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Needs and Effects of Pollution Regulations in the Nuclear Industry

Tan H. L., Tay. C. E. M . and N. Amanina, Students of Faculty of Electrical, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
AbstractThis paper begins by introducing the causes and effects of nuclear pollution. Then, regulations from international regulatory body, International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) are discussed. IAEA plays dominant role in establishing safety standard in the nuclear industry. Liability and material damage nuclear insurance will be discussed. In addition, safe transportation of nuclear material can be achieved by proper packaging design, quality assurance and training, Then, 10 principles of basic safety principles will be discussed. Finally, remediation of radioactive contaminated area is discussed from several perspectives: radiation protection, legal framework, operational aspects and post remediation. Index Terms contaminated areas, hazard, IAEA, nuclear insurance, radionuclides, radiation level, remediation, quality assurance, safe transport

B. Underground Nuclear Testing Radiation from underground testing affects human and environment. Immediate effect happens when atmospheric testing happens together with underground testing. The second matter arising is the long lived radionuclides that are left underground. The future generations have to deal with the mess that left underground of military bases. The related activity poisoned the fish and destroyed the carol. It happened in the Pacificatolls where nuclear testing is conducted. C. Industry Leakage Industry leakage of nuclear energy system causes the nuclear particle, Uranium -235 expose to air particles. Then, it causes radiation to the area. D. Nuclear Explosion Nuclear Explosion happens when small portion of the mass of nuclei of atoms is converted quickly into energy. Fission of heavy nuclei and fusion of light nuclei results sudden release of energy. The combination of fission and fusion causes nuclear energy release. It happens when people use the nuclear weapon. E. Adverse Health Effect Radiation of nuclear energy causes human having cancer. The low rate of radiation delays the effect. It is caused by atmospheric and underground nuclear weapons testing or any other radiation exposure. GLOBAL EFFECTS OF NUCLEAR ATMOSPHERIC AND UNDERGROUND TESTING For atmospheric testing, we officially call the effect as delayed fallout because the invisible particle reaches the ground then settle in low concentration over the earths surface. For underground testing, the total quantities of longlived radionuclides left behind at test locations causes environmental risks. IV. GLOBAL CANCER RISK From 1945 to 1980, 423 announced atmospheric tests were conducted, with a yield of 545 megatons. Radioactive fallout was distributed globally. It increased the risk of cancer to world population. The majority of cancer cases arises from exposure in the northern hemisphere and will occur in North America, Europe, and Asia. III.

I. INTRODUCTION

UCLEAR energy is used to generate electricity. It consists of nuclear reactor which produces fission heat. The heat boils the water within the reactor or indirectly transferred to water in steam generator outside the reactor. It utilizes nuclear fission heat to produce steam. The steam drives a turbine, which is connected to an electrical generator. The heat content of the steam converted into mechanical energy of rotational motion in the turbine and then converted into electrical energy.The exhaust heat goes to a condenser. Condenser condenses the steam to cold water. Basically, the high quality water used in producing steam is recovered by condensing the steam. The liquid condensate returned as feedwater to steam generator. II.NUCLEAR POLLUTION A. Atmospheric Nuclear Testing It is hard to describe the effects of health and environmental because in some countries like France and China, evidence is not enough to be collected. Some information has been made public and some cannot show complete picture of human exposure. Some data was never collected, which is gamma radiation level more than beta and alpha radiation level. When the highly radioactive clouds were present, the people who staying outdoors breath heavily. The people will have heavy doses, both internally by inhalation and externally from gamma radiation from short-lived fission products.

