Linear Motor Feed Drives

for Grinding Machines

谢秋林 博士研究生
梁越升 教授
7/24/2006
美国佐治亚理工学院机械工程系
 Outline of Presentation

Introduction

Review of Feed-drive Technologies

Research Road Map

System Modeling and Simulations

Modeling

Simulations

Controller Design and Simulations

Controller Design

Controller Simulations

Conclusions and Future Works
 Introduction

Grinding-Abrasive machining process

Challenges to grinding machines

Motivations

Key factors influencing machining accuracy

Machine tool feed drives
Crucial part for ultra-precision grinding machine

Objectives

Grinding-Abrasive machining process
Employ very hard granular refractory particle
Grinding wheel moves at a high surface speed
Applications: Hard or brittle workpiece material, fine
requirements on both finish and dimensional accuracy

Timken precision Sumitomo precision Camshaft Edge grinding of

forging die silicon wafers
bearing
 Challenges

The trend towards miniaturization is continuing
Parts get smaller and smaller. And even the small parts get
more intricate features
PZT actuators 20 gram push force
Finish 60 nm
microsliders and submicron
Ra
resolution

1.5 mm x 1.5 mm x
6 mm- Stroke10 mm

AIST Microlathe World’s smallest linear motor on a

Machined ‘‘microhat’’
fingertip - The SQL-1.5 SQUIGGLE
motor
 Challenges

Even larger work piece have stringent
requirements on accuracies (in micron
tolerance or less) and surface finish
The surface
finish may
be below Ra
50nm

Precision optical glass Intel 0.13m wafer TAMARON17-50/F2.8

moulding mirror
 Motivations

Key factors influencing machining accuracy
Machining center Tooling Materials to be machined
Clamping system Aluminum
Machine frame
Grinding wheel Brass
Slideways
(Aluminum Oxide Copper
Feed Drives ,CBN, Diamond)
Titanium
CNC
Inconel
Spindle-Grinding wheel
Steel up to 62 HRC
In-process tool and
workpiece measuring
capability
Conditioning abilities
Cooling/lubrication system
 Motivation

Machine tool feed drives

Crucial part for ultra-precision grinding machine

Requirements
Function
High positioning precision
Control the positions
Ability to withstand machining
and velocities of
loads while maintaining
machine tool slides
accuracy of position control
or axes according to
Rapid response of drive
commands issued
system to command inputs from
by CNC interpolator
the machine tool CNC system
analysis and
Precise coordination of the
applications.
control of multiple axes of the
machine tool in contouring
operations
 Motivations & Objectives

Justify the selection of linear motor feed drive

Evaluations of current feed drive technologies

Identify and model functional critical factors
which will influence the implementation of
linear motor

Propose model-based servo control algorithm
which will guarantee the performance of linear
motor feed drive
 Review of Feed-drive Technologies

PZT

Hydraulic Drive

Voice Coil Motor

Friction Drive

Leadscrew-Ballscrew

Hydrostatic Leadscrew

Linear Motor
 PZT

Principle

Principle of PZT

Physik Instrumente (PI)

modular PZT nano-positioning stage
 PZT

Advantages

No backlash nor friction

large forces

high bandwidth

0.1nm accuracy

Disadvantages

Open loop hysteretic behavior

The amount of deflection or deformation is limited-
0.1mm typically

Low strength in other directions
 PZT

Applications

Precitech’s FTS system for diamond

tuning of non rotational-symmetrical
surface-micro- prisms, off-axis aspheres

Fast tool servo for turning non-rotation

Principle of AFM
Symmetrical components
 Hydraulic Drive

Principle
Hydraulic motor with
servo-walve and
tachogenerator

Lead screw
and nut ,and
slider

Component diagram of an electrohydraulic feed drive

 Hydraulic Drive

Advantages

High force(100N/mm2) at moderate speed

High power density at point of action

High bandwidth motion control at high forces

Disadvantages

Possible leakage

Susceptibility of working fluid to contamination
 Hydraulic Drive

Applications

OKAMOTO ACC-DX series

Johndeere 650D LC Excavator Hydraulically operated table
surface grinding machine
 Voice Coil Motor (VCM)

Principle

It provides the motive force to the cone by the reaction of a
magnetic field to the current passing through it

