CUBIC EQUATIONS NONLINEAR EQUATIONS MAJOR

TEXTBOOK NOTES ALL

Topic Nonlinear Equations

Sub Topic Text Book Notes – Exact Solution of Cubic Equations
Summary Text book notes of exact solution of cubic equation
Authors Clayton Rabens, Aaron Cline, Autar Kaw
Last Revised Monday, May 19, 2003
Web Site http://numericalmethods.eng.usf.edu

The general cubic equation is given by

ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d = 0 (1)

To find the roots of this equation, we first get rid of the quadratic term. To do this, we
make the substitution
b
x= y− (2)
3a
to the cubic equation, to obtain
3 2
 b   b   b 
a y −  + b y −  + c y −  + d = 0 (3)
 3a   3a   3a 

Expanding equation (3) and simplifying, we obtain the following equation

 b2   2b 3 bc 
ay 3 +  c −  y +  d + 2
−  = 0 (4)
 3a   27 a 3a 

This equation is called the “depressed” cubic since the quadratic term is gone. Having
the equation in this form makes it easier to solve for the roots of the cubic equation (Click
here to know the history behind solving cubic equations exactly).
First, convert the “depressed” cubic equation into the form of
1 b2  1 2b 3 bc 
y3 +  c −  y +  d + 2
−  = 0
a 3a  a 27 a 3a 

y 3 + ey + f = 0 (5)

where

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 1 b2 
e=  c − 
a 3a 

1 2b 3 bc 
f =  d + 2
− 
a 27 a 3a 

Now, reduce the above equation using Vieta’s substitution

s
y= z+ (6)
z
The constant ‘s’ is an undefined constant for the present. Substituting into the
“depressed” cubic equation, we get
3
 s  s
z +  + e z + + f =0 (7)
 z  z

Expanding out and multiplying through by z 3, we get

z 6 + (3s + e )z 4 + fz 3 + s (3s + e )z 2 + s 3 = 0 (8)

Now, let s = -e / 3 to simplify the equation into a “tri-quadratic” equation.

e3
z 6 + fz 3 − =0 (9)
27
By making one more substitution, w = z3, we now have a general quadratic equation
which can be solved using the quadratic formula.
e3
w + fw −
2
=0 (10)
27
Once you obtain the solution to this quadratic equation, back substitute using the previous
substitutions to obtain the roots to the general cubic equation.
w→ z→ y→ x

where as assumed
w = z3 (11)
s
y= z+ (12)
z
e
s= (13)
3
b
x= y− (14)
3a

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Note that you will get two roots for w as equation (10) is a quadratic equation.

Using equation (11) would then give you three roots for each of the two roots of w, hence
giving you six root values for z.

But the six root values of z would only give you three values of y (equation (12)), and
hence three values of x (equation (14)). See example below.

Example Problem
Find the roots of the following cubic equation
x 3 − 0.03 x 2 + 2.4 x10 −6 = 0

Solution
For the general form
ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d = 0
a = 1, b = −0.03, c = 0, d = 2.4 x10 −6
Depress the cubic equation by letting
b
x= y−
3a

x= y−
(− 0.03)
3(1)
x = y + 0.01

Substituting the above equation into the cubic equation and simplifying, we get
y 3 − (3x10 −4 )y + (4 x10 −7 ) = 0
that gives e = −3x10 −4 , f = 4 x10 −7 of equation (5), that is, y 3 + ey + f = 0 .

Now, solve the “depressed” cubic equation by using Vieta’s substitution as,
s
y= z+
z
to obtain
z 6 + (3s − 3x10 −4 )z 4 + (4 x10 −7 )z 3 + s (3s − 3x10 −4 )z 2 + s 3 = 0

Letting
e − 3x10 −4
s=− =− = 10 − 4 ,
3 3

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we get the following “tri-quadratic” equation
z 6 + (4 x10 −7 )z 3 + 1x10 −12 = 0

Using the following conversion, w = z 3, we get a general quadratic equation

w 2 + (4 x10 −7 )w + (1x10 −12 ) = 0

Using the quadratic equation, the solutions for w are

w1 = −2 x10 −7 + i (9.79795897113x10 −7 ) and
w2 = −2 x10 −7 − i (9.79795897113 x10 −7 )

Each solution of w = z 3 yields three values of z. The three values of z from w1 are in
rectangular form
z1 = −0.008976098746 + i 0.004407907814

z 2 = 6.70689228525 x10 −4 + i 0.009977483448

z 3 = 0.008305409518 + i 0.005569575634

The three values of z from w2 are in rectangular form

z 4 = −0.008976098746 − i 0.004407907814
z 5 = 6.70689228525 x10 −4 − i 0.009977483448

z 6 = 0.008305409518 − i 0.005569575634

Using Vieta’s substitution,

s
y= z+
z

y= z+
(1x10 ) −4

z
we back substitute to find three values for y.
For example, choosing z1 = −0.008976098746 + i 0.004407907814 gives

1x10 −4
y1 = −0.008976098746 + i 0.004407907814 +
− 0.008976098746 + i0.004407907814

y1 = −0.01795219749

Similarly, the other two values of z2 and z3 give

y 2 = 0.001341378457

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 y 3 = 0.016610819036

respectively.
What about the three other z values z4, z5 and z6? They give the same values as y1, y2 and
y3, respectively.
Finally, with the substitution
x = y + 0.01

the three roots of the given equation are

x1 = −0.00795219749

x 2 = 0.011341378457
x3 = 0.026610819036

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