gauge location may be dic- tated, refer (0 the following list to be on the safe side, If you have a choice, be absolutely sure to consider these: © Can the speedometer cable be routed without kinking? © Can you see the gauge faces clearly from the driver's scat? This is why it’s important to have the seats and steering wheel installed, at least temporarily, be- fore determining the location of any of the gauges: © Are the most important gauges in the most important places? Only you cande- cide if the tachometer is more important than the speedometer, or the oil-pressure gauge more important than the coolant- temperature gauge, © Are there provisions for lighting the gauges? If gauges don't come with built- in lamp sockets, you must determine the appropriate locations for illum: lamps. SWITCH SPACING Preferred distance in inches; minimum distance in parenineses. Knob Push Button Toggle Switch Random Operation 2 in. (tin) Zin (12in) Zin. (4 ind ‘Sequential = Tin. (14 in) Vin, (2 in) Operation © Is there room for the gauge wiring behind the instrument panel? Is there suf- ficient access behind the panel for hands and tools to install the gauges and attach the wires? If not, it might be easier to. install all gauges in a removable pane! with the gauge leads already attached. You can always nin these pre-attached wires toa junction block for continuation of the circuits. Indicator & Warning Lamps—These deserve many of the same basic con- siderations that you give to gauges: Make sure you can sce them from the driver's seat and that they arent hidden behind the steering wheel, Is the layout of the lamps logical? Por instance, the left-turn, indicator should be located to the left of the cluster and the right tum indicator to the right. If you're using lamps in con- junction with gauges—the oil pressure gauge and warning lamp, for instance— the related components should be close to each other for quick discrimination. ‘Spacing of rocker switches in my car is not ergonomically ‘s0und— they're much too close together, are ail alike in appear ‘ance and touch, and are not labeled. | chosa these switches pri- marily for appearance—not a good ergonomic reason! The reason they're not labeled Is to maximize confusion to potential lamperers—i's an open roadster with litte intrusion protection. ‘These switches are widely spaced for minimum of confusion, even though both pairs are alike, Toggles operate circuits that are normally ON when the car is running. Flip-up safety shioids pre- vent accidental operation of toggles, Push butions are ‘momentary-on type. 76on shields, Switches—The locations of various switches on the instrument panel may be dictated by car design, components the switches serve, or their logical placement in relation to other switches and com: ponents on the panel. Logical placement a an important consideration in locating switches. Don’t forget this and end up with switches placed in random locations all over the panel. It will not only be unattractive, but will be inconvenient when you operate them. Here are some sonsiderations: ‘After general locations are determined for switches, you must arrange them in specific locations. Often, it’s helpful to- position controls for related systems in thesame gencral area. Two thingsto give ‘careful thought to are the layout of con- mols relative to each other, and spacing ‘between them, there isa sequence of operations that is commonly used for a set of controls, lay them out to make that sequence con- venient to follow. A good example is the mode, temperature and fan controls for a heater or air-conditioning system. An- other is the windshield-wiper and washer controls if these are controlled by sepa- rate switches. ‘The spacing of controls is just as ime portantas location. It's desirable to space controls as close together as practicable, simply © minimize unnecessary reaching —especially in the case of the related controls mentioned above. But Switch safety shield flips up to permit turning switch on. This {two-step procedure minimizes accidental operation, though in an ‘emergency, awitches can be turned off instantly just by pushing, there's a minimum distance tw observe so you don't accidentally operate a control by mistaking it for another one. This is especially the case in off-road racing and rally cars where the going is extremely rough. It's not unreasonable to double the recommended distances to avoid accidental activation of a switch, ‘The chart on the facing page gives typical distances between controls. Measurements are taken edge to edge. Preferred distance is given in inches, minimum distance in parentheses. Here are some other considerations for locating switches and cantrols: © Can the switch be reached comfort- ably from the normal driving position? © Is there sufficient clearance on all sides of the switch? Is there sufficient room behind the panel for attaching the wire connectors? the connectors come into accidental contact with metal com- ponents, which could lead to short ci cuits, fires and other not-fun occur: rences? there a need or provision for mminating the switch? If so, is there ‘enough space for the lamp and associated wiring? f the instrument panel is fiberglass, will the switches you' ve chosen mount 10 the panel? Remember, fiberglass is usually much thicker than sheet metal usually found in the panels of factory installations. ‘Off-road racers prefer widely spaced switches— ‘driver hitting wrong switch while bouncing over rough terrain. Photo by Tom Monroe. Swi ess chance of INSTALLING FIXED-LOCATION COMPONENTS The time to answer the questions raised so far is during the test fting, not after you've cut openings or drilled holes. Test Fitting—if you're building a kit car, you might assume that fixed- location components don’tneed to betest fitted. After all. there’s only one fixed place for certain components, so you may as well go ahead and-cutor drill, The kit manufacturer put dimples in the body just where taillamps are supposed to go, didn’t he? But stop and think about it for a minute. What material are most component- car bodies made of Fiberglass. Andhow is the thickness of fiberglass controlled? Often, it’s not, This is an inherent characteristic of the material and the process, not necessarily an indictment of the body builder. So, don't take anything for granted. Many fixed-location electrical com- ponents depend on major parts of the car being assembled before you install elec- trical components. So, I've assumed your car is essentially assembled, with bbody parts, engine, suspension and ma- jor interior components installed, at least temporarily. Decide which fixed-location com- ponentto install first If the component is to be mounted on the body or in the Passcnger compartment, cover the area 71. This test fitting and installation sequence for tender-mountedturn-signal lamp i the basic routine, Modity it to fit your par- tcular situation. Begin by measuring. It ‘component is duplicated on oppasite side ot car, measure both. Tape on fender pro- tects finish and provides marking area. 3. Here, I've positioned gasket over outline of lamp base. Again, accuracy counts. Gas- ket musts pertectly centered, Trace lamp- mounting and wire access holes, using ‘Gusket a8 template, fiberglass you may want to redrill with a small bit run 2 slow speed. ‘Then follow with finai-size bit at moderate ‘Be caretul not to permit rotating drill ‘10 contact tape oF tear through it. i i 4, After outline of gasket and holes are marked, mark centerlines for holes to be ‘rilled. 6. When | mounted my lamps, | found that the Screws furnished with them were $0 Jong that they actually touched the lamp bulb. Fearing eventual lamp failure, | filed ‘screws shorter. Don't be surprisedif things don't always fit exactly the way they're sup- posed to, with masking tape to protect the finish. ‘The tape also provides aconvenient place to draw the centerlines of holes and out- lines of openings. Then, have an assis- tant hold the component in place while you step back to view it from every angle possible. If youdon’t have an assistant—you'll probably have several, because project cars often draw kibitzers like flies— temporarily brace or tape the component in place. T was thinking specifically of free-standing headlamps when I wrote this, but the same applies to most other ‘components. If you are building a kit ear, check to see that the component is. positioned according to the kit manufacturer's in- structions. Docs the component look right where it is? Will you need to make any adjustments or allowances for pro- duction tolerances? If the component looks good in its position, check clear ances of moving parts and other clear- ance considerations. Installation—When you're sure the component fits the location you've cho: sen for it, the next step isto measure and mark on the masking tape the location for the hole or holes. But, before you drill or cut any holes, dauble check your measurements. The first and last rule of installing components is: Measure twice, cut once. Matched components on a car, such as headlamps and taillamps, are mounted symmetrically. That is, they're mounted in seemingly identical spots on the op- posite sides of the car. Again, because of thenature of the fiberglass body materia! and the various levels of workmanship, ‘you may or may not find that symmetry ‘actually exists. So, to ensure best appear- nce, measure for each component sepa- rately, but test-fit, symmetrical com- ponents together. Installing components correctly in- volves pre-planning, checking, re~ checking. and finally doing it. At this point, follow the installation instructions provided with the component or the car Kit. If no instructions came with either, refer to the appropriate shop manual. If you're reasonably careful, the end result will be a joy to behold.INSTALLING OPTIONAL- LOCATION COMPONENTS ‘When all fixed:location components are installed, determine the exact loca- tions for the optional-location com- ponents and install them. Don't install these until you've thought everything through and checked each location. Test-Fitting—For —_optional-location components such as the battery or bracket-mounted gauges, follow the test- fitting procedures given for fixed- location components. For hole-mounted gauges. indicator lamps and switches, make a full-size mock-up of each com- ponent, This is especially helpful in de- termining exact spacing of components that require large holes. For indicator amps, remove the lenses or the bezels from the lamp assemblies, if possib! and temporarily tape them to the instru- ment pancl. For switches, you may be able to remove the bezel or mounting nut. Otherwise, make a cardboard mock-up, ‘When you make your gauge mock-ups you don’t have to create works of art, but they should be fairly representative of the actual gauge appearance. You can use.an inexpensive pencil compass for drat the circles onapiece of thin cardboard. A strip of red tape can be used to represent the gauge needle. And be sure to include the outside diameter of the gaurge bezel in your mock-up. If you don’t, you may position the gauges too close together ‘Tape the mock-ups into the locations you've selected for them on the instru- ment panel. Moving a taped-on mock-up at this point is much easier than moving a 2-inch hole later! Sit in the car seat and carefully stare at each gauge and in- dicator in the spot you've chosen for it, Reach out and pretend to operate each switch, Repeat this drill until you're actually tired of doing it. Move the com- ponents around until you think you're satisfied with their locations ‘When you've finally decided on the ‘exact location of each gauge, indicator and. switch, walk away from the car for awhile. When you come back and see it with fresh eyes, you may notice some- thing that you overlooked. And, if there are going tobe several drivers, have each sit in the driver's seat for a thorough ‘critique. This is your last chance, so take your time, Take one last measurement Moek-up place. Whet can either shown here. behind the instrument panel for each ‘component, just for insurance. Eventually, you'll be satisfied with ‘your chasen locations, and the moment ‘of truth has arrived. Carefully punch a hole through the exact center of each mock-up. Through this hole, use a center punch or small drill to indent the surface of the instrument panel Drilling Holes—Remove the mock- ups, one at a time, and write the size of the necessary hole next to each center- punch mark. The hole for the component will be smaller than the outside diameter of the bezel, so measure and mark the holes accordingly, Finally, use the comect-size drill bit or hole saw to cut cach hole, referring to the pencilled di- mensions For rectangular holes, drill a small hole at each comer of the cutout, then cut between the holes with a sabre saw. Cover the underside of the saws base- plate with several layers of masking tape to keep the saw from marring the panel surface. Finally, use a small file to square cach comer of the cutout. For steel panels, use a hole saw or sabre saw with a fine-tooth metal-cutting blade. I've found that a fine-tooth wood- {or racs-car ngtrumant panal is done with steering wheel and seat tom her you're designing the panel or installing gauges to an raw gauge mock-ups, of mount bezels of actual gauges on cardboard, as yin ing panel, you required not having handle show on steer- ing column, So, we mounted this tum- ‘signal switch under dash so only tip of han- die is visible from above. This is the kind of aftermarket switch designed to install in older cars and trucks that did not originally have turn signals. cutting blade works well for fiberglass. Regardless, be sure the blade is sharp— fiberglass tends to dull cutting edges quickly, If you're working with a fiberglass panel on a kit car, make some test holes: to check hole shape and size. Make test holes in a scrap of fiberglass removed from the carbody. Forinstance, many kit cars are fabricated with reinforcing webs in door openings, which you'll be remov- ing and discarding anyway. 