qwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyui opasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfgh jklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbn mqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwerty uiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdf DRAFT: APPENDIX A Radar Clutter Models for RRRP ghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcv bnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwer tyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopas

dfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzx cvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqw ertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopa sdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklz xcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmq wertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmrtyuiopasd fghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxc vbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqw ertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopa sdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklz xcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmq
9/30/2010 Charles Darrah, Daniel Luke, Stephen Bowling MITRE Corporation

Appendix A.

RADAR CLUTTER MODELS

A.1. Introduction
Many of the radars currently deployed at the various Army test ranges use technology that is over 50 years old, and they do not have any capability to mitigate environmental clutter. Consequently, the radars have to be placed geographically where the effects of clutter are minimized. However, this constraint results in observation geometries that are not always optimal for collecting the best data on the events and tests that occur on the ranges. Dealing with the clutter has involved avoidance rather than mitigation. The new range radars will be mobile and will operate remotely from a control center, and so they can be placed anywhere on the range where the observation geometry is best (not where the clutter is least). Therefore, a mobile radar will experience the levels and types of clutter appropriate to the range environment at its location at the time. The new radars must be designed to mitigate this clutter in order to observe the targets and events described in the RRRP Systems Requirements Document (SRD) and in the associated use cases. The radar clutter models described here are useful to represent and simulate the RRRP environment. These models are the basis for the system performance requirements specified in the SRD, and will be used in the evaluation of subsequent proposals and designs. The distributed clutter sources include terrain, sea, and weather. The point or discrete clutter sources represent ships on the sea surface, angels (birds and turbulence), and ground vehicles. Three hypothetical sites, described below, form the foundation for deriving the clutter models.

A.2. Distributed Clutter

A.2.1 Terrain Clutter1
The geographical areas of interest are Aberdeen Test Center (Maryland), Redstone Test Center (Alabama), White Sands Missile Range (New Mexico), Yuma Proving Ground (Arizona), Fort Greely (Alaska), and Kodiak Island (Alaska). The radar ground clutter models are based on the landform and land cover of these areas. The two basic approaches to ground clutter modeling are: Site Specific (SS), and Non-Site Specific (NSS).

A.2.1.1. Site Specific (SS)2

The Site Specific approach provides the greatest fidelity to the actual clutter environment at the radar location. However, it requires knowing the exact location of the radar (latitude and longitude) and such radar performance characteristics as antenna height, frequency, resolution, waveforms, beam shapes, etc. SS uses Digital Terrain Elevation Data (DTED) for the
1 2

Reference 7 (uses the Billingsley concept of non-site specific and site specific as elaborated in 3DELRR) Reference 3, pp. 288-297

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deterministic simulation of clutter sources, and then uses an empirical statistical model to predict the strength of the clutter based on the radar characteristics and on the landform/land cover. Use of site-specific DTED captures the basic attributes of low-angle ground clutter, its spatial patchiness (approximately computed simply as geometric visibility), and (through depression angle) its expected range of amplitudes within a patch. Therefore, this approach to modeling low-angle clutter is regarded as a major advance over more general non-patchy approaches that do not distinguish between macroregions of clutter occurrence and macroregions of shadow. This approach allows an analyst to predict, within macroregions, where a surface-sited radar can be expected to encounter clutter interference and where the radar will be free of such interference; and, given that the radar is experiencing clutter, what, on the average, the expected statistics of signal-to-clutter ratio will be across the macroregion of clutter.3 A.2.1.2. Non-Site Specific (NSS) However, if the site location is not exactly known, or the radar is transportable and may be relocated based on the geometry of target events, then a non-site specific model becomes useful. There remains a need for a non-patchy clutter model for use in computing the limiting effects of ground clutter on system performance in a generic sense, independent of how specific terrain features and resulting patchiness varies from site to site.4 Figure 15 depicts the non-site specific clutter model. At the center of the figure is the radar. The area in gray is the clutter, which is spatially homogeneous and isotropic and is centered on the 0 radar. The mean clutter strength within this region is given by w and the radial extent of the clutter cut-off range is Rc . Underlying this figure is a smooth spherical earth with the 4/3rds earth radius approximation that accounts for normal radar propagation. The earth radius is 3440 nmi.

