Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers Structures & Buildings 158 February 2005 Issue SB1 Pages 5369

Paper 13351 Received 29/04/2003 Accepted 16/02/2004 Keywords: beams & girders/mathematical modelling/strength & testing of materials Ezzeldin Yazeed SayedAhmed Associate Professor, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt

Lateral torsion-exure buckling of corrugated web steel girders

E. Y. Sayed-Ahmed PhD, MSc, MCSCE, MIABSE
Resistance to lateral torsion-exure buckling of steel I-girders with plane webs is a very important design requirement. Codes of practice allow designers to use the critical moment of a simply supported beam subject to a constant moment and relate it to the critical moment of any other loading case via an equivalent moment factor. On the other hand, the compression ange outstand-to-thickness ratio which controls the ange local buckling is another important design parameter. According to most codes of practice this ratio, together with web-to-thickness ratio, denes the I-section class and compactness. Recently, plate girders with corrugated steel webs have been used in different structural applications and bridges. The girders anges provide the exural capacity with no contribution from its corrugated web which provides the girders shear capacity. Lateral torsion-exure buckling and local ange buckling of corrugated web girders still need to be investigated. A numerical analysis based on the niteelement technique was performed on these girders. The critical moment causing lateral instability was numerically determined. The nite-element model results were used to investigate the applicability of the critical moment design equations, currently used for a girder with a plane web, to corrugated web girders. The validity of the equivalent moment factor concept to corrugated web girders was also examined. The numerical model was then used to scrutinise the local buckling behaviour of the compression ange for girders with corrugated webs. The applicability of the currently used limiting values for ange outstand-to-thickness ratio which dene the section class to corrugated web girders was also examined. Dx Dy d E Fy G h hw Ix Iy J ks kg L Ll Ls Lav Mocr Mcr M1,2,3 exural stiffness of a corrugated web per unit corrugation about the x axes exural stiffness of a corrugated web per unit corrugation about the y axes horizontal projection of the inclined corrugation panel width Youngs modulus yield stress of the steel elastic shear modulus corrugation height web height second moment of area about the strong axis of inertia of the beams cross-section second moment of area about the weak axis of inertia of the beams cross-section torsional constant of the beams cross-section local shear buckling coefcient for the local buckling mode of a corrugated web global shear buckling coefcient for the global buckling mode of a corrugated web beam span large ange outstand for I-girder with corrugated web small ange outstand for I-girder with corrugated web average ange outstand for I-girder with corrugated web critical moment of a beam subject to constant bending about the strong axis critical moment of a beam subject to exure about the strong axis absolute values of the bending moments at the quarter point, midpoint and three-quarter point of the beam span, respectively maximum bending moment acting on a beam smaller end moment acting on a beam larger end moment acting on a beam yield moment of the beams cross-section plastic moment of the beams cross-section critical compressive force causing local ange buckling for an I-girder yield strength of the compression ange of an I-girder radius of gyration about the strong axis of inertia of the beams cross-section radius of gyration about the weak axis of inertia of the beams cross-section Sayed-Ahmed 53

NOTATION A cross-sectional area a horizontal panel width of a trapezoidally corrugated web b inclined panel width of a trapezoidally corrugated web bfl ange width of an I-section Cb equivalent moment factor Cw warping constant of the beams cross-section c projected length of one corrugation wave Structures & Buildings 158 Issue SB1

Mmax MA MB My Mp Ncr Ny rx ry

Lateral torsion-exure buckling of corrugated web steel girders

Se Sx Sy s tfl tw teq WR Zx Zy max-FE theo cr,g cr,l cr,i y

effective elastic section modulus based on the effective width concept elastic modulus of the section about the strong axis of inertia elastic modulus of the section about the weak axis of inertia corrugation amplitude for a corrugated web ange thickness of an I-section web thickness of an I-girder web equivalent thickness warping restraint contribution to the girders resistance to lateral buckling plastic modulus of the section about the strong axis of inertia plastic modulus of the section about the weak axis of inertia corrugation angle material resistance factor maximum beam deection resulting from the niteelement analysis maximum theatrical (calculated) beam deection. critical shear stress for the global buckling mode of a corrugated web critical shear stress for the local buckling mode of a corrugated web critical shear stress for the interactive buckling mode of a corrugated web yielding shear stress of the steel according to VonMises criterion

Generally, lateral torsion-exure buckling is a major design aspect for exural members composed of thin-walled Isections. When a slender steel I-beam is subjected to exure about its axis of greatest exural rigidity with insufcient lateral bracing, out-of-plane bending and twisting may occur as the applied load reaches its critical value (Fig. 2). At this critical value of the load, in-plane bending deformation ceases to be a stable conguration for the beam and lateral buckling 9, 10 takes place. The critical load at which lateral buckling is initiated depends on the cross-section mechanical properties, the laterally unbraced length of the beam, the support conditions, the type of loading and the location of the load with respect to the shear centre of the cross-section (Fig. 3). The latter is commonly ignored, despite its importance, by most codes of practice in estimating the critical load, which initiates lateral instability. On the other hand, local buckling of the compression ange of I-girders subject to exure represents another important criterion which affects the design of the girders and their exural strength. Local buckling of the compression ange of an I-section mainly depends on the ange outstand-tothickness ratio. Lateral torsion-exure buckling and local buckling of the compression ange have been explicitly investigated for steel I-girders with plane webs. For design purposes, codes of 11 12, 13 practice (e.g. AISC-LRFD; CISC and CAN/CSA-S16.1-94 ) allow designers to evaluate the critical moment causing lateral buckling for a simply supported beam subjected to uniform bending and modify it using an equivalent moment factor, which depends on the type of loading. Regarding local buckling, codes of practice use the ange outstand-tothickness and the web-to-thickness ratios to dene the compactness of the cross-section of steel girders with plane webs. Limits are placed on these ratios such that the critical stress initiating local buckling will not be reached before reaching the yield stress. Codes of practice often deal with

