Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Chapter 5
PILES
CHAPTER 5
5.1 Piles
- For piles the length to width (diameter) ratio i.e. Lp/d > 4 , where Lp is the
pile length and d is pile diameter.
- The basic situation for a pile foundation is where soft soil exists near the
ground surface which underlain by rock formation e.g.
Figure 5-1 Pile foundation resting on hard stratum underlying a soft soil
layer
5.2 Uses of Piles
Piles are commonly used for the following purposes (Figure 5-2).
- To carry superstructure loads into or through a soil stratum. Both vertical
and lateral loads may be involved.
Building
Soft Soil
Piles
Firm Soil
2
- To resist uplift or overturning forces such as for basement mats below the
W.T. or to support the tower legs subjected to overturning from lateral loads
such as wind.
- To compact loose, cohesionless deposits through a combination of pile
volume displacement and driving vibration, thus increasing their bearing
capacity.
- To carry the foundation through the depth of scour to provide safety in the
event the soil is eroded away.
- To stiffen the soil beneath machine foundations to control both amplitudes
of vibration and the natural frequency of the system.
- In offshore construction to transmit the loads above the water surface
through the water and into the underlying soil. This case is one in which
partially embedded piling is subjected to vertical (and buckling) as well as
lateral loads.
Figure 5-2 (a) Tension pile to resist overturning movements in tall buildings (b) Shear pile to
resist horizontal forces or movements Friction pile (c) raking piles in harbor and river
(a)
(b)
(c)
tension
compression
Wind
3
5.3 Classification of Piles
5.3.1 Classification according to the mechanism of load transfer
End/Point Bearing Piles
If a bedrock or rocklike material is present at a site within a reasonable depth,
piles can be extended to the rock surface (figure 5-3(a)). In this case, the
ultimate bearing capacity of the pile depends entirely of the underlying
material; thus the piles are called end or point bearing piles. In most of these
cases the necessary length of the pile can be fairly well established.
Instead of bedrock, if a fairly compact and hard stratum of soil is encountered at
a reasonable depth, piles can be extended a few meters into the hard stratum.
Friction Piles (figure 5-3 b)
When no layer of rock or rocklike material is present at a reasonable depth at a
site, point/end bearing piles become very long and uneconomical. For this type
of subsoil condition, piles are driven through the softer material to specified
depth. These types of piles are called friction piles because the load on the pile
is resisted mainly by skin/friction resistance along the side of the pile (pile
shaft). Pure friction piles tend to be quite long, since the load-carrying capacity
is a function of the shaft area in contact with the soil.
In cohesionless soils, such as sands of medium to low density, friction piles are
often used to increase the density and thus the shear strength.
Friction cum end bearing piles
In the majority of cases, however, the load-carrying capacity is dependent on
both end-bearing and shaft friction (figure 5-3 c).
4
5.3.2 Classification of piles according to their method of
installation (figure 5-4)
Driven or displacement piles
They are usually preformed before being driven, jacked, screwed or hammered
into ground. This category consists of driven piles of steel or precast concrete
and piles formed by driving tubes or shells which are fitted with a driving shoe.
The tubes or shells which are filled with concrete after driving. Also included in
this category are piles formed by placing concrete as the driven piles are
withdrawn.
Bored or Replacement piles
They require a hole to be first bored into which the pile is then formed usually
of reinforced concrete. The shaft (bore) may be cased or uncased depending
upon type of soil.
Soft
ground
hard
Soft to
firm
Soft to
firm
Firm to
hard
Soft
Figure 5-3(a) End bearing pile (b) Friction pile (c) friction cum end bearing pile
(a) (b)
(c)
5
5.3.3 Classification of Piles according to Materials
Timber piles
- Timber piles are made of tree trunks driven with small end as a point
- Maximum length: 35 m; optimum length: 9 20m
- Max load for usual conditions: 450 kN; optimum load range = 80240
kN
- Disadvantages: difficult to splice, vulnerable to damage in hard driving,
vulnerable to decay unless treated with preservatives (If timber is below
permanent W.T. it will apparently last for ever), if subjected to alternate
(a) (b) (c)
(d)
(e) (f)
Figure 5-4 Principal types of pile: (a) precast RC pile (b) steel H pile (c) shell
pile (d) concrete pile cast as driven tube withdrawn (e) bored pile (cast in
situ), (f) under-reamed bored pile (cast in situ)
6
wetting & drying, the useful life will be short, partly embedded piles or
piles above W.T. are susceptible to damage from wood borers and other
insects unless treated.