Figure 1 NSS Clutter Model

3 4

Reference 3, p. 290 Reference 3, p. 399 5 Reference 3, Figure 4.9, p. 303

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The clutter cutoff range Rc is determined by the Effective Radar Height (ERH). Effective site height is the difference between the terrain elevation of the radar position and the mean of the elevations of all the discernible clutter cells (most of the visible terrain) that occur at that site. Effective radar height is equal to effective site height plus the antenna mast height.6 Table 1 shows the clutter cut-off ranges in kilometers for use in non-site specific (NSS) clutter modeling.7 Note that for the Severe Clutter Visibility, the clutter cut-off range can exceed the range to the horizon of the spherical earth. Table 1. Clutter Cut-Off Range Rc for Use in NSS Clutter Modeling

A.2.1.3. Non-Site Specific and Site Specific Land Clutter Scenarios The RRRP geographical areas of interest are grouped into three non-site specific land clutter scenarios. The first non-site specific site is a combination of the landform and land cover at Aberdeen Test Center and Redstone Test Center. The second is a combination of White Sands Missile Range and Yuma Proving Ground, and the third is a combination of Ft. Greely and Kodiak Island. One or a combination of these clutter scenarios will be chosen for the radar performance scenarios. Figure 2 is the color classification legend that identifies the types of land cover shown in the following figures for the RRRP sites.

6 7

Reference 3, page 38 Reference 3, Table 4.3, page 304

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A.2.1.3.1. NSS1 (Aberdeen and Redstone) Figure 3 is a land cover plot of the immediate area around Aberdeen Test Center. The test center is primarily woody wetlands and deciduous forest. Pasture and crop land are to the east across the bay. To the north, west and south are urban areas.

Figure 2 National Land Cover Database (NLCD) Classification Legend

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Figure 4 is a landform plot of the immediate area. The test center is comparatively flat with the land rising to the west. A distance scale and color shaded elevation legend are to the left of the figure . Figure 5 is a land cover plot of Redstone Arsenal. The Arsenal is mixed forest and urban.

Figure 6 shows the arsenal is comparatively flat except for a hill in the center. Hills are to the east of the Arsenal.

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Figure 3 Land Cover Aberdeen Test Center

Figure 4 Terrain Profile Aberdeen Test Center

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Figure 5 Land Cover Redstone Arsenal

Figure 6 Terrain Profile Redstone Arsenal

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Since the terrain is relatively flat around the test ranges, the Effective Radar Height is chosen to be Low or 15 meters. The clutter visibility variation is considered severe because of the hills and urban areas. Therefore, referring to Table 1, the clutter cut-off range, Rc, is 21 km. The 0 applicable mean level, w , is obtained from Table 28. Notice that the mean level clutter strength is dependent on the frequency band, polarization, and depression angle. C-Band values should be interpolated between the corresponding S and X-Band values. The area, A, is r* r* where is the one way 3-dB azimuth beamwidth of the radar, and r is c /2 for low angle clutter where is the pulse length.9 Table 2. Mean Clutter Strength and Weibull Shape Parameter for Urban or Built-up Terrain

Note that the Weibull shape parameter is a function of the resolution area; therefore linear interpolation on log10(A) should be used when an aw value is required. For a negative depression angle, <0, use 0.00< <0.25.

Reference 3, Table 5.14, p. 445 and Table 5.15 (SD/Mean), p. 491 Note that only for the first row, 1.7 in the last column is with respect to A=105 square meters (sqm). 9 Reference 3, pp. 42-43

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A.2.1.3.2. NSS2 (White Sands and Yuma) Figure 7 is a land cover plot of the immediate area around White Sands Missile Range (WSMR). The floor of the missile range is primarily scrub and barren land. Figure 8 is a landform plot of this area. The test range rises in elevation to the west. Mountains are to the west of the range and in the center at the north of the range. Note that the range scale at the bottom left of the figure indicates that the missile range is considerably larger than either Aberdeen or Redstone. Figure 9 is a land cover plot of the area around Yuma Proving Grounds. The land cover is similar to WSMR in that it is primarily scrub. Figure 10, the landform plot of the Yuma Proving Grounds, shows numerous hills and mountains as well as relatively flat areas. Since the terrain is relatively flat in some areas and hilly in other areas of the test ranges, the Effective Radar Height is chosen to be General or 40 meters. The clutter visibility variation is considered severe because of the many hills and mountains. Therefore, referring to Table 1, the 0 clutter cut-off range, Rc, is 37 km. The applicable mean level, w , is obtained from Table 310.