1. INTRODUCTION Corrugated steel webs have recently been proposed to replace the stiffened steel plates of plate girders to improve both the 1-4 aesthetics and the economy of the structure. The web height-to-thickness ratio of a corrugated steel web may reach 250 for beams in buildings and 450 for bridge girders. The most commonly used corrugation prole for corrugated web plates is the trapezoidal one for which the geometric characteristics are shown in Fig. 1. The exural strength of a steel plate girder with a corrugated web plate is provided by the anges with almost no contribution from the web and with no interaction between exure 58 and shear behaviour. The corrugated steel web solely provides the shear capacity of the girders where the shear strength is controlled by buckling and/or steel yielding 2,48 of the web. The anges provide boundary supports for the web which lie somewhere between a simply supported boundary and a 4,8 clamped one. 54 Structures & Buildings 158 Issue SB1

s y a b hw c 5 2(b 1 d) s 5 2(b 1 d/cos ) d 5 a cos h 5 d tan 5 a/b d h

Fig. 1. Geometric characteristics of the trapezoidal prole of corrugated web plates

Lateral torsion-exure buckling of corrugated web steel girders

Sayed-Ahmed

y Mo

y CL Mo z

to be investigated. Will the same concepts and equations adopted for steel girders with plane webs still be applicable to steel girders with corrugated webs? This question has yet to be answered.

The present paper deals with local ange buckling and lateral torsion-exure buckling of steel girders with y corrugated steel webs. The stability and failure mechanism of the corrugated web itself has been explicitly 4, 14 z CL investigated elsewhere. A numerical analysis based on the nite-element technique was adopted to determine the critical moment initiating lateral torsion-exure y x buckling of corrugated web girders. The critical moment w was compared with that of z girders with plane webs. Corrugated web girders subjected to constant moments were rst scrutinised using the numerical model. Then, the analysis was extended to Fig. 2. Lateral torsion-exure buckling of a beam subject to constant bending about the zz axis investigate the values of the (CL (centre line of beam); w (out of plane deformation of a beam subject to in-plane exure); M0 (end moments acting on a simply supported beam)) critical moments for girders with corrugated webs subjected to end moments causing moment gradient P P through the girders span. w w Other corrugated web girders Shear centre Shear centre subjected to central concentrated loads at, and hw hw P away from, the shear centre P were also analysed. In Load acts above Load acts below evaluating the critical the shear centre the shear centre moment for a corrugated web girder, a section with a plane web having a proposed equivalent thickness was suggested to handle the Fig. 3. Location of the load with respect to the shear centre of the cross-section (w (out of plane critical moment calculations. deformation of a beam subject to in-plane exure); P (applied load)) This assumption was veried using the numerical analysis. The validity of the equivalent moment factor concept established earlier for girders with design of I-girders subject to exure by rst classifying the plane webs to handle the lateral buckling was then veried section compactness (class). Then, the exural capacity of the for girders with corrugated webs via the numerical analysis section is either based on the plastic moment or the yield results. moment considering the lateral torsion-exure buckling behaviour. The numerical model was also used to investigate the local buckling behaviour of the compression ange for girders with On the contrary, lateral torsion-exure buckling and local corrugated steel webs. The applicability of the limits dening the ange buckling of steel girders with corrugated webs still need
x

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section class for girders with plane webs to corrugated web girders was examined using the results of the numerical analysis. 2. GIRDERS WITH PLANE WEBS 2.1. Lateral torsion-exure buckling The critical moment initiating lateral torsion-exure buckling for a simply supported I-beam subjected to two equal and opposite end moments (constant bending through the span of 9, 10 the beam) is given by q E I y GJ (1 W 2 ) R r EC w WR GJ L L

moment gradient on the critical moment is accounted for by 16 using an equivalent moment factor Cb . This concept has been adopted in design by most codes of practice (e.g. AISC11 13 LRFD and CAN/CSA-S16.1-94 ). Thus, the critical moment equation was generalised to be Cb L q E I y GJ(1 W 2 ) R

M cr C b 3 M ocr 3 WR L r EC w GJ

M ocr 1

Table 1 summarises the values of the equivalent moment factor 9 for simply supported beams subject to different types of loads. For girders subjected to unequal end moments (MA and MB ) with no other loads through the span of the beam, the 9, 10 equivalent moment factor Cb may be given by   MA MA 2 0:3 < 2:3 MB MB

where E is the Youngs modulus, G is the elastic shear modulus, and L is the beam span. I y , J and Cw are the second moment of area about the weak axis of inertia, the torsional constant, and the warping constant of the beams cross-section, respectively. In equation (1), WR represents the warping restraint contribution to the girders resistance. Equation (1) neglects the effect of inplane bending deformation on the lateral stability of the girder 15 which increases the critical moment to M ocr p L Ir Ir 1 q E I y GJ (1 W 2 ) R Iy Ix

C b 1:75 1:05

However, for a steel girder composed of a thin-walled I-section, the ratio between I y and Ix is small and thus the amount of increase in Mocr due to in-plane bending deformation is commonly ignored. For beams subjected to other types of loading, the effect of the

where MA is the smaller end moment. The ratio MA /MB is positive for beams bent in double curvature and negative for beams bent in single curvature. CAN/CSA-S16.1-94 13 specications adopted equation (4) in design with a change in its limiting value from 2.3 to 2.5. The same specications use a Cb of 1.0 when the bending moment between the end supports becomes greater than the end moment or when there is no lateral support for the compression ange at one of the ends of the unsupported length. On the other hand, the AISC11 LRFD specications dene the following equation for the equivalent moment factor 12:5 3 M max 3 3 M 1 4 3 M 2 3 3 M 3 2:5 3 M max

Cb

Loading
M M

Bending moment diagram

M M

Cb 1.0 1.75

M M P

2.3 1.35

where M1 , M2 , M3 are the absolute values of the bending moments at the quarter point, midpoint and three-quarter point of the beam, respectively and Mmax is the maximum bending moment acting on the beam. In all the previously mentioned values of the equivalent moment factor, the load was assumed to act along the shear centre of the cross-section of the beam. The effect of the applied load location with respect to the shear centre of the section is ignored despite its 9, 10, 17 importance. To include the effect of the load location with respect to the shear Sayed-Ahmed