79Ze | wanted to wire my cor with five separate: harnesses, joined by terminal blocks. There was room behind center console to ‘mount the Blocks, #0 I fabricated a mount Ing plate for both blocks and fuse panels. The three fuse panels neatty span the open ing. Mounting Components— Aftermarket Bauges, indicator lamps, switches and controls are most often designed to mount to a flat surface; this is because there's no way for the manufacturer to anticipate all the specialized places you may want to mount them. Specific mounting procedures vary for different types of gauges, so the best advice here is to follow the gauge-manufacturer’s in- structions. General instructions for mounting common switches are given here. Rotary and push-button switches mount from behind the panel, with the actuator protruding through around hole. ‘Athreaded stem surrounding the actuator accepts a thin hexagonal or knurled nut, and a lock washer. Often, the switch includes a printed switchplare that canbe mounted under the nut, if desired. plate indicates switch-actuator position. A tiny tab on the plate installs into a machined slot in the stem for correct ‘Behind the panel, wires pass through fabrt- cated grommet. orientation, When mounting these switches, be careful when you tighten the nut. It's quite thin, so the wrench may slip off and damage the mounting surface if you're careless. Most toggle switches are hole- mounted like a rotary switch. They also usually have a switchplate, But some toggle switches and most rocker switches are front loaded into a specially shaped reciangular hole. The required di- mensions of the hole are specified by the switch manufacturer. To cut a rectangu- lar hole, follow the instructions in the previous section on drilling holes. Because most front-loaded are retained by built-in spring clips, el thickness is important. If the panel is too thin, it won't be tightly clamped be- tween the clip and the switch body. You may need to fabricate a shim for correct fit. A too-thick condition is most likely to ‘hes occur in a fiberglass panel, such as the instrument panel, In this case, 1 suggest ‘cutting a hole in the instrument panel large enough to accommodate all the switches. Then fabricate a metal insert of a suitable thickness and install the front loaded switches to it. Dune buggies, race cars and vintage-replica kit cars look good with engine-tumed or brushed- metal inserts, 30 you can add to the in- strument panel's appearance at the same time. When mounting toggle switches and rocker switches, orient them so they operate vertically. That is, up for ON, down for OFF. Use a horizontal orienta- tion only if itis consistent with operation of the device. For example, you may want to use a toggle switch tooperate the tum signals—though not likely —with the movement of the switch correspond- ing to the sides of the car. Another pur- pose for horizontal orientation of these switches is to prevent accidental move- ment, especially if the horizontal switch is mixed among vertical ones. This chapter covers the installation of ‘only the most common components. Other components and accessories, such as radios and speakers, are installed much the same way us the components justdescribed. By now, you should know the routine—measure iwice, cul once. Also refer to the installation instructions that accompany the component. After you have all components in- stalled to your sutisfaction—and to the satisfaction of the requirements of mechanical factors, human factors and clearance considerations—you're ready to design the circuits that will tic these components together. Both push button (left) and tog: are installed from behind par in place with two nuts, one on Panel. This permits adapting these switch- panels of various thicknesses.The preceding chapter deseribes how to locate and install the various electrical components in your project car. This chapter shows you how to make the cir= cuit diagrams that you'll use as a guide to wire components together. A glance at the wiring diagrams in a typical shop manual should convince you that a car's electrical systema is complex. Viewed as a whole, itis. However, you won't need to make an overall schematic drawing of your car's entire electrical system. When I was employed 10 develop elecirical-diagnosis material for some of Detroit's auto-company shop manuals, 1 made a point of isolating components into independent, functional circuits. ‘That made it easy to understand them, work on them and trace current paths in them. This is the approach used in this chapter to draw circuit diagrams for your Project car. Because you'll be drawing each cireuit separately, there's never a time during the design process when you Designing & Drawing Circuit Diagrams rnced to think of the car's entire electrical system at once, In addition to the greater ease of un- derstanding, there are other advantages to the i ccause you're going to install each wire, ‘one at a time, drawing each circuit sepa- rately will help simplify constructing the hamess. Later, if you need to diagnose a problem, you'll have the separate cireuit diagrams for reference SYMBOLS If you've ever read a road map, you know how important it is to understand the meaning of the special symbols used. The same thing is true of circuit draw- ings. So, let's get started right by es- tablishing some basic symbols to use for your diagrams, Many different symbol systems are used for electrical-circuit diagrams. But for the sake of clarity, one set of simple symbols will be uscd throughout this re the language of electrical circuits. Just as with a spoken language, the better you understand the individual elements, the better you will be able to communicate. book. They are shown in the following pages. The reason for using these sym- bols is that they portray what's inside the component, so you can visually trace a circuit's various paths through that com- ponent, This is particularly helpful when depicting relays and multiple-pole switches, for example. In recent years, many car manufactur- ers are using symbols of this type in their shop manuals. [f possible, get the appro- priate shop manual for the car model you're using as the donor of your elec- trical components, Chancesare, iftheear is relatively new, the manual will use symbols much like the ones used here. If the symbols are not exactly the same, you still should be able to decipher them by studying the sample wiring diagrams shown in this chapter. To simplify the drawings, most com- ponents are represented by rectangles or circles. The shape of the symbol is not necessarily representative of what the component actually looks like. 81WIRES It seers logical to begin a description of specific symbols with the basic com- ponent of all circuits—the wires. Regardless of wire gage or insulation color, all wires are drawn as solid black lines. The exception is the phantom wire described later. It'seustomary to write the wire gagein numerals next to the wire and to indicate insulation color, including the tracer color, if applicable. For example, a 12- gage gree a white tracer would be designated 12 gin wiwht, or something similar, If you haven't yet chosen the appropriate wire sizes and colors for the components you're install- ing, see pages 23-24 Wire Colors—There's probably no uni- versal agreement regarding abbrevia- tions used in diagrams for the various wire colors. The diagrams in this chapter donot include wire colors because the car you're working on probably won't be wired exactly like the ones used as ex amples bere. However, you should indi- cate: wire colors on your diagram, so use the following abbreviations: Color Abbreviation Green gm White wht Red red Blue Blue Brown bm Black blk Yellow —yel Orange omg Purple prp As described on page 25, a tracer isa Stripe of a contrasting color that runs the length of a wire. Tracers are intended to. provide a greater variety of “colors” 10 choose from. Factory wiring diagrams identify tracers in different ways, Di- agrams that are printed in color simply duplicate the wire’s 9 ce. Di- ‘agrams printed in black-and-white use labels. Forexample, here are some com- mon designations for a red wire with a white acer: © Reed vewht (red with white) © Rod wit (red with tracer) RW (red with white) © Fiwht (red with white) ‘Usually, the abbreviations used in fac- tory diagrams are fairly obvious. Some diy also include a legend that identifies the abbreviations. In your di- agrams, youcan use any of the abbrevia~ tion methods above, as long as you keep them consistent in all your drawings. Grounds—As mentioned in earlier chapters, cars are usually wired in a single-wire arrangement, where the chassis, engine block or metal body of the car serves as the return path to com- plete each circuit. That is, these parts act as grounds. Ina diagram, the point where a wire or component is attached to the ground is represented by a symbol. Cor- fect use of the symbol means you have far fewer wires to draw when de~ signing circuits. This is because you won't be drawing wires to show return paths to the battery. In most diagrams, the symbol used for ground looks somewhat like an. upside- down Christmas tree, so that's what T use. It's made by drawing several hori- zontal lines, with the longest one on top and the shortest one at the bottom. The wire attached 1 the ground symbol comes in from the top, acting as the trunk of the upside-down tree. Ground sym bols arc shown in the drawing above. ‘You may find other representations for ‘grounds in wiring diagrams for some im- ported cars, The diagrams used by Ger- man auto manufacturers often use a short, thick horizontal line. Other di- agrams have a solid line running across the entire botom of the diagram to \Wire Is represenied by a single line for each cireult (A). Where two or more circuits run [paraliel to each other, each one hasits.own {ine (B). Where wire changes direction on a Glagram, draw #8 right angle (C); it's not necessary fo get fancy and draw curves. represent the chassis, and each grounded component is wired to it. To me, this is unnecessarily complicated and more dif ficult to draw, s0 don’t use it. Some components are sel/-grounded, meaning the body of the component itself acts as a conductor, completing the cir- cuit to ground through its mounting bracket. On a self-grounded component, the ground is shown as.adot on the com- ponent outtine, witha short ground sym-bol running from it. However, if a self- grounded component must be attached to a fiberglass or other non-metal body part, ‘you must provide a jumper wire from the ‘mounting bracket to a grounded metal part of the yehicle—usually the chassis or a designated large-gage ground wire running the length of the car. FUSES & CIRCUIT BREAKERS ‘As explained on page 34, fuses are manufactured in several types—glass capsule, Autofuse and ceramic. Other circuit-protection devices include fusible links and circuit breakers, Fuses, regardless of type, are shown as two dots joined by an S-shaped line. ‘This symbol is difficult todraw freehand, so if neatness is important, buy a tem- plate of standard electrical symbols at an ant- or drafting-supply store. Write the fuses amperage rating next to the sym- bal. Fustble links are drawn asan ordinary wire joined to the protected cireuit by a black dot at each end. It is customary to write fusible link, along with gage size, next to the symbol. Cireuit breakers are drawn as a pair of dots joined by a C-shaped line. Usual- ly, there is also a rectangular box around the symbol to portray the circuit-breaker case. Write the amperage rating next to the symbol. Fuse panels are represented two ways: In a basic-power diagram, the panel is drawn in its entirety, See-example, page 90. For an