Perspectives On Leadership

Perspectives on Leadership OHP 1
Activity
Identify someone who you consider to be a leader
this maybe someone who you have worked with (identify the
position not the name) or it maybe a well-known leader from
any walk of life.
Identify 6-10
characteristics/attributes/behaviours which made
you a willing follower.
Perspectives on Leadership
Introduction
In recent years there has been more written about leadership
than almost any other facet of management and remains
an active area of inquiry:
Leadership is one of the most observed and least
understood phenomena on earth. (Burns, 1978, p.2).
Yukl (1998) argues that researchers in the field usually define
leadership according to their own, subjective perspectives
and the aspects of the phenomena of most interest to them.
In reviewing some of the historical definitions of leadership
Yukl (1998) argues that leadership has been defined in terms of
traits, behaviours, influence, interaction patterns, role
relationships, psychosocial constructs of personality and
occupation of an administrative position.
References: Yukl G, 1998, Leaders in Organisations, NJ: Prentice Hall
Burns J M, 1978, Leadership, New York: Harper Row
The Nature of Leadership
1. Leadership is the behaviour of an individual directing the activities of a
group toward a shared goal (Hemphill & Coons, 1957, Development of the leader behaviour
description questionnaire in Stogdill R and Coons (Eds), Leader behaviour: its description and
measurement, Columbus Ohio: Bureau of business research, Ohio State University)
2. Leadership is the influential increment over and above the mechanical
compliance with directives of the organisation (Katz D & Kahn R L, 1978, The Social
Psychology of Organisations, New York: John Wiley, p.528)
3. Leadership is the process of influencing the activities of an organised
group toward goal achievement (Rauch & Behling, 1984, Functionalism: Basis for an
alternative approach to the study of leadership in Hunt J G, Hosking D M, Schriesheim & Stewart R
(Eds), Leaders and Managers: International perspectives on managerial behaviour, New York:
Pergamon Press, p.46)
4. Leaders are those who consistently make effective contributions to social
order and who are expected and perceived to do so (Hosking D M, 1988, Organising,
Leadership and Skilful Process, Journal of management studies, 25, p.153)
5. Leadership is the process of giving purpose (meaningful direction) to
collective effort, and causing willing effort to be expended to achieve purpose
(Jacobs & Jacques, 1990, Military executive leadership in Clark K E and Clark M B (Eds), Measures of
Leadership, West Oragne, NJ: Leadership library of America, p.281)
6. Leadership is the ability to step outside he cultureto start evolutionary
change processes that are more adaptive. (Schein E H, 1992, Organisational Culture and
Leadership (2 Ed), San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, p.2)
7. Leadership is the process of making sense of what people are doing
together so that people will understand and be committed (Drath & Palus, 1994, Making
Common Sense: Leadership as meaning making in a community of practice, Greensboro, NC: Centre for
Leadership, p.4)
8. Leadership is about articulating visions, embodying values, and creating the
environment within which things can be accomplished (Richards & Engle, 1986, After
the vision: Suggests to corporate visionaries and vision champions in Adams J D (Ed), Transforming
Leadership, Alexandria, VA: Miles River Press, p.206)
(Yukl, 1998, p.2-3)
The Nature of Leadership
(Northhouse, 2001) among others, argue that most definitions of
leadership reflect an underlying assumption that it involves a
process of intentional influence whereby one person is able to
guide and facilitate the activities, relationships, and
structural and process determinants of work, of a group or
organisation in order to achieve shared goals and cites the work
of Bass (1990) who argues that the components of leadership can be
defined in terms of:
the focus of
group processes; from this perspective the leader is viewed as at the
centre of group activity and the process of leadership embodies the will of
the group,
a construct of
personality; this perspective argues that the extent to which a leader is
able to influence followers is constrained by a combination of personal
characteristics (traits) which are argued to have innate and phenotypical
components,
an act or
behaviour; which enables leaders to bring about change in a group,
a power
relationship; which exists between leaders and followers and is the
prime mechanism of influence,
as an
instrument of goal achievement; which enables followers to
achieve team and organisational objectives (goals) which they share with
the leader and includes facets of leadership which transforms followers
through vision setting, role modelling and individualised attention.
A Module Definition of Leadership?
Thus, according to (Northouse, 2001) despite the many ways in
which leadership has been conceptualised, it is possible to
identify several components which are central to the
phenomena of leadership.
They are (a) leadership is a process, (b) leadership
involves influence, (c) leadership occurs within a group
context, and (d) leadership involves goal attainment.
[Thus, the following broad definition of leadership is
proffered]. . Leadership is the process
whereby an individual influences a group of
individuals to achieve a common goal.