Equipment Solutions VCS-10

Voice Coil Linear Stage Principle of voice coil
 VCM

Advantages

Free from backlash

Velocity is easily adjusted and controlled

High accuracy- 0.1 micron

Disadvantages

Short strokes-amplitude within 1mm
 VCM

Applications

VCM

Western Digital Caviar SE

WD800JB 80GB 7200 RPM IDE UIUC Three-axis MMT prorotype
Ultra ATA100 Hard Drive
 Leadscrew-Ballscrew

Principle

Hiwin precision ground ballscrew Scheme of ballscrew

 Leadscrew-Ballscrew

Advantages

Very adaptable to varying machine sizes, feed rates and
process forces

Disadvantages

Dead zone and backlash
preloaded ballcrew can decrease backlash at the expense
of increasing friction

Transmission errors (e.g. pitch error)

Position, velocity and acceleration limitations (Structural
flexibility)

and Wear
 Friction Drives

Advantages

Minimal backlash

Uncomplicated design

Disadvantages

Low drive force
capability

Low to moderate
stiffness and damping Schematic diagram of

High sensitivity to drive friction drive
bar cleanliness

Frictional polymers can
form on dry-running
systems
 Lead Screw-
Hydrostatic Leadscrew

Principle

Schönfeld
hydrostatic lead
screw
Principle of hydrostatic lead
screw
 Lead Screw-
Hydrostatic Leadscrew

Advantages

No backlash ,minimal friction and no wear

High nut stiffness

High positioning accuracy

Disadvantages

Oil contamination

Bulky
 Linear Motor

Principle

Principle of linear motor

430公里/小时

Schematic drawing of linear motor

Shanghai's magnetic levitation train
 This flat assembly of coils

Ironless-core moves between two rows of
magnets creating the multi-pole
magnetic flux.
Forcer The MAGNETIC WAY (normally
attached to the machine frame)
is made up of two rows of
magnets glued to a steel plates
assembled in a U-form .
The COIL ASSEMBLY (moving
part, connected to the
component to be positioned)
includes flat coils assembled in
a composite structure.
this design is free of both magnetic
attraction and detent forces.

Iron-core
The MAGNETIC WAY (normally attached
to the machine frame) is made up of a row
of magnets glued to a steel plate.
The COIL ASSEMBLY (moving part,
connected to the component to be
positioned) includes the lamination stacks
and windings.
 Advantages of Linear Motor
Drive Systems

Mechanical simplicity no mechanical transmissions
mechanisms), higher reliability, and longer lifetime

No backlash and less friction, resulting in the potential of high
positioning accuracy

The problem of stick-slip is reduced with the direct linear drive

No mechanical limitations on achievable velocity and
acceleration

Linear motor acceleration rates are limited by the linear bearings, most
of which will tolerate 2 or 3Gs, and those that will take 5Gs are now
available.

A the linear motors regularly travel up to 5m/s where a lead-screw
typically limits velocity to less than 1.5m/s.

Bandwidth only limited by encoder resolutions, measurement
noises, calculation time and frame stiffness

The scales used with the direct linear drives are often resolved to 1nm
 Applications

With
hydrostatic
slide way
system

Sodick MC430L milling Okamoto UPG-31Li

machine: Vertical machining profile grinder with an Landis LT2
center with linear motor drive accuracy of 0.3 µm crankshaft grinder
 Comparisons among Feed Drive
Technologies

Voice coil Linear motor PZT Ball screw Hydraulic

Higher inertia
Amplitude 1mm No limitation 0.1mm 1000mm
with added
length
0.1 micron 0.1 micron 0.1nm 1 micron 10 micron
Accuracy

Force Up to
300N Up to 30 N/mm2 100N /mm2
/pressure 100,000N
20,000N

Response time 1 ms 10-20ms 0.1ms 100ms 1s

 Research Road Map

Challenges

Research Objective

Research Flow Chart
 Challenges to Control Linear Motor

Model uncertainties

Parametric uncertainties (e.g., load inertia)

Discontinuous disturbance

Friction induced stick-slip at low velocity at which grinding machine table is
typically operated

Pre-sliding behavior which is critical when motion is down to submicron
region

External disturbances (grinding force)

Uncompensated grinding force deteriorates position performance

Significant uncertainties due to position dependent force ripple

detrimental to fast and accurate position control

Drawback of without mechanical transmissions

Gear reduction reduces the effect of model uncertainties and external
disturbances

Implementation issues( e.g., measurement noise)
 Research Objective

To develop a systematic methodology to achieve

submicron positioning performance for linear motor
direct feed drive performance for grinding machines
under the effects of functionality critical force ripple,
friction and grinding force by systematic experiments,
simulation, and sophisticated controller design
 Research Road Map
Literature survey on direct drive system