individual circuit, only the fuse(s) applicable to that circuit need to be shown. In this case, indicate the frse panel as a phantom component, using dotted line. CONNECTORS & TERMINALS Connectors and terminals are used to connect wires together or plug them into a component. In mass production, this is preferable to soldering each wire connec- tion separately. It also makes service easierata later date. Project ears also use terminals because many components to which the wires attach are usually de- signed for production cars and have built- in terminals. Because most terminals in use today are of the malerfemale type, the symbols for terminals arc designed to represent ‘A Fuses are represented by S-shaped betwoen two dots. Use this to indicate ail typeset ane, epere i ectiorin ae tine Br Represent fusible nk a8 conventional wire between two dots. include the label FUSIBLE LINK, €. Circuit breaker Is represented by = ‘semicircle betwoen two dots. in some ooks, you may find the letter C oF CB next {o the symbol, but this Is unnecessary. D, Represent use panel as 8 rectangle con- taining one fuse symbol for eech fuse con tained In it. Use dotted lines to depict fuse anol In Individual cireult drawing. if there ‘are clrcult breakers in panel, use appropr- ‘te symbol for them. this distinction. The male-terminal sym- bol is shaped like an arrowhead and represents the blade of the connector. ‘The fernale-terminal symbol is shaped like a reverse arrowhead, or ¥, and represents the socker the male blade plugs into. In factory hamesses, there are (wo {ypes of connectors in common use: the Slat-blade and bullet (pin) type. Some of the latest Detroit harnesses are also sport- ing highly weatherproofed connectors for electronic engine controls. These connectors have very delicate pins. General-purpose solderless connectors used for project cars are discussed on pages 63-65. Whether you're using general-purpose terminals or factory ones salvaged from a donor car, the sym- bols for male and female terminals are the same—arrowhead and. reverse- arrowhead. In the case of wire-to-wire con- nections, the hot side is female while the side being fedis male. This is because the female terminal is usually built into an insulator block to prevent short circuits if the connection is disconnected, eitherin- tentionally or accidentally. Generally, when several wires attach to the same component, the terminals on factory wiring harnesses have molded in- sulstors containing a separate cavity for each wire. In most cases, there’s a female terminal inside each cavity, regardiess of whether it’s a hot wire or a ground wire. The mating terminals on components are male blades. Again, the female (hot) terminal within the insulated connector is protected against shorting when the con- nector is disconnected. The exposed male-blade terminals on the component are in no danger of shorting because there's no voltage in a component when the terminal connector is unplugged. When designing and drawing your cir- cuit diagrams, pay particular attention 10 the orientation of male and female ter- minals used to connect the components you've chosen. Just remember that the hot side of any connection should always have a female terminal. Polarity-Protected Connectors— ‘These can be plugged together only one way, for the purpose of preventing the wrong wire from being connected to the ‘wrong terminal. Several methods may be employed to provide the one-way fea- ture, One method is to provide a keyway in one connector block with a matching, key on the other. When the two con- nector halves are correctly aligned, the key fits into the keyway. Another method is to group terminals in non-symmetrical arrangements or at angles to each other. ‘Still another method is to mix both male and female terminals arranged in a non- 83Male terminal symbol Is an arrowhead at end of wire. If there are muttiple male ter- minals ina single connector, represent this by adding dotted line to join ail terminals. symmetrical pattern in one connector, ‘with mating terminals in the other con- rector, Connectors using blade terminals usually confine both male and female terminals within the connector block. If bullet terminals are used, the exposed male terminal should not be hot, for short-circuit protection. [fall the wires in a connector must be hot, use one of the other polarity-protection methods. If you're adapting existing factory- harness connectors 10 your project car, the previous few paragraphs are relevant to you. But if you're building a hamess entirely from scratch, using individual connector terminals, you must use other methods to make the connections fool- proof. When joining several wires to several others in a circuit, you can cut the wire ends in varying lengths, so along wire on one half of the harness matches with a short wire in the other half, and vice- versa. Or, use color-coded’ wire con- nectors of the same size with different insulator colors, Use a male and female of the same color for a matching set of wires. Another way is to use a different wire color for each matching pair in the hamess, As with other terminals, wiring- diagram symbols for polarity-protected terminals must be drawn with the male and female symbols correctly oriented to censure that you won'taccidentally design circuit with a potential fora short circuit if the wires are disconnected. —e, ‘Nor-symmetrical terminal is another “fool proof” connection. in this example, con- ‘hector at left contains one female terminal ‘among twomales; mating onehas one male ‘among two femaies. Four-wire version of {this Is often used for trailer connections, Photo by Jim Barrett. JUNCTIONS ‘Occasionally, a single feed wire is used to supply two separate components. ‘A junction is used where the separate ‘circuits branch out from the feed wire. In factory cars, this may be a soldered or crimped joint inside the hamess. For project cars, I prefer using a junction block. The electrical path is the same in either case, but a junction block is easier to install. Regardless of the attachment method, use a single black dot to indicate a junction. If you're planning to use a junction block, write the words next to the dot. SWITCHES ‘As explained on page 30, various types of switches by the number of poler and throws, These distinctions should become clear when you draw the switeh- es into your circuit diagrams. Poles are represented by a straight line appearing to “pivot” from a large black dot. Depending on how many throws the switch has, the pole’s free end will be pointing at one dot—ar one of several dots—which represent the contacts, or throws. Carefully study the accompany- ing drawings 10 sce how the pole is drawn. Although it is essentially a Straight line, it isn’t easily confused with ‘wires, terminals or the like. ‘Multipte-pote switches are represented ‘by a set of parallel lines, each represent- ing one path for current to flow through the switch. In most cases, the poles are mechanically linked together, so moving When representing nor-symmetrical con- nection, be sure to draw males and females in correct sequence. Where possible, keep females on feed side of connection to pre- antehoris wher oomedtionle unphapged.In the following pages, you'll find two sets of drawings for each circuit listed above. One is for a typical rear-engine car—an air-cooled VW is shown—and one is for a typical front-engine car—a Ford Pinto is shown. These cars were chosen because they are the ones most often used for kit cars. However, the circuit diagrams can be used as general guidelines for designing circuits for any projectear. Use them in conjunction with factory wiring diagrams and wiring in- structions that come with the components you buy. ‘The components shown in these di- agrams are the ones used in the VW and Pinto factory installations. The diagrams also generally follow the factory wiring scheme, but the circuits are simplified to make them casier to understand for assembling the wiring harnesses for your car, In simplifying the circuits, the elec- trical relationship of the various wires ‘and components has not been changed, But, the drawings show routings you'd most likely use in a one-of-a-kind car. Often, factory diagrams appear in- credibly complicated and sometimes seem to defy logic. This is because the factory harness is designed to be easily and nerringly installed on a fast-moving assembly line by workers who may or may not understand what each wire is for. When you wire your project ear from scratch, you should assemble your har- ness with a great deal of understanding and take nothing for granted. ‘The sample diagrams shown arc far ‘cars that were built before the onrush of electronic engine and emission controls. As mentioned earlier, installing such controls in a project car is beyond the ‘scope of this book. ‘One last reminder before you start drawing diagrams. Each component should be shawn as a solid outline only it the drawing where it's featured. If the ‘same component or wite appears as a reference in other drawings, it should always be shown as a phantom com- ponent. This allows you to use your cir- ‘cuit diagrams as a double-check when you assemble the wiring hamesses and connect them to the components, What you'll be doing is marking off each solid- line component or wire on the diagram as you install it, because it will appear as a solid line on only one drawing. When ig is installed, scan the draw. ings. Every solid-line component should be marked. And, of course, the phantom components should not be marked. This eliminates the possibility of omitting or duplicating anything GUIDELINES FOR DRAWING A DIAGRAM | followed these guidelines in prepar- ing sample diagrams for this book. If you draw your own di and you cer- tainly should—also follow these guide lines. © Before current can flow, each circuit musi be complete, from battery positive terminal to the battery negative terminal. Short circuits prevent curreat from get- ting to the load, and they blow fuses. Be sure you don't accidentally draw a short circuit. © The car's engine, frame and metal body act as grounds, or the return path of the circuit. Use a ground symbol to cate where the circuit grounds toengine, frame or metal body. © Components mounted 1 fiberglass need a separate ground wire leading to the frame. Indicate this in the diagrams. © Aswitch must be wired in series with the load it controls, © Loads are usually wired in parallel with cach other. © Be sure cach potentially hot wire ter- minates in a fernale connector to prevent shorts if accidentally disconnected, A good way (0 remember this is to make sure the arrow-shaped symbols for both male and female terminals point Joward the power source. Electrical & Geographic Considera- tions — This chapter deals with a concept ‘you must understand in order to progress tothe next step of your wiring task. Itwas hinted at in the discussion on the dif- ferences between how a factory hamess is wired and how you'll wire your project car. It has to do with the fact that the electrical system in your car has twodis- linctly different sets of characteristics that must be temporarily separated in your thinking. They are elecirical con- iderations und geographic cone siderations, Here, the term geographic refers to the physical positioning of the electrical components contained in the space within the car's body. Circuit design deals primarily with the electrical considerations. Geographic considerations are covered in the follow- ing chapter. For now, here are some sim- ple examples that will help you differ- ‘entiate between the two. The illustration below shows four ex- Electrical considerations: These drawings demonstrate four different ways to represent the same thing —two lamps in perallel—as described In accompanying text,‘Geographic considerations: Thase four drawings Gamonstrate different ways of wiring the tall and license lamps ina car. Although all four methods are electrically sound, method A is the most practical from a geographic standpoint. See text below. amples of how two identical lampscan be wired. Electrical considerations of these diagrams are identical —that is, the two lamps are wired in parallel. Where the diagrams differ isin their geographic po- sitioning. Routing the wires can take ona wide variety of forms, depending on the geography of the car where they will be installed. Let's look at them. The illustration above shows the cir- cuit for three lamps wired in parallel These could be the left and right tail- lamps, and license-plate lamp, The only electrical consideration in this kind of circuit design is that each lamp be sup- plied with 12 volts and have a path to ground. Notice that there are several ‘ways to partray this, all of them electri- cally sound, But the geographic consideration — bow the components relate to each other within a space —for each example is evi- dent when you start to construct