Table 3. Mean Clutter Strength and Weibull Shape Parameter for High Relief Desert

C-Band values should be interpolated between the corresponding S and X-Band values. For values outside this interval (depression angle or Area) use the nearest value in the table.
10

Reference 3 Table 5.43, p. 531 and Table 5.44 (SD/Mean), p. 532 Note that only for the last row, 3.3 in the next to last column is with respect to A=105 square meters (sqm).

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Figure 7 Land Cover WSMR

Figure 8 Terrain Profile WSMR

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Figure 9 Land Cover Yuma Proving Grounds

Figure 10 Terrain Profile Yuma Proving Ground

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A.2.1.3.3. NSS3 (Ft. Greely and Kodiak Island) Two sites in Alaska are of interest: Ft. Greely and Kodiak Island. Figure 11 is the land cover plot of Ft. Greely. It is primarily scrub, barren and forest. Figure 12 is the land form plot and it shows the terrain is relatively flat but surrounded by snow-topped mountains. Figure 13 is the land cover of Kodiak Island. It is barren scrub and along the coast it is forested. Figure 14 shows the land to be mountainous. Thus, both sites are similar in land form and land cover. Since the terrain is mountainous, the Effective Radar Height is chosen to be High or 200 meters. The clutter visibility variation is considered severe because of the many hills and mountains. Therefore, referring to Table 1, the clutter cut-off range, Rc, is 48 km. The applicable mean 0 level, w , is obtained from Table 4. Table 4 Mean Clutter Strength and Weibull Shape Parameter for Mountain Terrain

For the missing X-Band depression angle, mean clutter strength the S-Band values should be used. C-Band values should be interpolated between S and X-Band values.

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Figure 11 Land Cover Ft. Greely

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Figure 12 Terrain Profile Ft. Greely

Figure 13 Land Cover Kodiak Island

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Figure 14 Terrain Profile Kodiak Island

A.2.1.3.4. SS1 (Site Specific: WSMR) The site R530 at WSMR was chosen for site specific modeling. Site SS1 (R530) is located at 320 54 43.696 North latitude and 1060 10 15.791 West longitude. The site height is 1246 meters. Figure 15 shows a radar polar plot of the DTED data around the site. The ranges are in nmi, with the first range ring at 50 nmi. Terrain heights are color-coded in meters according to the scale at the top of the plot. Table 3 defines the High Relief Desert clutter in terms of Weibull distributions, where mean clutter strength is dependent on depression angle and frequency. The Weibull Shape parameter depends only on the spatial resolution of the radar. Clutter strength includes the pattern propagation factor, F4, in the Weibull statistics. For smaller cell sizes (A<103 sqm) values of A=103 sqm should be used and similarly for cell sizes greater than A=106 sqm, A=106 sqm should be used. What occurs for larger cell sizes (A>106 sqm) or smaller SAR-like cell sizes (A<103 sqm) is unknown there are physical reasons to expect that the linear trends observed of aw vs. log A should not extrapolate to very small cell sizes.11

Figure 15. Radar Site R530 Polar Terrain File

11

Reference 3, p. 546

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A.2.1.4. Temporal Statistics, Spectra, and Correlation Improved knowledge of these various additional attributes of ground clutter, in addition to its spatial amplitude statistics, is required in the demanding specialized design of modern signal processors required to detect, track, and otherwise operate against ever-smaller radar targets in ground clutter backgrounds. For example, the spectral characteristics of clutter determine the design of moving target indicator (MTI) or space-time adaptive processors (STAP), and the amplitude statistics of clutter affect the design of constant-false-alarm rate (CFAR) processors.12 Since the three hypothetical sites have some form of vegetative land cover, either tree or scrub, the wind-induced motion of the vegetation is the dominant influence on the temporal and spectral characteristics of the clutter. A.2.1.4.1. Temporal Statistics Ground clutter temporal amplitude statistics are specified to be Rayleigh (amplitude).13 A.2.1.4.2. Spectra A cell contains both fixed scatterers (ground, rocks, tree trunks) and moving scatterers (leaves, branches). The returned signal correspondingly contains both a constant (or steady) and a varying component. The steady component gives rise to a dc or zero-Doppler term in the power spectrum of the returned signal, and the varying component gives rise to an ac term in the spectrum. Thus a suitable general analytic representation for the total spectral power density Ptot( ) in the Doppler-velocity power spectrum from a cell containing windblown vegetation is provided by:
Ptot ( ) = r 1 ( ) + Pac ( ), r +1 r +1 < <