(Northouse, 2001, p.3)
Reference
Northouse P, 2001, Leadership Theory and Practice (2
nd
Ed), London: Sage Publications
Bass B, 1990, Handbook of Leadership: A Survey of theory and Research, New York: Free Press
Fundamentals of exemplary leadership?
(Kouzes J & Posner B, 1987, The Leadership Challenge: How to get extraordinary things done in
organisations, Jossey-Bass)
Inspiring a Shared Vision
- Leaders create a vision of the futures. They have a desire to do things differently
and inspire others by articulating a common purpose, and by finding out what
their hopes and dreams are.
Modelling the Way
- Leaders act with integrity, setting an example by doing what they say they will
do.
- They never expect others to do what they would not do
- They also plan and review work in progress and take corrective action where
necessary
Challenging the process
- Experimentation, new ideas, devolved decision-making and innovation as
encouraged by leaders.
- They are therefore willing to take calculated risks.
- Leaders support followers when they make mistakes, which they view as part of
learning.
Encouraging the heart
- Achieving any vision is tiring, and can be frustrating. Leaders maintain morale
by celebrating successes, recognising achievement, and by visibly valuing their
followers.
- Their praise is sincere, and they expect that their followers will always perform
well.
Enabling others to act
- Leaders enlist the support of others to achieve their vision.
- They work collaboratively and in partnership, building effective working
relationships with colleagues, patients, clients and those outside the formal
organisation.
- Leaders also build strong teams, and use delegation as a method of staff
development
Leadership in the NHS
Stewart R, 1996, Leadership in the NHS, London: Macmillan Business publications
Leadership is the process concerned with discovering the route
ahead and encouraging and personally permitting and inspiring
others to follow. A good leader should both show the way ahead
and make others feel enthusiastic about following it.
"Mangers have staff. Leaders have followers: people who
recognise and find attractive the leader's sense of purpose.
Leaders are those who can get the people with whom they
work to be convinced co-operators. Leaders make others
feel that what they are doing really matters and hence
makes them feel good about their work." (Stewart, 1996, p.4)
1. Administrators confirm in writing
2. Managers direct
3. Leaders point the way: they identify and symbolise what is
important
What Leaders Really Do?
(Kotter J P, What Leaders Really Do, Harvard Business Review, May-June 1990, p. 103 111)
Leadership and management are two distinctive and
complementary systems of action. Each has its own function
and characteristic activities. Both are necessary for
success in an increasingly complex and volatile environment.
(Kotter J P, 1990, p.103)
Leadership complements management it does not replace it!
Leaders Managers
Set a direction
Inductive process
Leaders gather a broad range of
data and look for patterns,
develop relationships and
linkages that help explain
things and develop the
momentum for change.
Direction setting does not
produce plans it creates visions
and strategies
Plan and Budget
Deductive process
Designed to produce orderly
results not change
What Leaders Really Do?
(Kotter J P, What Leaders Really Do, Harvard Business Review, May-June 1990, p. 103 111)
Leaders Managers
Aligning People
Is largely an exercise in
communication
Talk to as many people as
possible inside and outside the
organisation!
Understand what motivates
individuals
Develop a vision and strategies
which satisfy the needs of all
organisational members
Motivating People
Leadership motivates people by
satisfying basic human needs
Consult and involve followers
in problem solving and
reviewing the vision
Provide effective feedback
Organising and staffing
Managers recruit staff and
develop the organisational
structures necessary to distribute
work in order to achieve the core
objectives of the organisation
Controlling and Problem Solving
Management controls people by
pushing them in the right direct eg
the use of contingent rewards
Collect the data and make a
rational decision inform
subordinates
Develop extrinsic reward systems
Clinical Leadership
Detmer S, 1998, Chapter 8 - Clinical Leadership in Nursing in Rocchiccioli J & Tilbury M S, 1998,
Clinical Leadership in Nursing, W B Saunders states that:
The leader of the organisation sets the direction from a
platform of commonly held values within the culture of the
organisation. The effective leaders builds commitment,
loyalty, and ownership through sharing the organisations
vision and mission and encourages creativity in designing
ways to fulfil them. Leaders are focused on doing the right
thing whereas managers are focused on doing thins right.