- Advantages: comparatively low initial cost, permanently submerged piles
are resistant to decay, easy to handle, best suited for friction piles in
granular material.
Steel Piles
- Max length: practically unlimited,
- optimum length: 1250 m
- load for usual conditions = maximum allowable stress x-section area,
- Optimum load range = 3501050 kN
- The members are usually rolled HP shapes/pipe piles. Wide flange beams
& I beams proportioned to withstand the hard driving stress to which the
pile may be subjected, In HP pile the flange thickness= web thickness,
pipe piles are either welded or seamless steel pipes, which may be driven
either open ended or closed end. Closed end piles are usually filled with
concrete after driving. Open end piles may be filled but this is not often
necessary.
- Advantages: easy to splice, high capacity, small displacement, able to
penetrate through light obstructions, best suited for end bearing on rock,
reduce allowable capacity for corrosive locations or provide corrosion
protection.
- Disadvantages: Vulnerable to corrosion, HP section may be
damaged/deflected by major obstruction
Concrete Piles
- Concrete piles may be precast, prestressed, cast in place, or of composite
construction.
- Precast concrete piles may be made using ordinary reinforcement or they
may be prestressed.
7
- Pecast piles using ordinary reinforcement are designed to resist bending
stresses during picking up & transport to the site & bending moments
from lateral loads and to provide sufficient resistance to vertical loads
and any tension forces developed during driving.
- Prestressed piles are formed by tensioning high strength steel prestress
cables, and casting the concrete about the cable. When the concrete
hardens, the prestress cables are cut, with the tension force in the cables
now producing compressive stress in the concrete pile. It is common to
higher-strength concrete (35 to 55 MPa) in prestressed piles because of
the large initial compressive stresses from prestressing. Prestressing the
pile tends to counteract any tension stresses during either handling or
driving.
- Max length: 1015 m for precast, 2030 m for prestressed
- Optimum length: 1012 m for precast, 1825m prestressed
- Loads for usual conditions 900 for precast, 8500 kN for prestressed
- Optimum load range: 3503500 kN
- Disadvantages: difficult to handle unless prestressed, high initial cost,
considerable displacement, prestressed piles are difficult to splice.
- Advantages: high load capacities, corrosion resistance can be attained,
hard driving possible
- Remarks: cylinder piles in particular are suited for bending resistance.
- Cast in place concrete piles are formed by drilling a hole in the ground &
filling it with concrete. The hole may be drilled or formed by driving a
shell or casing into the ground.
- Disadvantages of Concrete piles: Concrete piles are considered
permanent, however, certain soil (usually organic) contain materials that
may form acids that can damage the concrete. Salt water may also
adversely react with the concrete unless special precautions are taken
when the mix proportions are designed. Additionally, concrete piles used
for marine structures may undergo abrasion from wave action and
floating debris in the water. Alternate freezing & thawing can cause
concrete damage in any exposed situation.
8
Composite piles
- In general, a composite pile is made up of two or more sections of
different materials or different pile types. The upper portion could be
cased cast-in-place concrete combined with a lower portion of timber,
steel H or concrete filled steel pipe pile. These piles have limited
application and are employed under special conditions.
5.4 Load Capacity of Piles
Three general methods are available to establish load capacity:
(1) Static Analysis (2) Dynamic Analysis (3) Load Testing (4) Correlation
with field tests (SPT, CPT etc)
Dynamic formulae are used for driven piles. Static formulae are used both for
bored and driven piles. Load testing is the most reliable method to determine
the load capacity of the pile in the field. They should be performed on all piling
projects. However, they are considerably more expensive than the other
methods used to determine pile capacity, and economic consideration
sometimes preclude their use on projects. Field tests like SPT, CPT are also
used to correlate to load carrying capacity particularly for cohesionless soils.
5.5 Driven Piles
5.5.1 Dynamic Pile Formulas
Piles are usually forced into the ground by a pile driver or pile hammer. In
medieval times piles were driven by men manually swinging hammer, which
consists of a weight raised by ropes or cables and allowed to drop freely
striking the top of the pile. After the drop hammer came the single acting
hammer, double acting hammer, differential acting hammer, diesel pile
hammer, vibratory driver.
Dynamic pile formulas are widely used to determine the static capacity of the
driven pile. These formulas are derived starting with the relation
Energy Input = Energy Used + Energy Lost
The Energy used equals the driving resistance (Pu) the pile movement (s).
9
Energy lost is due to friction, heat, hammer rebound, vibration and elastic
compression of the pile, the pacing assembly, and the soil.