PL/4

1.12

P L/4 L/2

P L/4 PL/4
9

wL2/8

1.04

Table 1. Values of Cb for different load conguration

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Lateral torsion-exure buckling of corrugated web steel girders

centre, the following denition for the equivalent moment 9, 10, 17 factor Cb is proposed 8 < A=B loads acting at the top flange Cb A loads acting at the shear centre : AB loads acting at the bottom flange

6a

its web or anges. In this case, the cross-section can develop the fully plastic moment Mp and posses a high rotation 11 13 capacity: this is classied as a class 1 compact section. The second class of sections can also develop the fully plastic moment but has less rotation capacity (Fig. 5) and is known as 13 a class 2 compact section. For an I-section that has slender ange or web, local buckling may take place at the ange or the web before the fully plastic moment is developed. If local buckling occurs after developing the yield moment, then the cross-section is classied as a class 3 non-compact section. On the other hand, if the section cannot even develop the yield moment and suffers local buckling before reaching My , then it is classied as a class 4 slender section. The capacity of a class 4 section is based on 18, 19 the mechanical properties of a virtual effective section which is determined based on the effective width concept where the elastic section modulus Sx of equation (7) is replaced by the effective section elastic modulus Se . The ange outstand-to-thickness and the web-to-thickness ratios which dene the class of I-section girders with plane webs subjected to exure according to the CAN/CSA-S16.1-94 13 specications are

where for beams subjected to concentrated loads A 1:35 B 1 0:649 3 W R 0:180 3 W 2 R r EC w WR L GJ

6b

and for beams subjected to uniformly distributed loads A 1:12 B 1 0:535 3 W R 0:154 3 W 2 R r EC w WR L GJ

6c

Equation (5) considers the effect of the moment gradient along the beam span on the equivalent moment factor and equation (6) considers the effect of the load location along the crosssection of the beam with respect to the shear centre (i.e. in a vertical plane). However, these two effects are related in the two equations as the factor A of equation (6) is simply the value of Cb estimated using equation (5) (or Table 1). This factor expresses the value of Cb when the load is applied at the shear centre of the cross-section of the beam. Thus, equation (6), which has not been adopted by codes of practice up to now, may be considered as the general form for determining the value of the equivalent moment factor Cb . 2.2. Local buckling When, a simply supported I-beam with plane web is subjected to exure around its major axis of inertia, the stress distribution along the cross-section changes with increasing the applied moment as shown in Fig. 4. The yield moment My and the plastic moment Mp of the cross-section are dened by M y Sx 3 FY M P Z x 3 Fy

Class1: 8 Class2: Class3:

bfl 145 hw 1100 < p < p 2t fl Fy t w Fy bfl 170 hw 1700 < p < p 2t fl Fy t w Fy bfl 200 hw 1900 < p < p 2t fl Fy t w Fy

where bfl /2 is considered to be the ange outstand. The actual ange outstand should be marginally less than this value by the sum of half the web thickness and the ange-to-web weld size. According to the AISC-LRFD, becomes
F Fy Fy
11

the above classication

bfl

tfl

Fy

Fy

where Sx and Zx are the elastic and plastic section moduli around the major axis of inertia and Fy is the yield stress of the steel. The midspan deection of the previous beam is conceptually plotted versus the maximum moment in Fig. 5. The upper curve in this gure represents the ideal response of such beam suffering no local buckling to

hw

tw

bfl

tfl

F M

Fy My

Fy M My

Fy My M Mp

Fy M Mp

Yield moment

Plastic moment

Fig. 4. Stress distribution across the cross-section of an ideal beam subject to an increasing exure Lateral torsion-exure buckling of corrugated web steel girders Sayed-Ahmed 57

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M M MP Class 2 My Class 3

Class 1

F Class 4

Fy

Fy

Fy

Fy

F
Class 4

Fy

Fy
Class 3

Fy
Class 2

Fy
Class 1

Fig. 5. Effect of local buckling on the moment capacity of a beams cross-section and classication of cross-sections

Compact sections: s bfl E < 0:38 Fy 2t fl 9

hw < 3:76 tw

s E Fy

AISC-LRFD specications. However, the AISC-LRFD 11 specication uses Fy 69 in determining My (equation (7)) to account for a residual stress of 69 MPa in case of hot-rolled steel sections (for welded sections the 69 MPa is replaced by 114 MPa).

11

Non compact sections: s s bfl E hw :83 :70 E <0 <5 2t fl Fy 69 t w Fy

Both class 1 and class 2 sections of the CAN/CSA-S16.1-94 13 specications are considered as one class according to the 11 AISC-LRFD specications (the compact section class). On the other hand, the limit on class 3 section according the 13 CAN/CSA-S16.1-94 specications is more restricted in comparison with the limit on the non-compact sections of the

2.3. Flexural capacity of I-girders The exural capacity of I-section girders is signicantly affected by the local buckling and the lateral torsion-exure buckling. For example, according to the CAN/CSA-S16.1-94 13 specications, the section class is rst dened based on the ange-to-thickness and the web-to-thickness ratios. For class 1 and class 2 sections, the exural capacity follows the behaviour conceptually shown in Fig. 6(a) whereas for class 3 sections, it follows the behaviour shown in Fig. 6(b) . The moment resistance (Fig. 6) is dened by the following equation

Mr

Mr

Mp

Elastic buckling My

Elastic buckling

2/3 Mp 2/3 My

Lu (a)

Unsupported length

Lu (b)

Unsupported length

Fig. 6. Moment resistance I-girders for (a) classes 1 and 2 and (b) class 3 sections