where is the Doppler velocity in m/sec, r is the ratio of dc power to ac power in the spectrum, ( ) is the Dirac delta function, which properly represents the shape of the dc component of the spectrum, and Pac( ) represents the shape of the ac component of the spectrum, normalized such that

ac

() d = 1. 14

The two-sided exponential spectral shape may be represented analytically as

12 13

Reference 3, p. 335 Reference 3, p. 335 14 Reference 3, pp. 576-577

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Pac () =

( )

< <

where is the exponential shape parameter.15 An algebraic expression for that incorporates the linear dependency of spectral width on the logarithm of the wind speed w as observed in these data is

-1

= 0.1048 [log10 w + 0.4147]

where w is the wind speed in statute miles per hour.16 An analytic expression for r empirically derived which captures the dependencies of wind speed and frequency is provided by r = 489.8 w-1.55 f0-1.21 where, as before, w is the wind speed in statute miles per hour, and f0 is radar carrier frequency in gigahertz.17 A.2.1.4.3. Correlation The returned signal from the scanning antenna largely decorrelates from one spatial cell to the next, whether the variation is in the range direction or in the azimuth direction. 18

A.2.2. Sea Clutter19

A.2.2.1 Sea State and Normal Propagation The AEGIS Sea Clutter model characterizes sea surface global mean reflectivity as a function of sea state, grazing angle ( , radians), polarization, wavelength ( , feet) and wind aspect ( , radians). This global mean reflectivity yields a local mean reflectivity, selected from a lognormal distribution with mean of the global mean and a log standard deviation related to resolution cell size. This leads to an instantaneous reflectivity coefficient with a mean value equal to the local mean reflectivity and exponential (Rayleigh amplitude) distribution. The Global Mean Reflectivity for Sea State 5 is described by a wind speed factor (Gw), a wind aspect factor (Gu), and a low angle factor (Ga). They are defined below for sea states 3 and 5:
15 16

Reference 3, p. 577 Reference 3, p. 578 17 Reference 3, pp. 570-580 18 Reference 3, p. 342; see pages 338-343 19 Reference 4, G/ATOR Performance Specification (Appendix C.2.3.2) The AEGIS Sea Clutter Model underwent a VV&A process and was accredited for the AN/SPY-1 DT/OT Land-Based Test Events in order to test shipboard radar at a land-based test site.

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Gw = 1.6 A for sea state 5 and Gw = 1.25 A for sea state 3, where A = 2.63 * A1 / (A2 * A3 * A4) 3 0.1 And A1 = [1 + ( / 0.03) ] 3 0.1 A2 = [1 + ( / 0.1) ] 3 /3 3 = [1 + ( / 0.3) ] Q 4 = 1 + 0.35 Q 0.6 Q= Gu = [1.0 0.6 * sin2( )] * exp [0.3 * cos ( ) *exp (- / 0.17) / ( Ga = 1.5 / (1 + 1.5), where = 35.9 ( / ) For Horizontal Polarization, the Global Mean Reflectivity for Sea State 5 is: 1/2 1.8 hh0 = (1.7E-5) * Gw * Ga * Gu / ( + 0.05) The Vertical Polarization Correction for Sea State 5 is: C vv (dB) = 7.87 + 1.09 * ln ( ) +1.27 * ln [sin ( ) + 0.0001] For Vertical Polarization, the Global Mean Reflectivity is: vv0 (dB) = hh0 (dB) + C vv The Local Mean Reflectivity Coefficient ( m): The mean value pertaining to a given resolution cell, selected from a log-normal distribution with mean 0 and (log) standard deviation:
l 2

+ 0.005) ]

0.2

= MAX [16 2.1*log10 (Ac), 3],

i

where Ac (m2) is the resolution cell area.