2 V. INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY (IAEA) A. Introduction to IAEA IAEA is an international organisation formed at 29 July 1957 in order to promote and regulate peaceful use of nuclear energy. The headquarter of IAEA is at Vienna, Austria; whereas, operational liaison and offices are located in Geneva, New York, Toronto and Tokyo. At the moment, IAEA is leaded by Director General, Yukiya Amano. IAEA has 151 Member States on November 2010. Malaysia joins IAEA as member state on 1969. Besides, Board of Governors of IAEA consists of 35 Member States, elected by the General Conference. The General Conference is an annual meeting (typically in September) among Board of Governors, Director General and Member States, to discuss about IAEA programmes and budget. and material damage. Liability insurance is compulsory in many countries; whereas material damage is not compulsory. B. Liability Nuclear Insurance Similar to motor insurance, liability nuclear insurance ensures that compensation is paid to operator or third party for injury and damage. Third party means any persons, inside or outside the installation, such as suppliers, contractors or employees of operator. Based on Paris or Vienna Conventions, liability of operator is absolute. Absolute means the policy will be in force irrespective of operators fault. Accident that happens to third party will be the liability of operator. The policy covers radioactive, toxic and other hazardous properties regarding nuclear matter. Minimum liability of operator is USD 5 million for each incident for each country. Claims can be made within 10 years from the date of incident. C. Material Damage Nuclear Insurance This type of insurance provides financial relief to the owner if his nuclear property is damaged due to fire, explosion, lightning, aircraft accident or other specific perils stated in the policy. Owner is highly recommended to insure himself to reduce the risk of financial loss. In addition, the policy covers excessive temperature increase in reactor due to unintentional release of energy or failure of cooling system. Other benefit of coverage is contamination by radioactivity that is accidentally escaped. This coverage covers nuclear reactor shield, cooling circuit and other properties stated in policy. VII. REGULATIONS FOR SAFE TRANSPORT OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL A. Objective The objective of the regulation is to set acceptable requirements to minimise exposure of radiation when transporting radioactive materials. This is to maintain safety of humans, property, living things, and the environment. B. Packaging According to Type of Radioactive Materials Radioactive contents are required to be classified according to their hazards and characteristics. Then, special packaging is designed to keep and transport the radioactive materials. In general, the packaging guidelines are as follow: 1) Easy to lift: Packaging should be designed in terms of shape, mass and volume so that it can be easily lifted. 2) Secure to conveyance: Packaging should be properly secured to conveyance so that it does not move when conveyance move. Conveyance means vehicle, vessel or aircraft that is used for transportation at land, sea or air. 3) Easy to clean surface: Packaging surface should be able to be cleaned easily. In other words, the surface should be free of obstacles or protruding objects.

Fig. 1. The flags represent International Atomic Energy Agency, IAEA.

B. United Nations (UN) at IAEA In addition, IAEA is formed by the United Nations (UN) and reports annually to UN about matters regarding international peace and security. UN is an international organisation that aims to promote world peace, fight human rights, promote economic development and helps to establish international law. Examples of other agencies under UN are World Health Organisation (WHO), United Nations Children Fund (UNICEF) and World Food Programme (WFP). Malaysia is a member of UN at 17 September 1957. C. Scope of Work of IAEA The work of IAEA is according to the interest and needs of Member States. The main areas of work of IAEA are safety and security, science and technology, and safeguards and verification. We will focus on safety and security to minimise nuclear pollution. IAEA implements safety standards that aim to ensure nuclear safety, protect public health, and minimise danger to the environment and living system. The safety standards are established by experts from the Member States and are approved by the Board of Governors. VI. NUCLEAR INSURANCE A. Introduction to Nuclear Insurance Pollution in the nuclear industry can be minimized, but cannot be eliminated. There will still be possibility of nuclear accidents, despite safety measures are taken. Therefore, nuclear insurance serves as a financial relief if the unforeseen incident happens. Two types of nuclear insurance are liability