Force ripple modeling Friction modeling Grinding force modeling

Direct drive system simulation

Experimental characterization

Adaptive sliding mode position control

Experimental validation
 System Modeling and Simulations

System Modeling

Rigid-body motion equation

Force ripple-How to characterize ripple using
analytical ,or empirical approaches

Grinding force

Friction -How to quantitize the friction force

Modeling Validation

Open-loop Simulation Results

Summary on Modeling
 System Modeling
Wheel surface speed

Normal grinding force

Linear motor
Table primary part (coils)
Tangential grinding force

Friction Linear motor thrust force

force

Linear motor
secondary part
(Magnet track)

Schematic diagram of linear motor feed drive for cylindrical grinding machine
 Newton’s Law

Rigid-body motion equation

F (t ) = mx

+ f friction + f ripple + f grinding

F (t ) = K f u (t )
m: Moving thrust mass
F (t ) : Thrust force

Kf : Force constant determined by the amount of motor poles

and magnetic flux, etc
u (t ) : Control signal in terms of voltage
 Force Ripple Modeling

Cogging
Cogging is a magnetic disturbance force
Due to end effect and mutual attraction between the magnet
and steel for iron-core motor
Affect the smoothness of velocity profile that can be
achieved

Reluctance
The reluctance is an electro-magnetic effect
Due to the change of windings inductance

Commutation error
Due to the non-perfect sine distribution of the magnetic field
Both will affect the fast positioning capability and
low speed performance
 Force Ripple Modeling

Force ripple [Braembussche et al. 1996 ]

Fcogging = ac sin(ω x x) + bc sin(3ω x x + φc )
Freluctance = Fdesired [a f sin(ω x x + φ11 ) + b f sin(3ω x x + φ12 )]
the position of the motor carriage as it is measured with the optical linear encoder

2π the average pitch of the magnets for the considered stroke

ωx = p
p

Variation of force
ripple w.r.t. position
 Grinding Force Modeling

Grinding process-Three phases

Rubbing
the grain rubs on the work causing elastic
and some plastic deformation, no material
removal

Ploughing
plastic flow of work material in the direction of
sliding, extruded material being throw up and
broken off along the sides of the groove,
resulting low rate of stock removal
Rubbing, ploughing,

Cutting and cutting regimes
fracture takes place in the plastically stressed of deformation in
zone just ahead of the rubbing grain, causing abrasive machining
the formation of chips and resulting in fairy
rapid stock removal rates
 Grinding Force Modeling

Grinding force (Hahn and Lindsay's model)

Assume that rubbing and ploughing energy can be ignored( for easy-
to-grind material)

Assume that normal grinding force is proportional to workpiece
material removal rate (MMR)
Fn = cπ d w bsVreff
Vs
Kw Kc Ks d F
Vr − Vreff = ( n )
Vw dt K eq
1 1 1 1
= + +
K eq K c K w K s
Fn Fn ( s ) cπ d wbs
=
Vr ( s ) 1 + (cπ d wbs / keq ) s
Feed slide

Vr C: the proportionality
constant describing the
dullness of the grinding
Bed wheel
 Friction Modeling

Two different regimes

Sticking regime (Pre-sliding regime)

The adhesive force (at asperity contacts)
are dominant

Friction force appears to be a function of
displacement because asperity junction
deforms elasto-plastically

As displacement increases more and more
junctions will break resulting eventually in
gross sliding

Sliding regime friction interface btw two
surface (contact between

All asperity junctions have broken apart (or, two bristles)
all asperity contact)

Friction is more pronounced function of
velocity, due for example to the build-up of
lubricating film
 Friction Modeling

Static friction model  Dynamic friction model

Dahl model (1968). Coulomb and

Coulomb model
pre-sliding.

Coulomb, viscous model
LuGre model [ De Wit et al.

Static, Coulomb, viscous 1995. Pre-sliding displacement,

model varying breakaway force, and a

Static, Coulomb, viscous, frictional lag
Stribeck model

Stribeck Curve vs. Velocity [Armstrong-helouvry, 1994].