Instantaneous Reflectivity Coefficient ( and mean m.

): Exponentially distributed with Rayleigh amplitude

Spatial correlation: i and m are independent from cell to cell, while varying function of grazing angle (or range) and wind aspect, as above.

is a slowly

Frequency correlation: i is independent when using frequency agility and the frequency steps are greater than 1/ c, where c is the range resolution in time units. The spectral shape of Sea Clutter is Gaussian with a mean velocity of 1.4 m/sec for sea state 5 and 1.0 m/sec for sea state 3, and a standard deviation of 1 m/sec for sea state 5 and 0.5 m/sec for sea state 3, in the direction of the wind. These values should be decreased by cos ( ) [wind aspect angle] to account for the azimuthal difference between the beam electrical boresight and the wind direction.

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A.2.3. Weather
A.2.3.1. Rain Clutter20 The rain model consists of a distributed rain field with a 1mm/hr rainfall rate throughout the entire coverage area of the RRRP radars along with embedded storm cells. The distributed rain (stratiform precipitation) model employs a 1 mm/hr rainfall rate to represent uniform light rain. For simplicity, the rainfall rate is constant with altitude and equal to the surface rainfall rate. The entire column of rain is at a constant temperature from top to bottom. Additionally, Bright Band effects are to be ignored i.e. no melting-snow enhanced-returns as snow melts while falling through the 0oC altitude. To compensate for the lack of a Bright Band and non-consideration of rain drops entrained by updrafts, the rain will originate from the cloud tops (10 kft). Additionally, temperature corrections with altitude are sometimes employed in rain attenuation, but are to be ignored. The 1 mm/hr distributed rain is based on the ARSR-4 air traffic control radar and on the Surface Meteorological Study (SMS).21 1 mm/hr is typical of stratiform rain and a gap in observed rainfall rates was apparent during the SMSs 14,000,000+ observations, with relatively few observations producing readings between 1 mm/hr (stratiform systems) and 25 mm/hr (cellular systems). Distributed Rain Condition Scenario: 1.0 mm/hr uniform rain rate throughout RRRP surveillance volume 10 kft cloud top Assume uniform rain rate from top of cloud Relative humidity 100% within and beneath clouds (i.e. from 0 to 20,000 ft) Ignore: Temperature corrections Bright Band An embedded cellular system at 4 mm/hr has a diameter of 10 nm centered on the radar. This cell extends to 20,000 ft altitude and has a constant rate rainfall both horizontally throughout the cell and vertically to the cloud top. Cellular Rain Condition Scenario: 4.0 mm/hr uniform rain rate throughout RRRP coverage volume within 5 nm of the specified RRRP radar system and centered above the radar 20 kft cloud top Assume uniform rain rate from top of cloud Relative humidity 100% within and beneath clouds (i.e. from 0 to 20,000 ft) Ignore: Temperature corrections Bright Band
20

Reference 4 , Appendix C.2.2.2 and C.2.3.3

21

. Surface Meteorological Summary (SMS) Program, Revision 1.01, October 17, 1990, Naval Ocean Systems

Center, San Diego

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The clutter return / backscatter from rain precipitation is equal to the product of the backscatter coefficient or normalized RCS (RCS / unit volume) and the volume of the radars resolution cell. The volume of the resolution cell is determined by the beamwidth(s) (if different) and range cell size of the radar. (NEM Sec 2.2.2 / 2.2.3)22 The mean value of the rain precipitation backscatter coefficient (normalized RCS) for a particular resolution cell is given by:
0

= K f 4 r1.6 from Section 2.2.3.1 in NEM where: f = frequency in Hz and K = 7 (10)-48 for f <= 6.0 GHz, 13 (10)-48 for f = 35 GHz Interpolate for 6.0 GHz < f < 35 GHz Linear interpolation of K vs. log f and r = rain rate (mm/hr)

Table 5 Sample Rain Backscatter Coefficients for Several Rain Rates

22

Reference 2. Natural Environmental Models for Shipboard Radars (NEM)