3 4) Outer layer does not collect water: The outer layer of package should be designed so that it will not collect water. 5) Good lifting attachment: Lifting attachment of package should be designed so that it will not fail when lifted properly. Even if the attachment fails, the containment will still meet the safety requirement. C. Quality Assurance Quality assurance is important to ensure the safety of persons, property and environment during the transport of radioactive material. Quality assurance is achieved by approval and certification from competent authority regarding design, manufacture, testing, documentation, use, maintenance, and transportation of radioactive materials. Competent authority means anybody that is recognized to regulate the regulations based on international, national or other relevant safety standards. For example, radioactive material manufacturing methods and materials should be approved by competent authorities according to design specifications. In addition, packaging is required to undergo inspection by competent authorities from time to time to ensure it is in good working condition, though used repeatedly. D. Training Workers that involve in transportation of radioactive materials will be given training about radiation protection so that radiation exposure is minimized. The types of training are as follow: 1) Familiarisation training: Familiarisation training describes categories of radioactive materials, labelling, markings, packaging requirements, transport documents, and emergency response. 2) Function specific training: Function specific training describes detailed safe transport requirements according to specific task a person do. 3) Safety training: Safety training educates workers to avoid accidents by handling and store package correctly. Then, workers are made aware to prevent exposure of radioactive elements by wearing personal protective clothing and equipment. In addition, workers will be taught the procedures to response in the event of emergency such as unintentional release of radioactive materials. VIII.BASIC SAFETY RULES OF NUCLEAR RADIATION A. Introduction of basic safety Since there is a big risk to workers and public due to the radiation explosion incidents, it has to be assessed seriously and fully being controlled. Therefore, several daily activities which involve the use of radioactive substances must be refer to the appropriate level of safety. This responsibility is not only under observation of national bodies but required international cooperation since radiation risks may outgrow national borders. B. Objective The main objective of this safety rules is to prepare the protection for people and the environment from noxious effects of ionizing radiation. The activity that expectly expose and release the radiactive materials to the environment must be control.Other than that, this fundamental safety is to isolate the likelihoods events that might lead to a loss of control over a nuclear reactor core, nuclear chain reaction, radioactive source or any other source of radiation and also to reduce the repercussions of such events if they were to occur. C. The principles of the basic safety provided in IAEA safety standards. There are ten safety principles stated under the regulation of safety fundamental. a) Responsibility for safety The safety responsibility must recovered with the person or organization responsible for facilities and activities that give rise to radiation risks. b) Role of government The effective legal and safety governmental framework, including an independent regulatory body must be established and sustained. c) Leadership and management for safety The organizations should more concerned with the facilities and activities that give rise to radiation risks by sustained and established an effective leadership and management for safety. d) Justification of facilities and activities Facilities and activities that give rise to radiation risks must yield an overall benefit. e) Optimization of protection In order to achieve the highest level of safety, protection must be optimized. f) Limitation of risks to individuals To avoid any harmful of risk to individual, there must be have a control measurement for radiation risks. g) Protection of present and future generations Present and future people and environment must be protected again radiation. h) Prevention of accidents In order to prevent and mitigate nuclear or radiation accidents, all practical effort must be prepared to ensure it can be reduce the effect sof radiation if it is happen in future. i) Emergency preparedness and response

4 The arrangements of emergency preparation should be made to face the incidents of nuclear radiation. j) Protective actions to reduce existing or unregulated radiation risks The justification and optimization of protective actions are needed to reduce existing or unregulated radiation risks. IAEA will pursue the fundamental safety objective stated in accordance with the safety principles, and it will encourage its Member States to do likewise. IX. REMEDIATION OF AREAS CONTAMINATED AND ACCIDENTS PAST ACTIVITIES contaminated areas has to remediate successfully before contribute a new area. REFERENCES [1] Experience and Trends in Nuclear Law, Legal Series No. 8, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, 1972 [2] K. S. Shrader-Frechette, Nuclear Power and Public Policy, The Social and Ethical Problems of Fission Technology, D. Reidel Publishing Company, Holland, 1983 [3] Regulations for the Safe Transport of Radioactive Material, International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Vienna, 2009 [4] Fundamental Safety Principles, International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Vienna, 2006 [5] Remediation of Areas Contaminated by Past Activities and Accidents, International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Vienna, 2003 [6] International Atomic Energy Agency, http://www.iaea.org/About/about-iaea.html, 27-9-11 [7] International Atomic Energy Agency, Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Atomic_Energ y_Agency, 27-9-11 [8] Nuclear Safety and Security, International Atomic Energy Agency, http://www-ns.iaea.org, 27-9-11 [9] United Nations, Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations, 27-9-11

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A. Causes that resulting the contaminated areas There are several activities that cause the nuclear contaminated area which are when the testing time of nuclear weapons, the nuclear installation and other establishments that consist of radionuclide. Besides that, this contaminated area also due to the accidental discharge of radioactive material to the environment and during the inadequate practices for the management and disposal of radioactive waste . B. Objective The recovery of nuclear profanation areas was performed to provide optimized arrangements for protection to maximize the net benefit to society. Instead of that, this remediation is to reduce the individual and community by exposed of high doses of radiation. It is also to prevent or reduce environmental impacts from the radionuclides present in the contaminated area. C. Nomination from IAEA to remediate the contaminated area a) b) c) d) Radiation protection in remediation situation Legal and regulatory framework Operational aspects of remediation Post remediation activities

X.CONCLUSION In conclusion, safety standards implemented by International Atomic Energy Agency are important to protect lives, environment, property and reduce pollution in the nuclear industry. Liability nuclear insurance helps to provide financial relief to nuclear operators and third party; whereas, material damage nuclear insurance provides financial relief to the owner of nuclear plant. Safe packaging design and proper operator trainings are able to ensure safe transportation of radioactive material for minimum exposure of radiation. Basic safety rules provide the principles of the safety fundamental in order to prevent the consequences of radioactive materials to human and environment. The