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M r 3 M cr 10

for M cr < 2=3M

M r 1:15 3 3 M 3 1 0:28 3 M=M cr < 3 M for M cr > 2=3M

numerical analysis results were compared to the critical moments theoretically predicted using equations (1) and (3). The girders adopted for model verication were 12.0 m in span. The cross-section of the analysed girders is shown in Fig. 7. It is composed of two ange plates (229 3 20) and a web plate (573 3 12): this cross-section approximately matches the 11 dimensions of a W610 3 125 hot-rolled section (AISC-LRFD, 12 CISC ). The mechanical properties of the cross-section considered in the verication analysis are listed in Table 2. The dimensions and the span of the analysed girders were chosen such that the critical moment due to lateral torsion-exure buckling would be reached before yielding of any part of the cross-section of the girder, based on Fy 350 MPa, the yield moment My of the considered section is 1174 kN m and the plastic moment Mp is 1296 kN m (Fig. 7). The nite-element mesh adopted in the verication analysis is shown in Fig. 8. The end moments were applied in form of compression and tension on the top and bottom anges respectively, along the ends of the girder (Fig. 8). The girders were considered to be simply supported in exure and in torsion: U y , Uz and Rx at both ends and Ux at one of the two ends were restrained. The encountered lateral torsion-exure buckling mode (as a typical buckling mode) for girder G1 which was subject to equal and opposite end moments is shown in Fig. 8. Results of the verication analysis are summarised in Table 3 and plotted in Fig. 9. These results reveal a good match between the theoretically predicted behaviour and the numerically obtained one. 3.3. Numerical modelling of corrugated web girders Girders with corrugated steel webs were analysed using the nite-element model. The critical moment initiating lateral torsion-exure buckling was numerically evaluated. This critical moment corresponds to the lowest eigenvalue resulting from the eigenvalue buckling analysis. The buckling analyses were performed on girders having the cross-sections shown in Fig. 10. The span of all the analysed
Fy 5 350 MPa 2 2 Fy 5 350 MPa

where M Mp for class 1 and class 2 sections and M My for class 3 sections. Mcr is the elastic critical moment causing lateral buckling and determined using equation (3), Mp and My are the plastic and the yield moment of the cross-section, respectively, and is a material resistance factor. The elastic lateral buckling zone (Fig. 6) is terminated at 2/3 Mp or 2/3 My , depending on the section class, to account for the effect of the residual stresses. 3. LATERAL BUCKLING OF GIRDERS WITH CORRUGATED WEBS Lateral torsion-exure buckling of steel girders with corrugated steel webs is one of the topics which have yet to be investigated. In the following sections the critical moment causing lateral buckling was determined using a numerical model based on the nite-element technique. The applicability of the equations developed for I-girders with plane webs to determine the elastic critical moment to girders with corrugated webs was examined. The applicability of the equivalent moment factor concept established for I-girders with plane webs to girders with corrugated steel webs was then investigated using the numerical model. The effect of the point of application of the load with respect to the cross-section height is also scrutinised. 3.1. The nite-element model Shell elements with eight nodes and six degrees of freedom per node were used to model the analysed corrugated web girders. The girders were considered to be simply supported in exure and in torsion: at the ends of the beams, rotation and warping about the weak axis were unconstrained whereas rotation about the centroidal axis was restrained. The girders were subjected to end moments with MA /MB ratios ranging between 1.0 and +1.0 or to a central concentrated load acting on the top ange, at the mid-height of the web or on the bottom ange. Eigenvalue buckling analysis was performed to evaluate the critical moment which initiated the lateral torsionexure buckling. The nite229 3 20 element package ANSYS 5.4 was used to pre-process the model, solve the resulting 573 3 12 nite-element equations and 613 mm post-process some of the model results. 3.2. Verication of the nite-element model The nite-element model was rst veried by analysing plate girders with traditional plane webs which were subjected to end moments with MA /MB ratios ranging between 1.0 and +1.0. The

1 1 229 3 20 Fy 5 350 MPa My 5 1174 kNm (b) Fy 5 350 MPa Mp 5 1296 kNm (c)

(a)

Fig. 7. Cross-section of the plane web girders adopted for: (a) model verication analysis; (b) stress distribution through the cross-section at the yield moment; (c) at the plastic moment

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Mechanical property Value Material property

A (103 ): mm2 16.03

Ix (106 ): mm4 993.7

I y (106 ): mm4 39.2

rx : mm 249

ry: mm 49.5 Uniaxial yield strength Fy : MPa 350

Sx (103 ): S y (103 ): Zx (106 ): mm3 mm3 mm3 3355 343 3703

Z y (106 ): mm3 513.9

Cw (109 ): J (103 ): mm6 mm3 3448 1482

Elastic Shear modulus Poissons G: GPa ratio modulus E: GPa 200 76.9 0.3

Value

Table 2. Mechanical (above) and material (below) properties of the girders cross-section (Fig. 7) adopted in the verication of the nite-element model

ange is not affected by local buckling (this will be shown in the following section).
M Girder G1 M

The same material properties of the steel listed in Table 2 were adopted for the web and the ange of the corrugated web girders in the niteelement model. On the other hand, the mechanical properties of the girders cross-section are listed in Table 4. Using the data from Table 4, the theoretical critical moments of corrugated web girders subjected to constant bending moments were determined using equation (1) to be 526.1 kN m and 527.4 kN m for corrugated web thicknesses of 2 and 4 mm, respectively. It is clear that, Fig. 8. The nite-element mesh adopted in the verication analysis of the numerical model and theoretically, neither the web the resulting lateral buckling mode for girder G1 thickness nor the corrugation panel width of the web would have a signicant effect on the value of the critical moment. In these calculations, the girders was 11.52 m. Two panel widths for the corrugated web girders were assumed to have plane webs with an equivalent were adopted in the analysis: 200 and 400 mm. The analysed thickness which is given by panel widths correspond to panel width-to-web-height ratios of 0.42 and 0.83. Web thicknesses of 2 and 4 mm were considered in the analysis which corresponds to web height-to-thickness s 11 t eq t w 3 ratios of 120 and 240. The analysed corrugation panel widthc to-thickness ratio ranged between 50 and 200. where tw is the corrugated web thickness, s is the corrugated The geometric properties of the corrugated web are shown in wave length and c is the projected length of one corrugation Fig. 10. The inclined panel of the corrugated web was assumed wave (Fig. 1). There is no theoretical evidence for equation (11) to have the same width as the horizontal panel (a b): a as it is merely a proposal by the author for lateral stability typical practical geometric conguration for the trapezoidal calculations. 4, 14 corrugation prole of the web. Stiffener plates (20 mm thick) were added at the support locations for all the analysed Figure 11 shows two typical nite-element meshes used to girders to prevent bearing failure of the webs at these model two of the analysed girders having corrugated panel locations. The ange width and thickness (bfl /2tfl 15) as well widths of 200 and 400 mm. The girders were simply supported as the web height were kept constant through the analysis. At in exure and in torsion: U y , Uz and Rx at both ends and Ux at these ange-to-thickness and web-to-thickness ratios, the one of the two ends were restrained. For girders subjected to lateral torsion-exure buckling behaviour of the compression end moments, the moments were applied as pressure and 60 Structures & Buildings 158 Issue SB1 Lateral torsion-exure buckling of corrugated web steel girders Sayed-Ahmed