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The thunderstorm cells rain rate was selected to correspond to conditions of severe environmental effects (10 dB rain attenuation), which occur within the line-of-sight of a groundbased radar at middle latitudes (New England) approximately 80 hours / year or 1% of the time.23 This thunderstorm is embedded in the overall rain field. Assume no radial variation in rain rate (50 mm/hr everywhere) within the 1 nm diameter of the cylindrical storm cell. For the distributed rain (1 mm/hr rain rate) and the lighter storm cell (4 mm/hr rain rate), the clutter spectra are driven by a surface mean wind speed (magnitude) of 10 kts. (ARSR 4) The FAA wind model was chosen because NEM (23.3) specifies wind speeds (equivalent to a Sea State of 5) that are very high for stratiform rain. The mean wind speed increases linearly to 20 kts at 20 kft. For the thunderstorm cell (50 mm/hr), the mean surface wind speed is 20 kts and wind speed increases linearly to 40 kts at 20 kft. (ARSR 4) For all three precipitation conditions, the instantaneous backscatter coefficient ( ) is exponentially distributed (Rayleigh amplitude) with mean 0. (G/ATOR) Frequency correlation of : is independent from pulse to pulse (or sub-pulse to sub-pulse) under frequency agility when the frequency steps are greater than 1/ c, where c is the range Freq. resolution cell size in time units. (GHz) For all three cases the spectral shape of the clutter is Gaussian, with mean values specified Rain deviations ( ) have a above. The standard Attenuation (dB/nm) constant turbulence component ( t) and an additive wind shear component ( g) that is a function of the vertical extent of the resolution cell: (G/ATOR) 2= t2+ g2 Cloud Attenuation (dB/nm) where: t = 2 kts g = 0.42 k h kts where: k = 0.95 kts / kft h = vertical extent in kft A.2.3.2. Rain Attenuation 1 The one-way attenuation coefficient for rain is given by: R=kr from Section 1.4.1 in NEM where: r = rain rate in mm/hr, and k and are from Table 1.4.1-1 in NEM But when r = 1, then: R = k 6.77 (10)-5 The one-way attenuation coefficient for clouds is given by:
23

Frequency of Occurrence of Rain Attenuation of 10 dB or Greater at 10 GHz; Austin, P.M.; MIT/LL; December 3.80 (10)-4 1966

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2.82 (10)-4 A = b W f 1.93 from Section 1.4.4 in NEM where: W = water density of the cloud 1.43 (10)-3 and f = frequency in GHZ and b = function of temperature The table below gives rain and cloud attenuation coefficients as a function of frequency. Note that these coefficients are given in dB/nm NEM uses dB/km. Table 5.1. Sample Rain & Cloud Attenuation Coefficients for Distributed Rain System

1 mm/hr

4 mm/hr 2.37 (10)-4 1.00 (10)-3

1 mm/hr (10oC)

4 mm/hr (0oC) (0oC) 5.09 (10)-4 1.90 (10)-3

7.09 (10)-4 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1.13 (10)-3 2.01(10)-3 3.02 (10)-3 5.12 (10)-3 7.76 (10)-3 1.35 (10)-2 1.74 (10)-2

3.13 (10)-3 5.26 (10)-3 1.17 (10)-2 1.82 (10)-2 3.35 (10)-2 4.89 (10)-2 7.56 (10)-2 1.02 (10)-1

3.14 (10)-3 5.47 (10)-3 8.43(10)-3 1.13(10)-2 1.61(10)-2 2.09 (10)-2 2.62 (10)-2 3.21 (10)-2

4.20 (10)-3 7.40 (10)-3 1.14 (10)-2 1.62 (10)-2 2.18 (10)-2 2.82 (10)-2 3.54 (10)-3 4.34 (10)-3

A.2.3.3. Snow Clutter The clutter return / backscatter from snow precipitation is equal to the product of the backscatter coefficient or normalized RCS (RCS / unit volume) and the volume of the radars resolution cell. The volume of the resolution cell is determined by the beamwidth(s) (if different) and range cell size of the radar. The mean value of the snow precipitation backscatter coefficient (normalized RCS) for a particular resolution cell is given by:24
24

Reference 5, pp. 117-118

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= 1.2 (10)-13 (r2/ 4) for > 0.02 m where: = wavelength in meters and r = snowfall rate in terms of its water content (mm/hr)

The instantaneous backscatter coefficient ( ) is exponentially distributed (Rayleigh amplitude) with mean 0.