the har- ness, The second illustration shows itis possible to wire a car following each of the circuit drawings exactly, But notice that methods B and C are impractical. They waste a lot of wire. Method A is probably the most common and prefer- able installation, So, these exercises demonstrate that it's possible to design the same circuit in several different ways, all electrically comect. However, only one may be geographically practical for your car. You've probably seen that the Way a cuit is drawn on a schematic may or may not resemble the appearance of the har- ress that’s eventually made, Please get Uhis notion firmly planted in your mind. If you don't, I can practically guarantee your wiring project will be confusing and frustrating rather than rewarding and fun. BASIC POWER CIRCUIT Battery voltage or generator output is referred to as B+. This is the electricity in the wiring system that does the work. ‘You must provide a circuit that can dis- tribute B+ to the various loads in the system, Cenain components in a car's electri- cal system can be regarded as power cen- ters. That is, numerous sub-circuits branch out from them. Power centers in- clude the battery, voltage regulator, fuse panel, starter solenoid and ignition fitch. These power centers and their wires form the basic power circuit. ‘There are two kinds of B+ circuits — those that are connected directly to the battery (always hot) and those that are controlled by the ignition switch, called ignition ot controlled circuits Components that operate without the key turned on are in the always-hot cir- cuits. These include park/taillamps, hom, interior lamps and emergency flashers. In a VW, the radio is usually included because the ignition switch does not have an accessory position. All other components are operated through the ignition switch, which means the key must either be turned to the ON position ‘or the ACC (accessory) position. These shouldn't be left on when the engine is ot running. In the power-circuit drawings, notice thal in some cases several fuses in the fuse pane! are grouped together. Each group is connected by a bus bar at the input. This means a single input wire can supply voltage to more than one fuse, simplifying wiring, For example, in the ‘VW circuit drawing, fuses 1 and 2 are bussed together. In the Pinto circuit, fuses 3 and 4 are similarly bussed. Notice also that most of the wires carrying cument into the fuse panel are solid, while those carrying current out of the fuse panel are shown in phantom, This is because the phantom wires are actually patts of other citcuits, and are shown on the power-circuit drawing only as references. ‘The fuses inthe basic power numbered to correspond to the cavi the fuse block, Each fuse is identified with the same number in each diagram where it is shown, ‘The Pinto starter relay and VW voltage regulator are shown in phantom in the power-circuit drawings because, al- though their terminals act as power- distribution points, the components are actually parts of other circuits, ‘CHARGING-SYSTEM CIRCUIT Although the drawings for VW and Pintocharging systems show anumber of ‘components, most of them are drawn in phantom. The only ones that are part of the charging system are the generator, voltage regulator, — charge-indicator lamp, and optional ammeter and volt- 80Ignition Cireult—VW and condenser, When the ignition ‘switch is in the START or RUN position, it provides voltage te the + terminal of the ignition coit. Ground for the coil provided through cam-operated ignition points in the distributor, As described earlier, with the points closed, a magnet- ic field builds up in the coil primary winding, As the points open, the field collapses and high voltage isinduced into the secondary winding. It flows to the distributor and on to the sparkplugs. Note that the movable point is in- sulated and is connected to a condenser, which acts as an electrical cushion when ¢ Point open. This reduces point arc- ing. ‘As far as the wiring hamess is con- cerned, the igniti circuit consists of only one wire between the ignition switch and the coil + terminal. For our purposes, the high-voltage wires are re- garded as part of the engine. On VWs, the coil + terminal acts as a distribution point for B+ current to the back-up lamps ond some other engine com ponents. The installation of these wires is, covered in their individual circuits. Pinto Point-lgnition System-—This system was used only for the first few years of manufacture, It is essentially like the VW system already explained. ‘The only significant difference is that a resistor ix wired between the ignition 92 switch and the coil + terminal, This Feduces voltage to preserve the ignition points, During engine start-up, thestarter relay provides full voltage to the coil through the I terminal on the relay body. ‘This provides maximum spark for good starting characteristics, If you forget to include the resistorin your hamess, point ‘wear will be excessive. Ifyou forget the ‘wire from the Herminal, ignition voltage during engine start-up will be reduced, Pinto Electronic-Ignition System— Although this book docs not caver electronic components in general, electronic ignition is so common today thatit is included here. Although this is a specific discussion of the Pinto system, ‘various other clectronic-ignition systems ‘operate, and are wired, in essentially the same way. Refer to the appropriate shop manual for wiring details. ‘Current for the system stants at the ignition switch, which powers up the electronic-ignition module and voltage regulator any time the ignition switch is ‘on. Another branch of this same circuit carries current through a resistor to the coil + terminal when the ignition switch is on. Ground for the coil is provided through the module. The module opens and closes the ignitian-coil ground, ‘obeying instructions from a pickup coil in the distributor. The pickup coil and module essentially replace the con- ventional points and condenser, When the engine is running, the coil receives reduced vollage through the re- sistor. During engine start-up, the cor jr the § terminal ullaneously, a stant signal is sent from the starter-relay S terminal to the ignition module. When drawing and assembling an electronic-ignition circuit, be sure every wire is connected to each component ex- actly as it was inthe factory installation. Electronic components are not forgiving of mistakes. If you're using some other brand of eketronic ignition, obtain a shop manual for the car to see how the system is wired, then copy it exactly INSTRUMENTS Both the VW and Pinto—in fact, just about any car you may use as the donor for your project car—rely on minimum instrumentation from the factory— usually a fuel gauge and speedometer. Some. like the Pinto, offer factory add- on instruments—often called a rally package. These instruments are usually not esthetically adaptable to most project cars. In fact, the Pinto uses a constant voliage regulator (CVR) to limit the amount of voltage seni to the gauges. ‘This, in turn, requires a noise Sup- pressor. Take my word for it—you prob- ably won't want to bother with this typeBrake-Lamp Circult—Pinto TURN LASER 133 drawn as a square in the circuit diagram ‘When the hazard switch is turned on, full voltage is provided to the illumination lamp and it glows with full brilliance to indicate hayard.lamp operation. The VW brake-lamp system, shown in, thediagram on the facing page, is simple in operation, 1t gets its voltage from a fuse. When the brake pedal is depressed, the brake switch closes, providing volt- age to the brake lamps. IF the brake pedal is depressed and one or the other brake is low on fluid, the brake- waming lamp is provided with voltage and it illuminates. In the Pinto system, three sources of voltage are provided to the tum-signal and hazard circuits. Two of these are always hot, andone is hot with ignition on. Each of these sources includes a sep- arate fuse, Let's look at brake operation first, assuming that the turn-signal lever is straight ahead (off). Voltage is provided by stepping on the brake pedal, closing the brake switch. From the brake switch, it flows through the tum-signal lever without stopping. It is routed from the tum-signal lever through two wires, one going to cach of the rear turn/brake lamps. Ifthe turn-signal lever is turned to the right, the brake-tamp signal is routed only to the left rear turn/brake lamp, be- ‘cause the right rear tumvbrake lamp is flashing on and off. The opposite condi- tion occurs if the tum-signal lever is tured to the left Now let's see what happens in the surn signal part of the circuit during this op= eration. As mentioned, when the turn- signal lever is in the straight-ahead posi- tion, the tum-signal lamps are off, per mitting both brake lamps to operate nor- mally. When the tum-signal lever is tuned to the right, current flows first through the tum Masher, then through the right-tumn circuit of the turn-signal lever, and fimal- ly from the turn-signal lever through two wires. One wire gocs to the right-front turm-signal lamp and the right-turm in- dicator on the instrament panel, while the other one goes to the right-rear turrvbrake lamp. Current Nowing through the flasher quickly heats the thermal element, The movable contact then breaks the current flow to the lamps, which go aut. As soon as the element cools enough, current flow i restored to the lampsand the cycle repeats. Operation of the left-turn circuit is identical. Flashing side-marker lamps are a special case, not included in either the VW or Pinto wiring diagrams shown, Have you ever noticed that on some cars the front side-marker lamp flasheson and ‘off simultaneously with the tum signal? And, when the parking: lamps are on, the side marker flashes alternately with the tum signals? Did you ever wonder why? Here’s the answer: In the diagram on page 98, note how the front side-marker lamps are wired. ‘One side of the filament is attached to the hot side of the parking lamp and the other is atlached to the hot side of the tum signal lamp. Guaranteed not to. work, right? Wrong! Lt works just fine. Let's use the left marker as an ex- ample. In the parking-lamp mode, the marker gets voltage from the parking- lamp circuit and it grounds trough ke 7r Backup-Lamps Circult—Vvw Typical may recall from the earlier discussions of current flow, voltage drops and amper- age, that when two resistances are wired in series, the current flow in the circuit is red by the total resistance in the I the resulting eurrent flow is too low, it's possible for the feeble current to flow through a load without doing any ‘work. This is exactly what happens with afronttum signal. The side-marker lamp has considerably more resistance than the tum signal, so the side-marker lamp lights, and uses most of the available vottage. The little voltage that's left sim- ply flows through the turn-signal lamp, without lighting it, on its way to ground, ‘The situation is entirely different, though, when the tum signal istumed on, Each time the turn-signal Lamp flashes, the side marker temporarily gets B+ cur- rent on both sides of the filament, so it goes out. It then continues to flash alter. nately with the tum signal. That is, the 98 marker is off when the tum signal ison, and vice-versa If the turn signal is operated with the parking lamps off, the side marker gets voltage from the turn-signal circuit and grounds through the parking-lamp fila- ment. In this case, the side marker and tum signal flash simultancously. Incidentally, in all cars, the rear side markers are not factory wired to blink with the turn signals like the front ones. If you want them to blink on your project car, wire the rear markers the same as the front ones, aiteching one lead to the tail- lamp circuit and one to the turn-signal ci But be forewarned: the rear side markers will light up when the brakes are applied in the daytime and will go out when the brakes are applied at night! Back-up Lamps—In both the VW and Pinto systems, the lamps will work only if the ignition is turned on and the transmission shift lever is in reverse. In the VW system, the voltage to Backup-Lamps Circuit—Pinto operate the back-up lamps is provided by tie same wire that feeds the ignition coil. Other than sharing the same feed wire, the ignition and back-up lamps are entire- ly independent of cach other. Note the use of the in-line fuse, This is unusual: Fuses are almost always in the firse pant- el. The back-up-lamp system shown here is designed to work only on VWs with manual transmissions—the air-cooled Beetle used for this example is not avail- able with an automatic transmission. In the Pinto system, there are two transmission options, manual and aiito- matic. Other than the configuration of the switches, the back-up lamps for both transmissions operate exactly the same. Voltage is supplied through the fuse. Current flow