Loading

max-FE : mm

theo : mm

Mcr-FE : kN m

Mcr-Eq:3 : kN m

Mcr-FE / Mcr-Eq:3

Cb-FE

Cb-theoretical Eq. (4) Eq. (5)

M Girder G1 M Girder G2 M Girder G3 M Girder G4 M Girder G5

12.30 9.26 6.31

12.28 9.21 6.31 3.62 1.57

287.7 378.7 520.5 707.6 770.4

294.5 382.9* 515.4* 736.3* 736.3*

0.98 0.99 1.01 0.96 1.05

0.98 1.29 1.77 2.40 2.62

1.0 1.3 1.75 2.3 2.3

1.0 1.25 1.67 2.17 2.27

M/2

M/2

3.64 1.57

*The equivalent moment factor is calculated using equation (4). Table 3. Results of the verication analysis for the numerical model

F.E. 250 MA 225 200 Cb Eq. 5 - AISC 175 150 125 100 2100 MB Eq. 4 - CISC Eq. 4

2050

000 MA/MB

050

100

Fig. 9. Equivalent moment factor for girders with plane webs subjected to end moments

300 Stiff Pl. 20

b 1 b

tw tw

200 200
a d h b a/b

2 400 4 400

2 4

1 tw 520 L 1152 m

10

a cos d tan b b d d/cos

Sec. 1-1 a b d

c s

teq

(s/c)tw

Fig. 10. Geometric properties of corrugated web girders numerically analysed for lateral torsionexure buckling

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Property

A(103 ): mm2 13.07 14.13

Ix (106 ): mm4 770.5 791.0

I y (106 ): mm4 90.0 90.0

rx : mm 243 236

ry: mm 83.0 79.8

Sx (103 ): mm3 2963 3042

S y (103 ): mm3 600 600

Zx (106 ): mm3 3127 3255

Z y (106 ): mm3 900 900

Cw (109 ): mm6 5625 5625

J(103 ): mm3 1602 1614

tw 2 mm tw 4 mm

*Cross-section is considered as a double symmetric I-section with an equivalent thickness teq s/c tw (Fig. 10) Table 4. Mechanical properties of the analysed corrugated web girders*

20 mm end plate No. of elements: 5261 No. of nodes: 16308 DOFs: 97848

20 mm end plate

(a)

No. of elements: 5226 No. of nodes: 16203 DOFs: 97218

(b)

Fig. 11. Typical nite-element meshes used to model two of the analysed girders with different corrugated web widths: (a) 400 mm; (b) 200 mm

tension on the top and bottom anges, respectively, at the two ends of the analysed girder. For girders subjected to concentrated loads, a point load was applied at the midspan of the girder either on the top ange, from the bottom ange or in the mid-height of the corrugated web. 62 Structures & Buildings 158 Issue SB1

3.4. Results of the numerical analysis Corrugated web girders subjected to end moments or central concentrated loads (Tables 5 and 6) were numerically analysed. The critical moments which initiated lateral torsion-exure buckling of the compression ange in each case of loading are Sayed-Ahmed

Lateral torsion-exure buckling of corrugated web steel girders

Loading

Cb-Eq:4

b 3 tw 200 mm 3 2 mm Mcr-FE : kN m Cb-FE

b 3 tw 400 mm 3 4 mm Cb-FE Mcr-FE /Mcr-Eq3

Mcr-FE /Mcr-Eq3 Mcr-FE : kN m

M Girder G6 M Girder G7 M Girder G8 M Girder G9 M Girder G10

1.00 1.30 1.75

606.0 797.9 1097.9 1522.5* 1661.1*

1.00 1.32 1.81 2.51 2.74

1.152 1.167 1.192 1.258 1.373

635.1 835.6 1144.5 1558.8* 1663.8*

1.00 1.31 1.80 2.45 2.62

1.204 1.219 1.240 1.285 1.372

M/2

M/2

2.30 2.30

*Lateral buckling is not the rst buckling mode; it is preceded by ange and/or web local buckling mode Table 5. Results of the nite-element buckling analysis for corrugated steel web girders subjected to end moments