Energy News Record (ENR) Formula:
This formula takes into account the energy lost due to temporary compression
(C) resulting from elastic compression of the pile. Thus
Energy Input = Energy Used + Energy Lost
Wr h = Pu s + Pu C
Pu = Wr h / (s + C)
Where Wr = weight of the ram, h= height of fall of the ram, s = penetration of
pile per hammer blow, Pu = average resistance of soil to penetration.
C= 25 mm (1 inch) for drop hammer, and
C= 2.5 mm (0.1 inch) for steam hammer (single acting/double acting)
Pa = Pu / SF where Pa = allowable load on pile, and SF(factor of safety) = 6
For single/double acting hammer, the term (Wr h) can be replaced by q
h
E
where q
h
=hammer efficiency (table-1) and E=rated energy of hammer. Thus
Pu = q
h
E / (s + C)
Table-1: Hammer efficiency q
h
Table 5-1 Hammer efficiency q
h
Hammer type Efficiency
q
h
Single and double acting
hammer
0.7-0.85
Diesel hammers 0.8-0.9
Drop hammers 0.7-0.9
10
Example: A precast concrete pile 12in 12 in in cross section is driven by a
steam hammer. The maximum rated hammer energy = 26 kips-ft, hammer
efficiency = 0.8 and the number of blows for the last 1 inch of penetration = 5.
Estimate the allowable pile capacity by using (a) ENR formula using SF=6.0
Solution:
ENR formula:
q
h
= 0.8, E=26 kip-ft, s=1/5 = 0.2 inch/blow. SF=6.0
SF C s
E
Pa
h
) ( +
=
q
= 0.8 26 12 / [ (0.2 + 0.1) 6 ] = 836 kips
5.5.2 PILE DRIVING EQUIPMENT
Piles are installed by a special pile driving device know as a pile hammer. The
hammer may be suspended from the boom of a crawler crane, supported on a
large frame called a pile driver or carried on a barge for construction in water.
In all cases, the hammer is guided between two parallel steel members called
leads. The leads may be adjusted at various angles for driving vertical and
batter piles.
Several types of hammers are in use and each of which are different sizes. The
hammer types are:
Drop hammer
The drop hammer consists of a heavy ram in between the leads. The ram is
lifted up to a certain height and released to drop on the pile. This type is slow
and therefore not in common use. It is used in the cases where only a small
number of piles are driven.
Single-acting hammer
In single acting hammer a heavy ram is lifted up by steam or compressed air but
dropped by its own weight. The energy of a single acting hammer is equal to
the weight of the ram times the height of fall.
Double-acting hammer
The double-acting hammer employs steam or air for lifting the ram and for
accelerating the downward stroke. The energy of a double-acting hammer is
11
equal to the (weight of the ram + mean effective pressure x the effective area of
ram) x times the height of fall.
Diesel hammer
The diesel hammer is a small, light weight and highly mobile. They use
gasoline for fuel. To start the operation, the ram is raised, and the fuel is
injected. As the ram is released, the ram falls and compresses air and fuel. The
air and fuel becomes hot because of the compression and the air-fuel mixture is
ignited. The resulting explosion (1) advances the pile and (2) lifts the ram. If the
pile advance is very great as in soft soils, the ram is not lifted by the explosion
sufficiently to ignite the air-fuel mixture on the next cycle, requiring that the
ram be again manually lifted.
Vibratory hammer
The principle of the vibratory driver is two counter-rotating eccentric weights.
The driving unit vibrates at high frequency and provides two vertical impulses-
one up and one down. The downward pulse acts with the pile weight to increase
the apparent gravity force. These hammers have reduced driving vibrations,
reduced noise, and great speed of penetration.
5.5.3 HAMMER SELECTION
Generally the size of hammer is more important factor than type of hammer.
A heavy pile should be driven by a heavy hammer delivering large energy.
Preferably the weight of the hammer should be at least on-half the total weight
of the pile, and the deriving energy should be at least one foot-pound for each
pound of pile weight.
Each type of hammer has its use under suitable conditions. The advantages and
disadvantages of each type are summarized below:
Single-acting hammer
They are advantageous when driving heavy piles in compact or hard soils; the
heavy ram striking at low velocity produces least damage due to impact. The
disadvantages are low driving speed and large headroom requirement.
Double-acting hammer
12
They are generally used to drive piles of light or moderate weight in soils of
average resistance against driving. This type of hammer can drive piles at fast
speed, requires less headroom and can be used to extract piles by turning them
[i.e. the double-acting hammer] upside down.