is controlled by the pasition of the back-up-lamp switch, After flow- ing through the lamps, current is grounded. Note that the back-up-lamp switch used on automatic transmissions is contained in the same switch body as the neutral-start switch, which is covered im the section on the Pinto starter circuit, page 9}. HORN ‘The hom system, although simple, is important from a safety standpoint, But the hom circuits are shown separately for another reason—they don’t seem to fit into any of the other circuits covered so far! In the VW system, current flowsfrom the fuse block, through the horn, throughplan, If you've completed your circuit de- signs, you're probably eager to start cut- ting wires and wrapping them into bun- dies. But first, devise a plan for cutting and routing all those wires, Otherwise, you may end up with a vinyl-covered copper spiderweb that won't make any sense to you. Doing the job right means correctly translating your circuit designs into wiring-harness designs. So, this procedure will be explained first, lowed by two different harness-making procedures, HARNESS DESIGN Here's where everything you've leamed so far comes together— electrical theory, selecting and installing components, and circuit design, When designing circuits, your primary job was to satisfy the electrical requirements of the components. That is, you had to make sure each load was provided with a 100 This well-done wiring job didn’t recommendhhere: On-car planning just happen. andon-pay protection device, control, feed and ground, to name the most common re- quirements, In hamess design, you must decide how to bundle and route wires to provide the necessary circuits, while at the same isfying certain geographical and physical requirements. These in- clude: @ Specific harness routing © Minimum wire length © Minimum number of through-the- body grommets © Minimum number of connectors and terminals Wire color and gage © Neutness ‘The actual process of harness design involves seven steps. The first three are done on the car; the remaining four on a piece of paper. They are: © Plan where to run the main hamess bundles. © Plan where branches will leave the it was planned. And it followed the procedure | par planning, fallawed by installation according to- main harness to nin to the components. © Decide where to break the wiring sys~ tem into smaller, manageable hamesses. © Sketch-a top view of the car, showing Where each component is located relative to the others. © Sketch the routing of the harnesses relative to the components they serve. © Show where cach wire leaves the har- ess wrap to connect to a terminal. © Systematically number each wire. ON-CAR STEPS Examine several factory-buill cars that have the same general wit tion as the car you're go front-engine, rear-engine, mid-engine or whatever, Note how the main harnesses are routed, as well as the smaller ones branching from them, Some of the small- er hamesses may branch again before finally connecting to a component. There's at least one harness, maybe several, servicing the instrument panel‘This is the plan view of my car. Notice how ve labeled front, rear, left and right. You don’t have to be a Rembrandt to make a ‘simple drawing like this—just make itneat. component is located in relation to the general shape of the car and to each other. Be sure to include terminal-block locations. It will also show locations of the harnesses and individual wires that ‘connect the components, Remember, be neat and accurate. This drawing will serve as the final guide for wiring your car, Use simple symbols to depict com- ponents—a circle for a light bulb, a rec- tangle for the engine, and so forth, Label everything. When you get done, your drawing will probably resemble the cen- ter drawing above, Note that the instru- ment panel is the largest area because it contains so many electrical components. ‘The drawing doesn't have to be to scale. Just be sure everything is in its correct position and is large enough so you can read Now, referring to your car again, note where you positioned the pieces of clothesline that represent the hamesses. Indicate these on your drawing in a dif- ferent color, such as red. Draw these main harnesses extra bold so you can see them clearly. Also, be sure the harnesses pass through the terminal blocks. Refer to the drawing above right. My car is a front-engine, rear-drive, and it has the four main hamesses pre- viously mentioned—instrument panel, At this point, 've blocked in the major com- Penents for reference. Engine Is simply a rectangle, lamps and gauges are merely cir- cles. Instrument panel area i drawn dis- proportionately large because mostot car's wires end up here. front lighting, rear lighting and engine. Because of the way things worked best, | further separated the instrument hamess into a gauge harness and a switch har- ness. You may or may not need ta do so Just be flexible and do what works best for your car. Also notice in the drawing that all terminal blocks are in one loca- tion under the instrument panel, From your examination of several factory-made cars, you know that each main hamess has stiall branches leading to separate components. Individual wires usually remain inside the branch harness until they get clase to the component, where you can then see the individual wire colors and the terminals. If a com- ponent has three terminals, you'll find three separate wires coming from the har- ness at that point. It's the same at each ividual wires on your drawing, using a third color, such as blue. Draw in each wire separately, showing where each leaves the red har- ness wrap and runs to the terminal on the component shown on page 104 Note: While you're making this first hamess drawing, don't worry about where each wire goes after it enters the hamess wrapping. Just make sure that you show the exact number af wires 20- ing from the hamess wrap to each com- ve indicated harnesses on my plan view. i's a good Idea to use a different color for this, such as red. This doesn't show in the black and white photo, however. ponent. For now, that's all that's neces- sary. Incidentally, if you've made a super mess of your drawing, don’t get upset. Set the project aside for awhile, then try again, using a clean sheet of paper. If you've been working along as you read, you should now have some idea. ‘what 1 meant about patience. Hang in there. You're getting close to the end af the complicated part. There's just one more important ste Get out the circuit drawings you com- pleted in the last chapter, and make Individual wires remain in main hamess un- til they get close to component they will attach to. On your harness drawing, you'll indicate only the ends of the wires where they came out of the harness. 103errors like that can be disastrous! several photocopies of cach. You're go- ing to be writing on the copies, so keep the originals separate Start with a copy of your basic power- circuit drawing. Select any wire— individual circuit—on the drawing and find both ends of it. Number both ends witha 1. These numbers are for your usc, so it doesn't matter which wire you start with, I like to put a circle around each number, Select another wire and number both ends 2. Continue until you've nuum- bered both ends of each wireon the draw= ing ‘Do not number any phantom (dashed) wires on the drawing. Each of these are numbered in the circuit drawing where they are drawn as sol S. If two different wires are connected to the same terminal of a component, use a separate number for each Tfind it convenient to keep a log sheet to indicate the name of the circuit associ ated with each number. This does two things. It helps me keep from using the same number twice, and the log can be used for reference la Repeat the wire-numbering process for each of your circuit diagrams, but-do nnof start back at number 1 for each dia- 104 ve begun transferring information from basic power circuit dis {gram ontoharness design drawing. I'veused same number at bath ‘ends of the wire, wherait comes out of the harness. Be careful not to use the same number twice, representing two different circuits; wire's nu When a wire from the haress gets to a terminal block, write down on the block. Where circuit conth harness, use the same number to indicate that this is a continua- tion of same citeuit. This means that one number represents the into second circuit, regardless of how many terminal blocks it passes through. gram. Each wire in the electrical system should have its own number, It is not uncommon to use 50 or more numbers foragiven car, sodon’t worry about how many numbers you're using, Just keep accurate records. Here's the final tricky point to un- derstand: So far, you've drawn each wire from one component to another in a sin- gle unbroken strand in the individual cir- cuit diagram, But, because you'll prob- ably be using the basic four or five har- fesses joined together with terminal blocks, you must indicate terminal-block connections on the circuit drawings. What this means is a circuit that begins in one harness could run through a ter- minal block and end up in another har- ness, even though the whale circuit is shown on one circuit drawing. For in- stance, your circuit for the oil-pressure sender will enter the engine harness, go through a terminal block on the firewall, then through the instrument-cluster har- ness tothe oil- pressure gauge or indicator lamp. When a wire in one hamess gets to the terminal block, it stops. Number this end of the wire with the same number you used for the beginning of the wire, Use the same number again where the circuit continues at the other side of the terminal block and goes into a different hamess Continue using the same number for that circuit until you reach the other end, whether it goes through a terminal block or from one harness 10 another. Now, transfer the wire numbers from the basic-power-circuit drawing, one at a time, onto the haress-layout drawing Remember to indicate wire numbers at each terminal block as well. See photo above right, Clearly mark each wire on ‘your circuit drawing as you transfer the numbers to the harness layout. I use a yellow felt-ip marker for this. This transferring step will take quite a ‘while, s0 be prepared to take your time, If at all possible, have someone check yourwork, eireuit by circuit, to eliminate errors. When you've finished numbering the harness-layout drawing, it will be your final authority for wiring your car, 50 it must be 100% accurate, When you think you're done, check ‘over each circuit drawing to be sure each wire is colored in, indicating that you transferred it to the hamess layout. Also, check each dotted wire to make sure it is shown solid, and colored, on one of theother drawings. After you've triple-checked every thing, celebrate! The hardest part is done, All you must do now is “connect the dots.” CONSTRUCTING THE HARNESS Your harness-layout drawing should now be complete and double-checked for accuracy. From here on out, it will be your guide in completing the electrical system. This is the part I refer to as con- necting the dots. ‘There-are two way'sto install a hamess: ‘You can assemble the harnesses outside the car and install each as a unit, or you can install each wire directly into the car, then bundle the wires into harnesses. Both methods are described in this chap- ter, and there are arguments for and against cach, ['ll present both sides so you can decide which method is best for you. Making a Harness Outside the Car— ‘This method involves making a harness fixture from pegs or nails attached to a plywood sheet or similar material. The fixture is used as a guide to construct the hamess. If you're going to wire several similar cars, or you and a friend are building r cars, the out-of-car method may be preferable because the same fixture cun be used for constructing more than one hamess. However, if the wiring job is relatively simple, this method may be more work than it's worth. Installing wires one-at-a-time makes better sense. The latter method is also the way to install accessories to an existing system, Other than these con- siderations, here are the advantages and disadvantages to the out-of-car method. The good points are: © Creating subassemblies allows you to carry an individual task to conclusion before going on to another. much easier to string wires on a flat board—the hamess fixture—than through a car. © Generally, it’s easier to get an over- view of what you're doing, so-errors are casicr to spot. You don't have to continually change tasks. That is, first you'll measure and ccutall the wires for thehhamess. Then you will install all the terminals and shrink wrap, and so on. By keeping the tasks simple and discrete, chances for error are reduced. ‘The bad points are: © You must label cach wire with mask- ing tape or other label as you go along. If labels get removed accidentally, you could end