Loading

Cb-Eq:5

Proposed Cb-Eq:6

b 3 tw 200 mm 3 4 mm Mcr-FE : kN m Cb-FE Mcr-FE /Mcr-Eq3 *

P P Girder G11 P Girder G12 P Girder G13 P P

1.31

0.96

608.6

0.958

1.202

1.31

1.35

847.9

1.335

1.19

1.31

1.9

1122.1

1.766

1.120

*Based on Cb from equation (6). Table 6. Results of the nite-element buckling analysis for corrugated steel web girders subjected to central concentrated loads

listed in Tables 5 and 6. Results of the analysis are plotted in Figs 12 and 13. A typical nite-element mesh and lateral torsion-exure buckling mode encountered in the analysis are shown in Fig. 14. For girders subjected to end moments, the theoretical values of the critical moments (Mcr-Eq:3 ) were calculated using equation (3) with the equivalent moment factor Cb evaluated using equation (4). On the other hand, for girders subjected to central concentrated loads, the theoretical values for the critical moments (Mcr-Eq:3 ) were calculated using equation (3) with the equivalent moment factor Cb evaluated using equation (6). In both cases Mocr was calculated using the equivalent thickness dened by equation (11). The theoretically calculated critical moments (Mcr-Eq:3 ) were compared to the critical moment resulting from the numerical Structures & Buildings 158 Issue SB1

analysis (Mcr-FE ). This comparison is presented in Tables 5 and 6 and in Figs 12 and 13. The numerically obtained critical moments (Mcr-FE ) were related to the critical moment of girder G6 subjected to constant exure through the span (Table 5). Thus, equivalent moment factors for all the numerically analysed corrugated web girders were evaluated; they are listed in Tables 5 and 6 and plotted in Figs 12 and 13 versus the equivalent moment factors calculated using equations (4) and (6). It is evident from Tables 5 and 6 and Figs 12 and 13 that resistance to lateral torsion-exure buckling of steel plate girders with corrugated webs is different from that of plate girders with traditional plane webs. The critical moment causing lateral buckling to initiate for corrugated web girders Sayed-Ahmed 63

Lateral torsion-exure buckling of corrugated web steel girders

275 250 225 200 Cb 175 150 125 100 2100 Cb-Eq. 4-CISC

Cb-F.E. MA b 3 tW 5 400 mm 3 4 mm MB

170 160

140 130 Mcr-FE/Mcr-Eq. 3 120 110 100 100

2050

000 MA/MB

050

275 250 225 200 Cb 175 150 125 100 2100 MA b 3 tW 5 200 mm 3 2 mm MB

Cb-F.E. Cb-Eq. 4-CISC Cb-Eq. 4

170 160 150 140 130 Mcr-FE/Mcr-Eq. 3 Mcr-FE/Mcr-Eq. 3

115 110 0.50

Mcr-FE/Mcr-Eq. 3

120 110 100 100

2050

000 MA/MB

050

Fig. 12. Equivalent moment factor and the critical moments for girders with corrugated webs subjected to end moments

200 Cb-Eq. 6 180

125

b 3 tW 5 200 mm 3 4 mm
160

Cb-F.E. Mcr-FE/Mcr-Eq. 3 Cb-Eq.5 & AISC

120

Cb

140

120

100

Cb-CISC
Below the shear centre Above the shear centre

080 20.5

20.25

000

0.25

Load distance from the shear centre/cross-section height

Fig. 13. Equivalent moment factor for girders with corrugated webs subjected to central concentrated loads

64

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Lateral torsion-exure buckling of corrugated web steel girders

Mcr-FE/Mcr-Eq. 3

Cb-Eq. 4

150

Sayed-Ahmed

M Girder G6

Fig. 14. A typical mesh and lateral buckling mode for girder G6

is larger than that of traditional girders. The numerical analysis reveals that Mcr for corrugated web girders subject to end moments is 15% to 37% higher than Mcr for girders with plane webs. This ratio becomes 12% to 20% for corrugated web girders subject to central concentrated loads. The numerical analysis results also reveal that the concept of the equivalent moment factor which is currently used for Igirders with plane webs to account for the moment gradient is applicable to girders with corrugated webs. Furthermore, the results presented in Tables 5 and 6 show that equations (4) and (5) which are currently used to calculate the equivalent moment factor are also applicable to steel girders with corrugated webs. Figure 12 shows that in case of girders subjected to end moments, equation (4) with the CAN/CSA12, 13 S16.1-94 limiting value provides a good match to the results of the numerical analysis. The importance of the location of the applied load with respect to the shear centre of the girders cross-section is emphasised by the results plotted in Fig. 13 and listed in Table 6. It is clear from these results that equation (6) which considers the location of the load with respect to the shear centre produces a better match to the numerical analysis results in comparison with the currently used provisions of the CAN/CSA-S16.1-94 13 11 specications or the AISC-LRFD specications. 4. LOCAL BUCKLING OF GIRDERS WITH CORRUGATED WEBS 4.1. Local web buckling of corrugated web girders Web-buckling behaviour of corrugated web girders is more complicated in comparison with the local web-buckling behaviour of plane web girders. However, due to its corrugation prole, corrugated webs are generally much stiffer Structures & Buildings 158 Issue SB1

than traditional plane webs in the transverse direction, and thus have higher resistance to local buckling. Web buckling of corrugated web girders has been explicitly investigated 4, 14 elsewhere. Only a brief description of this behaviour is outlined here. The web of a corrugated web girder is subject to almost a pure shear stress state. Two buckling modes are associated with the corrugated web: local buckling and overall buckling. Local buckling corresponds to the instability of a panel simply supported between two folds where the elastic critical shear 4,8, 10, 14 stress cr,l for this mode can be given by

12

2 3 E cr,l ks 3 3 12 3 (1 2 )  2 b ks 5:34 4:0 hw

tw b

2

where t w is the corrugated web plate thickness, b is the corrugated panel width, E and v are the Youngs modulus and the Poissons ratio for the steel, respectively, and ks is a shear buckling coefcient for the local buckling mode. The overall buckling of the web is characterised by diagonal buckling over several corrugation panels. The critical shear 4,8, 14 stress for this mode cr,g is estimated by Sayed-Ahmed 65

Lateral torsion-exure buckling of corrugated web steel girders

cr,g kg 3 13

(Dy 3 h2 3 t w w   E b 3 t w 3 [d 3 tan ]2 t w 3 d 3 tan ]3 Dx 3 4 12 3 sin bd         3 c E 3 tw bd E 3 t3 3 3 Dy s b d=cos 12 12