(Detmer S, 1998, p101)
Comparison of the Qualities of Leaders and Managers
Comparison of Qualities of Leaders and Managers (Detmer S, 1998,
p.102)
Leaders Managers
Vision
Values
Role Model
Teaching
Coaching
Facilitating
Listening
Stimulate
creativity and self
actualisation
Implement
Operationalise
Go by the recipe
Follow the rules
Direct Peoples
Plan the rules
Set Objectives
Get the job done
Leadership and Management Functions in Nursing
(Marquis B L & Huston C J, 2000, Leadership Roles and Management Functions in Nursing,
Lippincott)
Managers
- Have an assigned position within the formal organisation
- Have a legitimate source of power due to the delegated
authority, which accompanies their position
- Are expected to carry out specific functions, duties, and
responsibilities
- Emphasise control, decision-making, decision analysis and
responsibilities
- Manipulate people the environment, money, time and other
resources to achieve organisational goals
- Have greater formal responsibility and accountability for
rationality and control than leaders
- Direct willing and unwilling subordinates
Leaders
- Often do not have delegated authority but obtain power
through other means in order to influence followers
- Have a wider variety of roles than do managers
- May not be part of the formal organisation
- Focus on group processes, information gathering, feedback,
and empowering others
- Emphasise interpersonal relationships
- Direct willing followers
- Have goals that may not reflect those of the organisation
Leadership and Management in Nursing
A Complex Process
(Gohar-Murray M E & DiCroce H R, 1997, Leadership and Management in Nursing, Simon &
Schuster)
Argue that definitions of leadership reflect the perspective of
the discipline/perspective from which it is being studied and offer
the following more complex definition which they argue is more
compatible with nursing values:
Leadership is a collective function in the sense that it is the
integrated synergized expression of a groups efforts: it is
not the sum of individual dominance and contributions, it is
their interrelationships. Ultimate authority and true
sanction for leadership, where it is exercised, resides not in
the individual, however dominant, but in the total situation
and in the demands of the situation. It is the situation that
creates the imperative, whereas the leader is able to make
others aware of it, is able to make them willing to serve it,
and is able to release collective capacities and emotional
attitudes that may be related fruitfully to the solution of
the groups problems; to that extent one is exercising
leadership. (Gohar-Murray M E & DiCroce H R, 1997, p.23)
Nursing Leadership
(Tappen R M, 2001 (4Ed), Nursing Leadership and Management: Concepts and Practice, Philadelphia:
F A Davies Company, p. 54-75)
An effective leader is one who attempts to influence
others to work together in a productive and satisfying manner.
Building blocks of effective nursing leadership
Acquires adequate knowledge in leadership in his or her
professional field
Possesses self-awareness
Communicates clearly and effectively
Mobilises energy
Sets meaningful goals
Takes action
Knowledge
Leadership Knowledge
Understand human needs
How do people act/react individually to differing
situations/clients?
How do people act/react to working within teams?
What is the relationship to your behaviours?
Understand how the system works
What are the wider systemic influences?
What do these mean for my ward/dept?
How do I facilitate the development of a shared vision to
realise organisational objectives?
An emphasis on the importance of knowledge does not deny
the value of intuition. In fact what health care professionals
have been calling intuition may be reaching into personal
experience, racing through patterns and contexts for a
match (Petzinger, 1998, p.B1) so rapidly that they do not
realise that they are doing it. (Tappen R, 2001, p.55)
Nursing Knowledge
Planning and organising patient care are leadership
responsibilities of the professional nurse. Doing this
requires accurate assessment and diagnosis based on
adequate knowledge. (Tappen R, 2001, p.55)
Knowledge
Nursing Knowledge /Ctd
Leaders take their responsibility for their own learning
and facilitating the learning of their followers.
A leader who is too far ahead of the group can loose
them as quickly as the leader who is not as knowledgeable.
A leader who knows far more than the group but is not
willing to go back to where the group is in terms of
knowledge will probably not communicate on the same level as
the rest of the groupIt is important to adjust your
expectations and choice of terminology to the level of the
individual or group. (Tappen R, 2001, p.56)
If you develop your own professional knowledge but
fail to develop an equivalent knowledge base in your
followers, patients, clients and their significant others
then you are probably failing to provide effective nursing
leadership.
Intelligence
Intelligence is the ability to derive insight from a given
context(s) in order to facilitate the development of new-found
meaning as learning is engendered.
People are intelligent in a variety of ways, but most of us
have not learned how to use all of our intelligences, according to
Roberts (1999) to be an effective leader, managers [and
subordinates] need to exercise six different types of
intelligence.
Fiscal Intelligence: The ability to understand and manage the
flow of money and other resources.
Social Intelligence: The sensitivity to social issues and the
ability to handle them effectively. Leaders dont have the luxury of
saying, the quality of relationships is not part of my job (Roberts,
1999, p.549)
Noetic Intelligence: The ability to comprehend and reflect upon
information. It includes the quest for continual learning, and what we
usually refer to as thinking.