up with a mess. © You can’t cul the wires to exact length until the harness isin the car, so there will be some waste If you take inaccurate preliminary measurements, you could end up with 2 ot of waste ot short wires. Installing Wires Individually —The good points are: © Depending on your working style, you may find that you ean work more accur- aicly if you install and connect cach wire to the appropriate component at both ends as you go, then move on to another wire, © Because wires don’t need to be labeled, you needn't worry about labels getting knocked off and the resulting confusion this can cause. @ Because wires are installed directly from one terminal tothe next, you won't have to plan for excess wire, resulting in ‘minimal waste. The bad points are: © You'll be repeating the same motions ‘over and over again as you route each wire separately. You'll aisa have to con- stantly switch tasks—from cutting and stripping wire to terminal crimping and shrink-wrapping, {0 connecting ter- minals. This may or may not be a dis- advantage to you @ You must check and double-check seach wire as you install it. After its ter- minal is attached and connected, it's too late to make changes easily. © Harness wraps are harder to install. If you use loom tape as your final wrap, it ‘can be almost impossible to install in light areas it’s difficult to install flexible conduit to wires after they're in the car, especially if you're trying to in- stall conduit to a whole bundle of wires at once, in a tight area. @ To prevent unnecessary confusion, you may need to use temporary ties t0 keep the wires neatly bundled as you go. OUT-OF-CAR HARNESS ‘The first step is to make a clothesline mock-up of each individual hamess. Use plastic-covered clothesline. Start at one of the terminal-block locations and route the clothesline through the same path the finished hamess will follow. Where branches lead off from the main harness, tape additional lengths of clothesline as pecdod. [ntl the clothesline mock ap in the car with nylon ties, clips or what: ever you'll use to hold the finished har- ness in place. This ensures accuracy of length and location of the various branch- es. Locate each place where a wire, or set of wires, will lead from the hamess to a specific component, Mark that spot on the clothesline with an indelible marking pen. Attach a masking-tape flag next to the mark. On the flag, write the name of the component and the distance in inches from the branch point to the component, ‘Take precise measurements. Later, when you make the hamess, you'll allow extra wire for adjustments. The clothesline-and-marker mock-up will closely resemble the harness layout you made earlier. As you mark cach component's branch point on the clothes line, use a highlighter pen to check off that point on the hamess-layout drawing. ‘When you're done making the clothes- Tine mock-up of the first harness, careful- ly remove it from the car and put it in a safe place, Start at the other side of the terminal block and repeat this process These aro the tools you'll need to “wi your car with clothestine. 1 prefer pla covered clothesline, Use a utility Knife to cut It. Masking or duct tape can be used to attach branch points to main harness, 0s well as to attach “hares” to cer. You can also write notes on the tape and attach them to the clothesline, Use a waterproot marker to write your nates. | also keep: my circult ‘schematics handy for reference. 105until you've mocked up each harness Making a Harness Fixture—In the next step you're going to fabricate a fix- ture used to consinict the hanes. The materials you use for the fixture are up to you. Gypsum wallboard (drywall), ply- Wood, heavy cardboard and pegboard all ‘work well, I think golf tees and garbage- bug ties on pegboard work about the best. ‘The size of the fixture can be determined by stretching out your largest clothesline mock-up and measuring it Position the first of the clothesline mock-ups on the board. Stretch it out straight, so you can position the branches at the correct angle to the main trunk 106 ‘Notice how branch point has been taped to main line of harness. This represents location af tallamp branch in finished harness. represent actual clamps or nylon ties that will hold fir ass in place installed to representfinalharness routing. Note how line ts run inside chassis rail for added protection. Branch point leads to fuel-gauge sender. It must not interfere with mover ‘ment of rear axle. ‘Temporarily fasten the mock-up in place. Use a generous number of tees or nails to make channels for the finished harness to be formed within. Use your marker to indicate all branch points and end points of the harness on the board, then remowe the mock-up and keep it for future refer- ence. Retum to the hamess-layout drawing. Identify the first wire to be installed. Select the appropriate gage—and color, if you're going to color-code your wires. Determine where on the board the wire should start and temporarily fasten the end of the wire, Aifow 3 inches of excess to extend past the starting point you marked earlier, Follow the path es- tablished by the mock-up until you reach the point where the wire should stop. Cut the wire, again leaving 3 inches of ex- cess. Use tags to label bath ends of the wire with the appropriate circuit number, and component name, if youwant. Then, indicate on the layout drawing that you've installed that wire, Repeat this process until you've installed and labeled cach wire in the harness, NOTE: De not install the terminals on the wires, yet. “This is done after the harness is inthe car. Decide where grommets will be needed on each of the hamesses, Use a grommet wherever a hamess passesInetall grommets on wires where they will ‘sure grommet is just large enough for minimiza intrusion of water and wind, the wires you've installed and redrill fora larger grommet. Refer to your harness-layout drawing and select one circuit. Locate the com- ponent on the car at one end of the circuit and attach a wire, using the appropriate terminal and shrink wrap, if you're using Route the wire io whereverit ends and stall another terminal. Connect the ie to the component. The wire is now installed. Check off the wire on the har- ness drawing, Repeat this procedure until each wire has been installed and checked off, You'll probably be tempted now to install the appropriate harness ties, tape or flexible conduit. Resist doing that Leave the covering off until you've had a chance to test the eireuits, in case you ‘must change something. Test procedures fare covered in the next chapter When testing is complete, install the harness wrapping of your choice. Install ing nylon ties every 6 to 12 inches is probably the easiest method of bundling ‘wires once they're in the car, Loom tape or flexible conduit is more difficult to install, but use one of these wrappings if you can install it. ‘Air all wires were Installed in this rear wiring hares, maintain its shape while being installed into car. 109The first step Is to be sure all wires are labled. It's tar easier to check this out before you install the harness. Put harness into “rough" position. When you're satisfied that harness will reach ail Its components property, begin making ‘hls Farnese Is laped Ifo rough poston checked, install support clamps or ties. minal block or fuse panel somewhere under the instrument panel. It is evident that you should put the main part of the harness outside the passenger compart- ment and pull the short end into it. It wouldn't make much sense to put the hamess inside the passenger compart- ment, then pall most ef it through the grommet hole, ‘This harness is to be attached with nyion ties instead of clamps. Here, the first few ties have been installed to support harness In ‘inal position, Install some elips or ties to secure the ‘hamess to the frame and body, but don’t tighten these yet. Leave the assembly Joose enough for final adjustments. Don't worry about the wire ends, other than being sure that all the identifying lags are still attached, Do not install any terminals now, Each wire should com- fortably reach its component, with about 3 inches of excess—which you should have provided for when assembling the hamess on your assembly board earlier, Repeat this procedure with each har- ness that passes through the body. These will probably be the engine-com- partment hamess and rear-lighting har- ness. Position the instrument-panel har- ness last. Inthe case of my car, this Wasa at| proterrivets to screws when installing har- ‘ness clamps to body or chassis. Rivets and rivet guns are available at most hardware stores. For economy, purchase rivets in axes of 50 oF 109. two-part assembly, with one hamess for the gauges and one for the switches. Harness-Attachment Devices—Sev- eral types of devices are available for attaching hamesses to the car's body or chassis. The type(s) you use for each location is determined by the require- ments for that application. But, regardless of the attaching method, the device should not be so sharp that it cuts through the wire insula- tion, It should also be wide enough to spread the clamping load over a large enough area of the wires to prevent dis- torting the insulation, For these reasons, don’t use bailing wire orthin wire clipsto etain wires and harnesses in place. ‘Attachment devices include nylon ties, wiring straps, rubber-insulated met- lon cable clamps and push- . These are described on If you're using nylon ties to bundle the hamess, you can also use them to attach the harness to the ear body. One example is to secure a harness.at an edge or hole in a panel it runs through. If the hamess doesn't run close to an edge, you'll need to drill two holes in the Panel to install this type of tie, Feed the tic into one hole, run it behind the panel, and out the other hole. ‘Then, wrap the ends around the harness. Although this is a serviceable attach- ing method, it tends to look tacky— 112 To operate gun, insert rivet and squeeze. Rivet fits into pre-drilied hole in chassis. When correctly installed, rivet is superior to ‘Screw becaisse It can't vibrate loose. | find that it's easier to squeeze arivet gun than it is to: repeatedly turn a screwdriver or wrench, too. other attachment devices give a more finished appearance. Or, you can use nylon ties in conjunction with tie mounts. ‘Tie mounts provide a way to attach a nylon tie toa surface where you don't want to drill two holes, ar one where you ‘cannot get behind the panel to feed the nylon tic back through. For this reason, tie mounts are a good compromise— better than a nylon tie alone, but not as good as a clamp. The plastic tie mount attaches to the car with a rivet or screw. The nylon tie is looped through slots in the mount. Some types are self-adhering, but I don't rec- ‘adhering and screw-on types. Both work ‘the same way—atiach tie mount to car, ‘then thread nylon tie through it and around harness. | used sell-adhering type here, be- attached to outer ‘ommend these, Tie mounts are available to accommodate one or several ties on ‘one mount. An installation using both tie mounts and nylon ties looks fairly “finished,” while permitting easy adljust- ment and replacement, if necessary. ‘One positive thing about nylon ties is they can be left loose until you're ready for final tightening. And, if you get one 100 tight, too soon, they are easy to cut ‘off and replace, Some nylon ties have an enlarged end with a mounting hole. ‘These can be installed with a rivet or screw, ‘Custom fittings are available for some Here you can see extensive use of nylon tes, Both fo bundle hariess and support Note how large ties permitied attaching harness bundle to gauge clamps.‘shows correct method of installing ties at Loop of instrument panel harness will have to be supported to pravent excess vibration when car is beingdriven. Note ties have been used to keep harness in neat bundle. Finally, use a diagonal wire cutter to ccut the excess tails from all the ties. Cut off the tails flush with the clamping blocks of the ties. This looks neater and. reduces the possibility of catching some- thing, like your skin, on one of the ends later. I'm particularly thinking of how badly I cut my hands on one of my first harnesses, Iwasn'tcareful, and the sharp little ends seemed to be everywhere. Securing the Harness—Check cach harness to sce where additional support is needed, It's best to support the harnesses ‘every 12 inches or so, using one of the hamess-attachment devices discussed earlier. As you install extra supports, make sure youdon’t accidentally pull the harness out of place or put unnecessary strain on any wires. 