Diesel hammer
They are similar in application as double-acting hammers, but driving may
become difficult in extremely soft ground.
Vibratory hammer
They have fairly good results in silty and clayey deposits. They are used in
heavy clays or soils with appreciable numbers of boulders. These hammers
have reduced driving vibrations, reduced noise, and great speed of penetration.
5.6 STATIC PILE FORMULAS
The ultimate load which can be carried by a pile is equal to the sum of the base
resistance and the shaft resistance (figure 5-5).
P
u
+ W
p
= A
b
q
b(gross)
+ A
s
q
s
P
u
is the ultimate load that can be carried at top of pile, q
b
ultimate (gross)
bearing capacity at base level, A
b
= base area of pile, q
s
=ultimate shearing/skin
resistance per unit area, A
s
= perimeter area of pile, and Wp = weight of the pile.
Subtracting Ws from both sides of the equation. Where Ws is effective soil
weight replaced/displaced due to pile volume. Ws = 'LA
b
where ' is the
effective weight of soil, and L is pile length.
P
u
+ (W
p
Ws)= A
b
q
b(gross)
+ A
s
q
s
-Ws
P
u
+ (W
p
Ws) = A
b
q
b(gross)
+ A
s
q
s
- 'LA
b
P
u
+ (W
p
Ws) = (q
b(gross)
- 'L)A
b
+ A
s
q
s
P
u
+ (W
p
Ws) = (q
b(gross)
- oo')A
b
+ A
s
q
s
Where oo'='L is effective vertical stress at pile base
P
u
+(W
p
Ws) = A
b
q
b
+ A
s
q
s
13
P
u
= A
b
q
b
+ A
s
q
s
(W
p
Ws)
P
u
= A
b
q
b
+ A
s
q
s
W
P
u
is the ultimate load that can be carried at top of pile, q
b
ultimate (net) bearing
capacity at base level, A
b
= base area of pile, q
s
=ultimate shearing/skin
resistance per unit area, A
s
= perimeter area of pile, W= Wp Ws = weight of
the pile effective weight of soil replaced. In most cases Wp~ Ws and hence
W~0.
P
u
= A
b
q
b
+ A
s
q
s
However in the case of under-reamed piles (figure 5-4 f) the reduction in
pressure on the soil at base level due to the removal of soil is greater than the
subsequent increase in pressure due to the weight of the pile and hence use
equation-1 (i.e. do not assume that W
p
~ W
s
)
5.6.1 COHESIONLESS SOILS
End bearing Resistance (q
b
)
q
s
q
b
W
P
Figure 5-5 Free body diagram of a pile
P
u
14
The ultimate B.C. and settlement of a pile depends mainly on the relative
density of sand. However, if a pile is driven into sand the relative density
adjoining the pile is increased by compaction due to soil displacement (except
in dense sands, which may be loosened). The soil characteristics governing
ultimate bearing capacity and settlement, therefore, are different from the
original characteristics prior to driving. This fact, in addition to the
heterogeneous nature of sand deposits, makes the prediction of pile behavior by
analytical methods extremely difficult.
The ultimate (net) B.C. at base level can be expressed as
q
b
= cN
c
+ o
o
' N
q
+ B N
-o
o
' [o
o
' is subtracted to get net value of q
b
]
Where o
o
' is the effective overburden pressure at base level of pile.
q
b
= cN
c
+ o
o
'(N
q
-1) + B N
c=0 for sand and 1/2BN
-o
o
' [o
o
' is subtracted to get net value of q
b
]
1/2BN
+
(
(
+ =
g g
g
c
B
D
L
B
N
9
25 . 2
12
053 . 0 1
25 . 2
25 . 2
2 . 0 1 14 . 5 s
(
+
(
+ =
c
N
9 45 . 9 > =
c
N
So take 9 =
c
N
kPa N c q
c u b
6 . 768 9 4 . 85 = = =
40
2
0625 . 5 25 . 2 25 . 2 m A
b
= =
depth Parameter A
s
=
2
108 12 ) 25 . 2 25 . 2 ( 2 m A
s
= + =
kN P
gp u
10392 2 . 60 108 6 . 768 0625 . 5
) (
= + =
Ultimate load for piled foundation (Pile cap resting over group).
(a) Base Failure Value=10392 kN
(b) Such as of induced pile cap=8199=7371 kN
Minimum of (a) & (b) is selected for Pu(group)= 7371 kN
kN
FOS
P
P
u
allowable
4 . 2948
5 . 2
7371
= = =
12 m
2.25 m
2.25 m