 Friction Modeling

LuGre Model, De Wit et al. 1995

Combination of static and dynamic friction model

dz Symbol Meaning
F f = σ 0 z + σ 1 + σ 2υ
dt Coulomb friction
fc
d z | υ |
= υ − σ 0 z Static friction force
d t g (υ ) fs

δVs The state variable ,

−υ/Vs
g(υ) = fc +( fs − fc)e z represents the average
deflection of the
contacting asperities
σ0
Gaussian model δV
s
= 2 asperity stiffness
σ1
Vs Stribeck velocity the micro-viscous friction
coefficient
σ2
the viscous friction
 Modeling Validation

Friction model validation
u = 0.01sin(40π t )

Linerized system FRF

cm
H ( jω ) =
− J ω 2 + (σ 1 + σ 2 ) jω + σ 0
J 0.018kg2/rad
c 16Nm/V
σ0 1.21*104 Nm/rad

A rotating arm system J α

= − F + cmu σ 1 + σ 2 4.47Nm/(rad/s)

Sinusoidal validation
 The amplitude corresponds to 90% of static friction

u = 0.035sin(t )

Response is larger than simulation

Plasic deformation or creep
of the system is not
incorporated in the LuGre
model

The Lugre model structure is
too limited to describe the pre-
sliding behavior accurately,
e.g., the stiffness function
might be a nonlinear function

Sinusoidal validation
 Modeling Validation
Simulation parameters

Force ripple validation

parameter
f ripple = Avalue
r sin(ω x +units
φ)
fs 20 N
fc 10 N
vs 0.1 m/s
Ar 8.5 N/m
φ 0.05 π Ns/m
Open velocity response of a linear motor system
f ripple = Ar sin(ω x + φ )
σ0

Simulation Results (Open loop)

Set 1-only friction Simulation parameters

Pre-sliding parameter value units

Breakway fs 120 N

Set 2-friction and force fc 80 N
υs
ripple 0.1 m/s
σ0 2*106 N/m

Only cogging
σ1 2*104 Ns/m

Set 3-friction,force σ2 0.4 Ns/m
ripple and grinding
force
Step response

u = 12N u = 130 N

pre-sliding regime sliding regime


Excitation amplitude=12N

Excitation amplitude=120N

Breakaway phenomenon

Excitation rate Breakway point


Set 2- Force ripple effect

Amplitude=130N

Step response

Force ripple effect Shift

Sinusoidal response
Sinusoidal response-force ripple
curve

Set 3-Combination effects of three factors
(friction, force ripple and grinding force)

u=180N

Step response-forces curve Step response-

displacement curve
 Modeling Summary

Studied friction behaviors which are important
for high precision applications

Investigated how force ripple influences motion
behavior

Studied the combination effects of three critical
factor for linear motor feed drives
 Controller Design

Motivations

Sliding Mode Controller Design

Simulation Results
 Controller Design-Motivations

Inherent process nonlinearities

Stringent performance requirements demand
explicit compensation of process nonlinearities

Modeling uncertainties

Robust nonlinear controller
Sliding mode control
 Sliding Mode Controller

Design a control law to effectively account for

parameter uncertainty, e.g., imprecision on the mass
proprieties or loads, inaccuracies on the force/torque
constants of the actuator, friction, and so on

the presence of unmodeled dynamics, such as structural
resonant modes, neglected time-delays( in the actuator) ,
or finite sampling rate

Quantify the resulting modeling/performance
trade-offs, and in particular, the effect on tracking
performance of discarding any particular term in the
dynamic model
 Controller Structure

Controller Diagram
+ Output
Sliding Mode
LM
Controller
Reference Input
_

Voltage Current Thrust force

Axis
u + Position
Ka Kf Mass
Control
Signal _
Current Amplifier Motor
_ _ Friction

Grinding Force

_ Force Ripple
 Design Procedure

Controller derivation

F (t ) = mx

+ f friction + f ripple + f grinding F (t ) = K f u (t )

e = xd − x s = e
+ λe
Reaching
law


s = −η sgn( s ) − ks
m Ff + Fg + Fr
u= ( x

d + λ ( x
d − x
) + η sgn( s ) + ks ) +
Ka K f Ka K f
1 2
2
V= s V = ss = −η s − ks


2
 Observer Design

Observability analysis
 x

x
= f ( x ) + g ( x ) u  x1   x 
Χ =  x2  =  x

= 


Χ x 
 
y = h(x )  x3   z   z


 0
  
 L f y = x  1 0 0 
O = ∇  = 0 1 
1
L f y = x
0
  

x

 L 2 y = − F ( x
, z )  0 * σ − σ 
 f   0 1
h(υ ) 
m 

Observer design
σ 0 | x
|
σ 0 | x
|
z = − σ 0 |

x |
z
= x
− z zˆ = x
− zˆ z
g (υ ) g (υ ) g (υ )