114 ‘Cut off nylon tails with awire cutter after snuggingtios. Thisphoto branch point, tank mounting belts, Another clamp will be installed in ather bot hole to retain ground wire. how nylon Niylon es are used to retain elecric choke teed wire 1 ol dipstick fube. I's better to use any available support cathor than fabricating additional parts, Note slight amount of slack in generator wires to permit adjustment of drive belt. ‘Once all harnesses are permanent stalled, the electrical system should look about finished. And it is! There's only ‘one more major task to do before youcan test the system—install the terminals, Please note that rerminal installation re- fers to attaching the terminals to the wire ends only. You won't be connecting the terminals to the components until after you've tested the harness Although the processes of termin stallation and hamess testing and con- necting are described as three separate Procedures, you may find it more con- venient to combine all three procedures ‘oneach wire ot each circuit as you go. If you work carefully, this method is per- fectly OK. But, carefully readeach of the following procedures before deciding Whether or not to combine them. TERMINAL INSTALLATION Before you start installing terminals, have all the required tools and materials within easy reach. Some components will require specially shaped connectors. ‘These components include the generator, voltage regulator, ignition switch and tum-signal switch. If the required con- nectors are not readily available at an auto-parts store, you can cut them from the wiring hamess of a junked car, Be sure to leave at least 6 inches of wire attached to the connector, The terminals onother components in the system usual- ly use the standard connectors described on pages 63-64, Generally, terminals come in two900d exampie. I could have used throe fora well, but this one eliminates possibilty of making wrang con- nections, types —solderless and soldered. To help you decide which to use, the good and bbad points of each type are listed on the next page. If you think the information is biased in favor of solderless terminals, you're right. | prefer them, and so do most people who've done much wiring. But the final choice is yours, Installing Solderless.Terminals— Correct installation of a solderless ter- minal requires two tools: one to strip the wire insulation and another to squeeze the terminal barrel, If you're going todo just a few terminals, you can strip the sulation with a knife and do the crimp- ing with a pair of diagonal wire cutters But I don’t recommend either. The cor- rect tools for the job are relatively in- expensive and readily available at most auto-parts stores, hardware stores and electrical-supply houses. ‘Wire strippers are available in sever- al forms. The least expensive type looks like a pair of pliers with unusual-looking jaws. When the jaws are closed, it looks like a series of holes have been drilled through the line where the jaws meet. The holes are sized according to wire gage. ‘These are often built into the crimping tool. If you've never used wire strippers, practice on some scrap wire. With the terminal jaws open, put the piece of insulated wire in the correct opening. Close the jaws and pull, If you selected the right open- ing, the jaws should cut and remove the insulation without harming the wire in- side. If not, try another size. When done correctly, the stripping operation is quick and feels right, Another type of stripper has a jaw that ‘dividual terminals would not have been satisfactory. Should volt- age regulator need replacement, custom terminal is Reet. It can go in only one way. yy to con- adjusts for each wire size, These are ex- cellent tools, Many experienced clectri- cians prefer them, having one preset tool for each wire size. ‘A more expensive wire stripper is es- sentially automatic. You insert the wire end—any size within reason—into the tool and squeeze. It grasps the wire, sizes it, and cuts and diseards the insulation, “hf Tools required for installing tarminals include awire cutter, stripper and erimper. Twotocls on feft do all three. Phato by Fron Sessions. 15Hore‘ hot tp for keeping your supply of terminals neat while Napa usa edlusabi svippe i is aa ams eee Installing them on harness. Steal unbreakable, and (OK, borrow) your kid's frisbee ‘and use it 2s a dish. i's shallow enough not to tip over easily, It's ‘can put a handful of several types of ter minais in it at once without them getting mixed up. all in less time than it takes to deseribe it. This kind of tool is nice if you have a lot of work todo, but it’s more expensive— at least $10. Terminal crimpers are nearly all alike, but as with any handtool, price varies with quality. Choose a crimper with a selection of die sizes that will accommodate all the terminals you'll be using. Make sure it can be squeezed and opened smoothly. It should have rubber handle grips for extra comfort, Most crimpers also have a cutter blade, so you don't have to buy and keep track of a separate Wire cutter. Some terminal crimpers also include a wire stripper as part of the tool design. You may get lucky and find one that works well— many don’t. Solderless terminals come in an in- credible variety of sizes, shapes. and types. Fortunately, you'll only need a limited assortment for wiring your car. Those used for automotive wiring are discussed on pages 63-64, When selecting terminals, first con- Sider the barrel size, The barrel is the tubular part of the terminal that the wire fits into. Obviously, the wire should fit snugly in the barrel, Generally, terminals are made 10 accommodate at least two wire sizes; 16—14 gage, for example. The number before the hyphen is the smallest wire size the terminal will fit; the number after the hyphen is the larg- est. Remember that wire gages are ex- 16 pressed in even numbers only Second, consider whether you'll use lerminals with insulated or non-insulated barrels. A non-insulated barrel simply slips onto the wire and is crimped. To insulate this type of terminal, add a piece of shrink wrap, Insulated terminals have ‘ built-in piece of insulation for the wire to slip into. The inside diameter (ID) of the barrel insulation allows the wine in sulation to fit inside, And, the insulation continues for the entire length of the barrel. In the case of quick-disconnect insulated terminals, the female terminal is insulated over its entire length. Shrink wrap is a tubular plastic mate- rial that shrinks when heat or flame is applied to it. It is not harmed by direct, flame from a match or cigarette lighter. In terminal installation, shrink wrap is used to provide both insulation and extra strength to the connection. Shrink wrap can be installed over in- sulated terminals, but it’s a waste of money to buy such terminals if you're using shrink wrap. However, if you are using insulated terminals, shrink wrap will strengthen the connection. Cut a piece shrink wrap to length and slide it on the wire before installing the terminal, After crimping the terminal, slide the shrink wrap onto the terminal and briefly apply heat or flame—the wrap shrinks in a moment. A cigarette lighter is perfect for this job. "You might wonder why anyone would to obtain good strip without d strands. Then tighten i. Only drawback is that strippers. goodttor ing wire COMPARISON OF SOLDERLESS AND SOLDERED TERMINALS Soiderless (Crimp) Terminals Good Points ® Can be installed immediatoly, with- ‘out warm-up time. ® Can be installed with inexpensive crimping fool. © Are widely available in all standard and many custom types. © Are used in nearty all factory in- stallations. © Require lite manual skill to install correctly. # High-quality types offer excellent, permanent connection. Bad Points ® Difficult to remove without shorten- ing wire, © Canbe installed wrong ifinattentive, Soldered Terminals ‘Good Points: © Fairy easy to remove if installed ‘wrong. ‘© Provide goad electrical connection, ‘Bad Points: '@ Require special equipment (solder- ing itor), ‘@ Require special materials (solder and flux). ‘® Require skill and practice to do cor- rectly. ‘© You can burn yourself or insulation, if careless: © Can cause stress points in wires.- 8 Finished job will resemble this example. This procedure Is ‘Superior to a soldered joint, Here, I've just crimped an insulated ring terminal. Butt terminal has to be crimped twice, once for each wire. Be-sure to crimp only on narrow part in middle—enlarged ends are de- ‘signed to fHt over wire Insulation. e If you intend to shrink wrap 2 butt joint, use a nor-ingulated terminal. 418 ‘When shrink wrap Is heated, it conforms tightly to butt terminal ‘and wire insulation.Simple volvohmmeter (VOM) can be used for all tests described hers. I've used this inexpensive Radio Shack model on numerous, fairly sophisticated wiring Jobs. It cost me less than $10, back ‘around 1975. ‘TEST THE HARNESS ‘A beginning word of caution: Do nor hook up the battery yet! Before attaching any of the wires tothe ‘components, perform a test on each cir- cuit in the harness to be sure there are no hidden problems, This task may seem tedious, but it's much easier to find and correct problems before you attach the wiresto anything. No matter how careful you've been, there's always ility of error. At best, the com- ponent simply won't work. At worst, ‘your new hamess will go up in smoke Enough said? ‘There are several methods used to test circuits, but each boils down ta checking wire continuity. This simply means checking that the wire marked RIGHT FRONT TURN at one end is the same wire that's marked RIGHT FRONT TURN at the other, Be sure that none of the circuits got crossed during assembly or installation, You can use a self-powered test lamp or an ohmmeter to test continuity. Both instruments tell you if the two wire ends are connected to each other. Before test- ing a wire for continuity, be sure the test instrument is working. Both the ohm- meter and the test lamp rely on a built-in battery for power, It’s embarrassing to discover that the “faulty wire” you just 120 You can use a jumper wire like this to bypass controls when testing a circuit— never bypass.a oad. Note suto-reset circuit breaker | installed as a precaution. | some- limes use this wire to extend one of my ‘chmmeter leads when doing continuity checking. tested and replaced was OK, but the test- er's battery was dead! To check a self-powered test lamp, touch the alligator clip on the wire to the pointed probe on the end of the lamp body. Ifthe bulb and battery are OK, the lamp will light, If it doesn’t, determine why and fix it before proceeding. To check an ohmmeter, set the dial on OHMS. Some of the less-expensive ‘ohmmeters use separate sockets for the ‘Always check calibration before using ohmmeter. Touch probes together, then tum calibration wheel until needie points to Oohms. This also checks the built-in battery. to check circuit continuity with ‘off, t's the one to use to check your harness 2s described in accompanying text. As packege precaution says, do nat use it on live circuits. Photo by Rion Ses- sions. test wires for each of the meter's func- tions. Now, touch the two test probes together, The meter needle shauld go to zero. If it does, the meter works. If the needle doesn't move, check that the wires are plugged in correctly and mak- ing good contact. If the connections are OK, the meter probably has alow or dead battery. If the needle moves, but doesn't go exactly to zero, calibrate the meter,LED cirevit tester is useful to-cetect voltage In tive circuits. With lead grounded, LED hts Hf probe contscts voltage, ‘There's either a screw or knurled knob for this purpose, Turn the adjustor until the needle lines up with the zero mark, then separate the test probes Select a wire in the harness. Locate both ends of the wire by referring to the tracers or tags you attached earlier. Touch one test probe to the terminal at each end of the wire. If the ohmmeter Teads are too short, fabricate a jumper from a length of wire—14—18 gage is OK—and a pair of alligator clips sol- dered to the wire, The instrument should indicate continuity—lamp should light, or ohmmeter should indicate zero ohms. If the wire checks out, good. If not, in- spect it to determine what's wrong. If you get no reading, chances are you have ested one end of one wire and the other end of another. Move one of the probes to each of other nearby wires and ‘you may find the one you're looking for. Uf this is the case, the wires may have been mislabeled. Or, there could be a serious errorin routing. Find the problem before continuing, Also, pay special attention to the ter- minals. Be sure the barre! of the termi is crimped onto the bare wire, not the wire insulation. If it isn't, you'll get a faulty continuity reading. After you're satisfied that you have verified both ends of one wire, perform a ground test on that wire. Leave one probe. in contact with the wire. Move the other probe to the body or frame, Unless Connect components, one veritying Integrity of circuit. time, after you're testing a ground wire, there should be no continuity between the wire and ground. If there is, inspect all the metal