D3 )1=4 x

Based on a previous investigation, it was argued that the average ange outstand Lav may only be used as bfl /2 if a ratio R is less that 0.14 where R is the ratio between area EFGH and area ABCD dened in Fig. 15. For R greater than 0.14, which is more practical, it is recommended to be on the conservative side and use the large ange outstand Ll . Thus, a considerable uncertainty still exists regarding the correct value that should be used for the ange outstand of corrugated web girders to classify the cross-section. 4.3. Numerical modelling of ange local buckling The numerical analysis is focused on the local buckling behaviour of the compression ange of corrugated web girders. As mentioned earlier, the web buckling has been dealt with 4, 14 explicitly elsewhere. The nite-element model adopted to investigate local ange buckling is very similar to the one used earlier for lateral torsion-exure buckling. Shell elements with eight nodes and six degrees of freedom per node were used again to model the corrugated web girders. The girders were considered to be simply supported and were subjected to constant moments through the span. Thus, the upper ange of the girder was subjected to a state of uniform compression while the lower ange was subjected to a state of uniform tension. Eigenvalue buckling analysis was performed to evaluate the stress and the compressive force which caused local buckling for the upper ange. The nite-element package ANSYS 5.4 was used for the numerical analysis. The numerical analysis was performed on corrugated web girders having the cross-section and the geometric properties shown in Fig. 15. The material properties of the steel listed in Table 2 are adopted for the web and the ange in the niteelement model. The span of all the analysed girders was 11.52 m. The corrugated web panel width adopted in the analysis was 200 mm. Web thicknesses of 2 and 4 mm were considered in the analysis, which correspond to web height-tothickness ratios hw /tw of 120 and 240 and panel width-to-webthickness ratios b/tw of 50 and 100 respectively. The ange width-to-thickness ratio bfl /2tfl was varied between 7.5 and 37.5 based on the average ange outstand or 10.5 and 52.5 based on the large ange outstand. The nite-element meshes

20

where kg is the global shear buckling coefcient which solely depends on the web top and bottom constraints: kg is 36 for 4, 10, 14 corrugated web girders with steel anges. The factors Dx and D y are the exural stiffness per unit corrugation about the x and the y axes, respectively (Fig. 1). An interaction equation which includes the buckling modes in 14 addition to the yield failure criterion has been proposed where  14 1 cr,i n  n    n 1 n 1 cr,l cr,g y 1

where cr,l and cr,g are dened by equations (12) and (13), respectively, while y denes the Von Mises yield failure criterion (y 0.57Fy ). A value for n of 3.0 which will be valid 14 for most common corrugation proles was recommended. 4.2. Flange outstand for corrugated web girders The ange outstand for girders with plane webs 11, 12, 13 was approximately taken as bfl /2. For corrugated web girders at a section where the web is parallel to the axis of the girder, there is a large outstand on one side and a small outstand on the other (Fig. 15). Thus, the ange outstand which should be used to classify the cross-section class of corrugated web girders (equations (8) and (9)) may be based on the large ange outstand Ll , the small ange outstand Ls or the average ange outstand Lav (Fig. 15). The average ange outstand corresponds to bfl /2, which is traditionally used for girders with plan webs while the large outstand considers the effect of web corrugation.
Ll Lav Ls

s tfl Ll tw 520 B b d Lav Ls E a F G C

A

D H h

300

Fig. 15. Flange outstands and geometric properties of the corrugated web girders analysed for local ange buckling

66

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Lateral torsion-exure buckling of corrugated web steel girders

Sayed-Ahmed

used to model the analysed girders is similar to the one shown in Fig. 11 for the 200 mm panel width girder. 4.4. Results of the numerical analysis The critical compressive force Ncr acting on the upper ange at which local ange buckling occurred was determined from the numerical analysis. This force was normalised with respect to the yield strength of the ange Ny where Ny bfl 3 tfl 3 Fy and plotted versus the average ange outstand-to-thickness and the large ange outstand-to-thickness ratios in Fig. 16. The non-compact section limits according to the AISC-LRFD 11 13 specications and the CAN/CSA-S16.1-94 specications 11 were also plotted in Fig. 16. The AISC-LRFD limit on bfl /2tfl in this gure does not consider the residual stress (69 MPa for rolled sections and 114 MPa for welded sections) as the yield strength of the compression ange Ny was based on the full yield stress Fy . Figure 16 reveals that using the average ange outstand-tothickness ratio to classify the section of a corrugated web girders cross-section that is acceptable according to the 13 restricted limits of the CAN/CSA-S16.1-94 specications:

Ncr /Ny . 1.0 for bfl /2tfl , 10.7 with bfl /2 based on the average ange outstand. On the other hand, the large ange outstandto-thickness ratio is more appropriate for classifying a corrugated web girders cross-section according to the AISC11 LRFD provisions: Ncr /Ny . 1.0 for bfl /2tfl , 19.8 only when bfl /2 is based on the large ange outstand. The AISC-LRFD specications assume that the web of a plane web I-girder provide a support condition for the ange outstand (Fig. 17) which lies somewhere between a xed support (k 1.277) and a simple support (k 0.425). The buckling coefcient k was assumed for this hypothetical case 11 of the AISC-LRFD specications to be 0.7, hence the limit on bfl /2tfl given in equation (9). The critical loads causing local ange buckling for a corrugated web girder ange, obtained from the numerical analysis were plotted in Fig. 18 versus the ange large outstand-to-thickness ratio. The basic plate buckling equation with the three buckling coefcients described above were also plotted in Fig. 18. The gure conrms that the ange outstand-to-thickness ratio should be based on the large outstand for girders with corrugated webs. Fig. 18 also reveals that the assumed value of k 0.7 which is
11

300 250 200 Ncr /Ny 150 100 050 Ncr /Ny 5 10

CISC limit Non-compact

AISC limit* Non-compact

b/tw 5 50 b/tw 5 100

000 000

1000

2000 bfl /2tfl (based on Lav)

3000

4000

300 250 200 Ncr /Ny 150 100 050

000

CISC limit Non-compact AISC limit* Non-compact

Ncr /Ny 5 10 b/tw 5 50 b/tw 5 100

000

1000

2000

3000 bfl /2tfl (based on Lav)

4000

5000

Fig. 16. Local buckling of the corrugated web girders anges and the compact section limits of the AISC11 and the CISC12 specications. The ange outstand was based on the average outstand (top) or the large outstand (bottom). *The AISC-LRFD limit on bfl /2tfl is calculated without considering the residual stresses

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Sayed-Ahmed

67

Ncr

Ncr

S.S. Boundary - AISC

S.S.