− (υ / υs )2
g (υ ) = f c + ( f s − f c )e
1 2

x
2
V z = zˆ Vz = zz
 = −
g (υ )
z ≤ 0
2
Error dynamics will asymptotically converge if x
≠ 0, ~
z ≠0
 Simulation Results

Case 1-Sinusoidal response

Desired
trajectory
Position error Speed error

Control signal Friction force

Phase portrait
 Simulation Results

Case 2- Step response

Speed
error

Control Friction
signal force
 Simulation Results

Case 3- Acceleration-limited trajectory

Desired Position
trajectory error

Control
signal

Friction
force
 Simulation Results

Case 4- Jerk-limited trajectory

t
τ=
t f − t0
xd (τ ) = x0 + ( x0 − x f )(15τ 4 − 6τ 5 −10τ 3 )
t0 = 0, t f = 5
x0 = 0, x f = 100

vd (τ ) = ( x0 − x f )(60τ 3 − 30τ 4 − 30τ 2 )

ad (τ ) = ( x0 − x f ) (120τ 2 −120τ 3 − 60τ )

jd (τ ) = ( x0 − x f )(240τ − 240τ 2 − 60)

Jerk-limited trajectory
 Simulation Results

Position tracking error

max e(t ) =0.815µ m

RMS=0.0846µ m
 Simulation Results

Case 5- Ramp response

Position Speed Control

error error signal

Friction Force ripple

force Grinding
force
 Conclusions and Future Work

Reviewed the current feed-drive technologies

Investigated three functional-critical factors
closely related to the implementation of linear
motors in grinding machines

Presented robust controller design which can
handle external disturbances and model
uncertainties without the loss of system
performance

The implementation of controller is coming
soon
 Appendix Friction Terms

Static friction: The force (torque) needed to initiate motion from rest.

Coulomb friction: A friction component which does not depend on the
magnitude of velocity.

Viscous friction: Velocity dependent friction.

Break-away force: The amount of force needed to overcome static
friction.

Dahl effect: Elastic deformation of asperity junction that behaves like a
linear spring for small displacements.

Stribeck: Decreasing friction with increasing velocity at low velocities.

Frictional memory: The lag between changes in velocity and changes in
friction force.
 Appendix Magnetic circuit terms

H = ∇F

Magnetic potential F = ∫ H idl

Magnetic flux φ = ∫ B ids

s

Reluctance φ=
F
ℜ

Permanence ℜ=
F
φ
=
lm
µ Am

Inductance ρ=
1
ℜ
λ Nφ
L= =
i i
 Appendix-Friction Compensation

Non-model based compensation

Stiff PD control [Armstrong-helouvry 1992]

Integral control [Tung et al. 1993]

Dither [Cebuhar 1988]

Impulse control [Yang and Tomizuka 1988; Suzuki and
Tomizuka 1991]

Dual mode control [Futami et al. 1990 ; Ro and Hubbel 1993]

Disturbance-observer-based compensation [Lampaert et al.
2004]

Cerebellar Model Articulation Controller (CMAC) Neural
network control [Larsen et al.1995]

Model based compensation

Feed forward compensation [Tung 1996; Lampaert et al. 2004]

Adaptive control –Model Reference adaptive control [Shafer
and Brandenburg 1993] and adaptive robust control [Yao and
Xu 2002]
 Appendix-Force Ripple Modeling and
Compensation

Modeling

Cogging
Cogging is a magnetic disturbance force
Due to end effect and mutual attraction betwwn the magnet and steel for iron-
core motor
it will affect the smoothness of velocity profile that can be achived

Reluctance
The reluctance is an electro-magnetic effect

Commutation error
non-perfect sine distribution of the magnetic field
It will affect the fast positioning capabilitiy and low speed performance

Compensation

Model based feedforward compensation
Braembussche et al. 1996

Learning control
Otten et al. 1997, Hu et al. 1999 and Lee et al. 2000

Adaptive robust and robust adaptive control
Yao and Xu,2000 and 2002, Huang et al. 2002 and Tan et al. 2002
 Why Nonlinear Control

Improvement of existing control systems

Analysis of hard nonlinearities

Dealing with model uncertainties

Design simplicity
 T
1
RMS = ∫ e(t ) dt
2

T 0