clips the wire passes through tosee iffand where the insulation was damaged ‘You may be tempted to tape over the damage. Don't! Replace the entire wire. Finally, test for shorts in the wire. To do this, leave the probe connected to one end of the wire. Move the probe at the other end to the ends of adjacent wires. ‘There should be no continuity between wires. If there is, determine if the two wires are intentionally spliced some- where in the hamess. If not, look for and correct the short. ‘Also, look carefully atall places where the wires are clipped and tied. It’s possi- ble that one of the clips or ties tore holes in the insulation of two adjacent wires, allowing the conductors to short together, The only correction for this isto replace the defective wires. Repeat the continuity, ground and short tests for each wire in each harness. Correct each problem as you find it, Otherwise, you'll be tracing problems after the circuits get complicated by the addition of all the switches, fuses, motors, gauges, lamps and such. And, although I've emphasized testing, it's possible thst you won't find a single problem. If not, great! MAKING CONNECTIONS Pick any component as your starting point. Let's say you've chosen the right headlamp. If you've installed a special headlamp connector in the harness, it has three cavities that align with the three terminals on the back of the headlamp. Simply plug it onto the lamp and it’s done. If you chose to use a separate con- nector for each wire, refer to the tags on the wires. Find the one for highbeam and plugit onto the high-beam terminal of the bulb. Repeat this for the low beam and ground wires. Note: Leave the tags in place until after you've tested cach circuit with live voltage. Essentially, the job of connecting the rest of the hamess is a repeat of this procedure, over and aver, until all eo1 ponents are connected. Referto your ci cuit drawings as you work, just for the added comfort of an additional check. Mark off each wire as you connect it. ‘One place you must use extra caution is at terminal blocks where several har- nesses join. Here, you'll have what seem like a hundred wires jammed into an im- possibly small space. ‘Toavoid confusion, clamporclip each hamess bundle into place at a right angle to the terminal block(s), allowing the Separate wires to extend out randomly. Pull the entire handful of wires away from the terminal block and bend the wires a little, if necessary, to keep them away from the work area until you're ready to connect them. Then, find the first wire you want to.connect, and shape it carefully and neatly to run to the terminal-block stud to which it attaches. ‘Attach the wire to the stud. Repeat this process until all wires are attached. The wires should run in orderly raws between the terminal blocks. When you're done, carefully install additional nylon ties to these wires to keep them neat. FINAL TESTING The moment of truth has come! You've made visual checks of the har- nesses, and performed contin ground and short tests of each wit You've also connected each wire respective attaching point. What's left to do? Not much, Install the fuses according to your cir- 121Wiring to thi minal block is kept neat by cutting wire lengths so they just long ‘enough to reach. if each wira were a random length, whole panel would be a mess. Nota cuit diagrams, Then make sure all switches are tumed off, Finally, attach the positive and negative cables to the battery. ‘At this point, nothing should happen Look carefully and smell carefully. You should see no sparks or smoke, and should smell nothing burning. So far, so good, ‘Connect the negative probe of a volt meter to the batiery negative terminal. Or connect the pigtail of a 12-volt non-self- ‘powered test lamp to the battery negative terminal, You will use this test setup to find out if battery voltage is available at the correct distribution points before you tum anything on, Again, use a jumper wire if the test leads are to0 short. Be- cause this és a ground wire, you needn't worry if the alligator clip accidentally touches the ground. But keep it away from B+ circuits! Refer to your drawing of the basic power-distribution circuit. It will show you the points where B+ should be available when the ignition switch is off. Generally, they are: 122 how wires run parallel to terminal blocks, then branch a right angle directly beneath terminal screw. I's tainty easy to trace circuits and locate troubles if installation Is neat. Input stud of the starter solenoid © Input to the ignition switch © Input to the fuse-panel bus bar © Input to the headlamp switch Your car may have others. Probe each of these points with the test instrument. In cach case, the lamp should light or the voltmeter should show 12 volts. If not, determine why and! correct it. Disconnect the battery before making any adjust- ments Now, turn the ignition switch to the ON or RUN position. Probe each com- ponent that should get voltage in the RUN mode. These include the ignition coi various accessory fuses, voltage regul tor and voltmeter, to name the most c mon. Trace any discrepancies—again, disconnect the battery before adjusting anything. With the ignition switch still in the RUN position, switch on each accessory to determine if it works correctly. If it does, tum off the accessory and go to the next one. Ifa fuse blows when you tum on any accessory, quickly tur it off and find the cause. It could be a short circuit—although you should have found it during the hamess test—or it could be a defective component. Also, make sure the fuse has the correctampere rating. Finally, make sure the transmission is ‘inPARK or NEUTRAL, then turn the igni- tion switch to START. The engine should ‘crank and start, With the engine running, check the instruments for correct opera- tion. If you see a low oil-pressure read- ‘ing, shut off the engine and don’t restart it until you can correct the problem— there's no point in damaging a new en- gine. Check the operation of the charge- indicator lamp, ammeter and voltmeter. Ifyou don’t know how these should oper- ‘ate under normal conditions, see page 41 (charge indicator lamp) and 48 (ammeter and voltmeter). ‘There are twosimple tasks left. Unless they are intended to be permanent, re- moveall the tags—you won't be needing ‘them anymore. Put your circuit drawings and wiring-hamess drawing in a safe place. They will come in handy if your ‘car's electrical system ever needs serv- ice. If you've gotten this far, the electrical system should be operating correctly, Be sure your vehicle is properly licensed and insured before doing a road test. After a few miles of driving, check yourharness~ ves for chafing and correct the cause. Also, be on the lookout for places in the hameess that need additional ties or clips, then install them. Check terminal con- nections for tightness and to be sure they aren't under any unnecessary strain. ‘Congratulations? You're now an offi- cial do-it-yourself electrical engineer! It may seem like it has been a long, hard struggle, but the end result is worth it. You have truly accomplished something that most people wouldn't think of try- ing. And the added advantage is that if anything goes wrong with your electrical system later, you'll know how to fix it— because you constructed the system in the first place.Rewiring an Electrical System Repro and collector's cars, like: Deciding to- rewire a car is somewhat like deciding to take a trip, You must tart with some basic determinations. For instance, where do you want to end up? How long do you want to spend getting there? How much time and money do you want to spend? Where can you get in- formation on how to get there? Let's look at these one at a time First, where do you want to end up? Do you want to construct a like-original wiring installation? Or do you just need one that is serviceable? If you're restor- ing an expensive collector car, the an- sweris cut anddried—go original, Butif the car is simply a tired but roadworthy “beater,” you may decide to replace one or more wires without regard for wire color or insulation type, just so long as they work. Second, how long do you want to spend getting there, and how mich oe . a — custom harness kits are readily available In aftermarket for popular custom and 1968 Mustang GT powered by a High Performance 289. Other harness, makers offer large selections of authentic repro harnesses for the more esoteric antiques: classics, or will make them toorder. See supplier's list on pages 152-153. Photo by Tom Monroe. money do you want to spend? In other words, how extensive a jab do you intend to undertake? A word of caution here: Rewiring jobs are never as simple as you first estimate. ‘There's always something unforeseen to take up your time, And often, this tums out to be pride of workmanship. Once you get started, you may not want tostop. Until you've resiored the entire electrical system! Of course, replacing a single wire that's chafed or cut is relatively easy. But if the whole hamess was gnawed by mice or pack rats, who knows what may be involved? ‘Also, be sure you know wiry the job is needed. Are you restoring a car to 100- point condition’? Are the wires dried out, chafed or oil soaked, but otherwise OK? Are you hoping to prevent an imminent burn-out? Or worse, are you too late, and the sy stemas already goneup insmoke? Finally, what kind of reference materi- al is available? Can you obtain the man- ufacturer's shop manual? Or must you rely on an aftermarket manual from a library or bookstore? Can you get the information you need from a car-club member of obtain restorer’s literature? Is there a similar car available for use as a model? Or, if all else fails, will you have lo refer to the original hamess and at- tempt to duplicate it? In addition to the wiring, there's also the matter of restoring or rebuilding the ‘components. All these considerations are Aiscussed in the following sections. TYPES OF WIRING REPAIRS Generally, wiring repairs fall into one ‘of three categories: burn-our repair, selective wire replacement, or whole- ‘harness replacement, Each repair re- quires a different approach, 123‘a complete rewire job—braided-cloth insulation Is literally rotting off wires of front lghting harness. Terminale ae likewise beyond hel. Restorer of this “classic” will probably opt to replace original with an authentic repro harness. Phato by sien Barrett wiring prablems happen at connections and wire ends. Corroded terminals are culprits of voltage drop; bare conductors can eause shorts. Cleaning or replacing cor- roded terminals and replacing components that are “about to go" should mako this electrical system serviceable. Uniess owner Is restoring car to 100-point condition, wires Inside harness are probably otherwise OK. Photo by Jim Barrett. Burn-Out Repair—This type of repair can involve a single wire, a whole har- ness or anything in between, Often, when a single wire burns out, it also bums out all the wires wrapped in the harness with it, Regardless, the first step in replacing a burned-out wire is to de- termine why it burned out in the first place. Wires usually bun out because they overheated. This often happens because the wire carried more current than it was rated for. Ifthe load is a motor, the motor may have seized or slowed because of wom bearings or bushings, which can cause the motor to draw excess current, Ideally, the fuse in the circuit should have blown before the wire bumed out, but occasionally the unexplained occurs. In other cases, the amperage rating of the fuse is too high for the circuit it’s sup- posed to protect, Ifthe load is not a motor, chances are there is a short to ground between the battery and load, probably between the switch and load. Such a short can be caused by chafed or worn-out insulation thatexposes the bare conductor to a sharp metal edge or other ground. After the wire burns up and the insulation is gone, the caiise may be difficult or impossible to pinpoint with certainty, In this case, protect the replacement wire over its.en- tire length from anything even remotely threatening Carefully check forbidden damage, A wire that bums out got hot ove: length. This can melt or burn tion on adjacent wires, even if hidden inside a harness covering. Finally, look for evidence of other components or wires that are “about to 20." [fone component has aged enough to cause a burn-out, chances are, others have the same potential. Look for dis- colored or distorted insulation that could indicate an overheated wire that hasn't actually burned yet. Also check for cor- roded connectors, Copp hs tendency 1 1m green or white when it oxidizes. Light green crumbs indicate a potential problem. This could be ata terminal, or the crumbs could be working their way outofa break in the wire's insulation, For information on how to check the system for bad ter- minals, see Diagnosing Voltage Drops, pages 129-130,