S.S.

Fig. 17. Simulation of local ange buckling for I-girders and modelling of the web support 11 according to the AISC-LRFD

400 350

Non-compact

300 250 Ncr /Ny 200 150 100 050 000 000

Ncr /Ny (k 5 0425)

AISC limit

Fig. 18. Local buckling of the corrugated web girders anges and the assumed buckling 11 coefcients of the AISC-LRFD specications. The ange outstand was based on the large outstand

adopted by the AISC-LRFD specications for plane web girders is equally applicable to girders with corrugated webs provided that the large outstand is used for bfl /2. 5. CONCLUSIONS The lateral torsion-exure buckling of plate girders with corrugated steel webs has been numerically investigated. It is concluded from the numerical analysis that resistance to lateral torsion-exure buckling of such girders is 12% to 37% higher than the resistance of plate girders with traditional plane webs to lateral buckling. Thus, the equations used to calculate the critical moment of girders with plane webs would underestimate the capacity of plate girders with corrugated webs to resist lateral buckling but they are conservative for design purposes. It is also concluded that the equivalent 68 Structures & Buildings 158 Issue SB1

Fixed edge S.S. Ncr bfl /2 k

1772

Ncr /Ny (k 5 07)

Ncr /Ny 5 10

Free edge
11

Free edge S.S. Ncr bfl /2

Free edge

S.S. edge S.S. Ncr bfl /2 k

cr

k2E/{12(1

2)(b/t)2}

070

0425

b/tw 5 50 b/tw 5 100

Ncr /Ny (k 5 1277)

1000

2000 bfl /2tfl (based on Ll)

3000

4000

moment factor concept which is used for the traditional plate girders with plane webs is equally applicable to plate girders with corrugated webs. Thus, all the equations and tables which are currently used to determine the equivalent moment factor for girders with plane webs may also be used for girders with corrugated steel webs. The numerical investigation has been extended to investigate local buckling of the compression ange of girders with corrugated steel webs. It is concluded that the ange outstandto-thickness ratio, which is currently used by most codes of practice as one of the criteria classifying the section compactness, should be based on the large outstand of the corrugated web girders ange. The results of the local buckling investigation also show that the lateral torsionSayed-Ahmed

Lateral torsion-exure buckling of corrugated web steel girders

exure buckling studies performed earlier were not inuenced by the local buckling of the compression ange.

REFERENCES 1. CHEYREZY M. and COMBAULT J. Composite bridges with corrugated steel websachievement and prospects. IABSE Symposium, Mixed Structures: Including New Materials, IABSE Reports, Brussels, 1990, pp. 479484. 2. ELGAALY M., HAMILTON R. W. and SESHADRI A. Shear strength of beams with corrugated webs. Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 1996, 122, No. 4, 390398. 3. LEBON J. Steel corrugated web bridgesrst achievements. Fifth International Conference on Short and Medium Span Bridges (SMSB V), CSCE, Calgary, Canada, 1998, CDProceedings. 4. SAYED-AHMED E. Y. Behaviour of steel and/or composite girders with corrugated steel webs. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, 2001, 28, No. 4, 656672. 5. LEIVA-ARAVENA L. Trapezoidally Corrugated Panels Buckling Behaviour under Axial Compression and Shear. Division of Steel and Timber Structures, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Report S84:2, Sweden, 1987, Publication S87:1. 6. LUO R. and EDLUND B. Buckling of trapezoidally corrugated panels using spline nite strip method. Thin Walled Structures. 1994, 18, 209240. 7. ELGAALY M., SESHADRI A. and HAMILTON R. W. Bending strength of steel beams with corrugated webs. Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 1997, 123, No. 6, 772782. 8. JOHNSON, R. P. and CAFOLLA J. Corrugated webs in plate girders for bridges. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineering, Structures and Buildings, 1997, 122, No. 2, 157164.

9. CHEN W. F. and LUI E. M. Structural Stability: Theory and Implementation. Elsevier Science, New York, 1987. 10. GALAMBOS T. V. A guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal Structures. 5th edition. Wiley, New York, 1998. 11. AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION (AISC). Manual of Steel Construction: Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD), 3rd edn, 2nd print. AISC, Chicago, Illinois, 2003. 12. CANADIAN INSTITUTE OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION (CISC). Handbook of Steel Construction 350W, 7th edn. CISC, Ontario, 2000. 13. CANADIAN STANDARD ASSOCIATION. CAN/CSA-S16.1-94. Limit States Design of Steel Structures. Canadian Standard Association, Rexdale, Ontario, 1994. 14. SAYED-AHMED E. Y. Plate girders with corrugated steel webs. AISC Engineering Journal. American Institute of Steel Construction, 2005 (in print). 15. ALLEN H. G. and BULSON P. S. Background to Buckling. McGraw Hill, London, 1989. 16. SALVADORI M. G. Lateral buckling of I-beams. ASCE Transactions, 1955, 120, 11651177. 17. SAYED-AHMED E. Y. Lateral buckling of steel I-beams: a numerical investigation and proposed equivalent moment factor equations. Al-Azhar University Engineering Journal, (Al-Azhar University, Faculty of Engineering, Cairo, Egypt), 2004, 7, No. 1, 111123. 18. YU W. Cold-formed Steel Design, 3rd edn. Wiley, New York, 2000. 19. AMERICAN IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE. North American Specications for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members (NAS 2001). AISI, Washington, 2001. 20. JOHNSON R. P. and CAFOLLA J. Local ange buckling in plate girders with corrugated webs. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineering, Structures and Buildings, 1997, 122, No. 2, 148156.

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69