A.3. Discrete Clutter

A.3.1. Angel Clutter (Birds and Clear Air Turbulence)25

The bird clutter model treats three classes of birds: light migratory birds (such as sparrows), heavy migratory birds (such as ducks), and sea birds (such as sea-gulls and pelicans). While migratory birds are present only seasonally, sea birds are always present in the littorals. Individual birds produce point returns. The RCS of individual birds is given by type in Table 6. For multiple birds in a resolution cell, the mean RCS is equal to the sum of their individual RCS values: = i The instantaneous RCS is constant for a single bird in a resolution cell; exponentially distributed (Rayleigh amplitude) for multiple birds with a mean . The spectral shape is Gaussian. The mean velocity, which is vectorially added to the wind velocity, is 30 kts for migratory birds and 25 kts for sea birds. The standard deviation of velocity distribution is 5 kts for all three types of birds. These are also given in Table 6.

25

Reference 4, Appendix C.2.3.4

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Table 6 Bird Clutter Bird Type Light Migratory Heavy Migratory Sea Birds Mean RCS (dBsm) -35 -25 -25 Minimum Altitude (kft) 5 1 Maximum Altitude (kft) 10 5 1 Mean Velocity (knots) 30 (NEM) 30 (NEM) 25

The extent of bird clutter is over all ranges and azimuths (see Table 6 for altitude bands). Flights of birds of a given class fly within a 1 kft altitude band in sizes and numbers as given in Table 7. The total numbers of birds given in the table are not necessarily visible to the radar. Unless otherwise stated in a performance scenario, standard propagation is used in calculating return power. Table 7 Distributions of Bird Flights Flight Sizes 10 20 20% 30% 40% Total # Birds (R < 100 nm) 180,000 2000 1000

Bird Type Light Migratory Heavy Migratory Sea Birds

5 10%

50 20%

100 10%

20% 50%

50% 50%

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A.3.2. Ship Clutter26

The sea contains fishing vessels, ships, and buoys which are modeled as discrete scatterers. It is assumed that 50 discretes are uniformly distributed in a 180 degree sector within 20 nmi of the radar site. The discrete vary in size from 0 dBsm to 60 dBsm, as shown in Table 8. The speeds of fishing vessels and pleasure craft are uniformly distributed between plus and minus 25 knots. Table 8 Discrete Sea Clutter (Ships)
RCS dBsm # of discretes 60 1 Assumed Radar Cross Section of Discretes 50 40 30 20 2 7 10 10 10 10 0 10

A.3.3. Vehicle Clutter27

Vehicle cross sections are assumed to be 10 dBsm with a mean ground speed of 50 knots and a standard deviation of 10 knots. Vehicles are assumed to travel on roads which are within view of the radar of 10 per minute with a uniform distribution along the length of the road.

A.3.4. Icebergs28
Icebergs are assumed to be discrete with the RCS distribution of Table 9. The velocity of the discrete is assumed to be +0.6 knots. Table 9 Discrete Sea Clutter (Icebergs)
RCS dBsm # of Icebergs Assumed Radar Cross Section of Icebergs 60 50 40 30 5 20 100 150 20 175

26 27

Reference 6, p. 163 Reference 6, p. 170 28 Reference 6, p. 164

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References:
1. FAA / USAF RFP for ARSR 4 Procurement Appendix; (ARSR 4) 2. Natural Environmental Models For Shipboard Radars; Janet Stapleton et al; NSWCDD/TR-99/51; September 2001; (NEM) 3. Low Angle Radar Land Clutter, Measurements and Empirical Models; J. Barrie Billingsley; William Andrew Publishing; Norwich, NY; 2002 (Billingsley) 4. USMC RFP for G/ATOR Procurement, Performance Specification Appendix C, Operational Environment; (G/ATOR) 5. Radar System Analysis and Modeling; David K. Barton; Artech House; Norwood, Ma; 2005 (Barton) 6. USAF, System Specification for the Iceland NATO Radar, ESD-IADS-SSS-9586A (INR) 7. USAF, Technical Requirements Document, 3DELRR-TRD-09-1031, Appendix E, 3DELRR Operational Environment. (3DELRR)

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