Emotional Intelligence: The ability to detect inarticulate,
suppressed or mistargeted emotions in self and others. This type of
intelligence is rare because the discussion of emotion is considered
inappropriate in many organisations.
Environmental Intelligence: The recognition of the effect of
the physical, social and contextual influences of the wider
environment. (An important archetype of systems thinking).
Spiritual Intelligence: The valuing and respecting of people as
whole beings.
(Source: Roberts C, 1999, Conscious Oversight in Senge P (Ed), 1999, The dance of change, New York:
Doubleday)
Critical Thinking
One definition of critical thinking offered by (Bandam & Bandam,
1988, Critical thinking in nursing, Norwalk, CT:: Appleton &Lange) is the rational
examination of ideas and assumptions, beliefs, and
actions.
[For a UK definition and explanation see: White N E, Beardslee N Q, Paters D & Supples J M, (1990),
Promoting critical thinking skills, Nurse Educator, 15(5), p.16-19].
As a leader and HCP simply acquiring knowledge is not
enough you need to be able to critically evaluate the
knowledge offered to you.
A leader is an active rather than passive participant in
the learning process, a person who maintains a reflective,
questioning attitude about knowledge offered. (Tappen R,
2001, p.56)
Self-Awareness
Self-awareness or self in-insight means knowing and
understanding yourself as a thinking, feeling being,
interacting with an ever-changing world.
It means being in touch with your aspirations, fears,
values, and principles it means understanding how your
values/principles (or even prejudices and stereotypes) might
affect your decision making and the way in which you might
use your power base to influence others.
Self-insight alone does not solve [all] leadership problems,
but it does increase your sensitivity to peoples/followers
problems, their responses to you, and your responses to
them.Those of use who are not self-aware tend to live out
our lives in response to other peoples expectations.
(Tappen R, 2001, p.58)
Increasing Self-Awareness
Increase your knowledge of human behaviour.
Observe peoples reactions to your own behaviour
actively seek out feedback.
Utilise formal feedback from Staff Appraisal, Clinical
Supervision, External Review of your performance, your depts
services, formal processes of team review etc.
Communication
Communication is at the heart of leadership. Whether it is
a word of praise, a written set of instructions, a frown of
displeasure, or an encouraging squeeze of the hand,
communication is the means through which leadership is
accomplished. [This is because leadership cannot occur
except in relation to other people and communication is the
means which leaders use to engage and sustain
relationships]. (Tappen, 2001, p.59)
Building Blocks of Leadership Communication
Active Listening
Encouraging the flow of communication
Assertiveness
Seeking and Providing Feedback
Linking ideas and concepts
Networking and facilitating the access to networks for followers.
Energy
Energy and Leadership Effectiveness
Effective leadership requires effective use of our energy.
Ineffective use of energy is to waste it on negative
activities such as resisting inevitable changes or getting
caught up in internal politics [for the sake of being
politically involved in the organisation]. Using energy to solve
problems and meet new challenges is more effective;
[because positive energy produces positive results].
(Tappen R, 2001, p.62)
Do you ever fail to make the best use of your available energy
by doing things the hard way or in a disorganised manner? Do you
ever do ten things to solve a problem when one action would
suffice? These are examples of ineffective leadership!
A highly energetic leader, but not maniacally so, will have a
positive effect on followers as the leaders energy and enthusiasm is
transferred to followers.
Effective Leaders share their energy with people by
sharing their noetic insight/intelligence and through the
practical and open dissemination of information.
Effective Leaders are aware of their own energy flows
and are able to plot their own energy levels against a time based
and attempt to plan their work and rest periods accordingly.
Goals
(Tappen R, 2001, p.64) cites (Gabarro, 1990, Development of working relationships, in Galegher J,
Kraut R E & Egido (Eds), Intellectual teamwork: social and technical foundations of cooperative work,
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum) in stating that:
Goals are the desired results or outcomes; they are the
reason for performing [and linking] various tasks and
activities. The relationship between the leader or manager
and staff exists primarily for the purpose of getting some
kind of work done. Achievement of the work is the goal of
the team or department. A leader aligns his or her own
efforts and the efforts of others in such a way that their
goals and those of the organisation can be met.
(Tappen R, 2001, p.64)
Levels of Goals
Organisational
Goals
Team Goals
Individual Goals
Personal Goals of
Group Members
Personal Goals of
the Group Leader
Goal Levels
Effective Leaders are aware that individuals and organisations
seldom have a single goal. They are likely to have many goals and
levels of goals, many of which are instrumental.
Goal Levels Examples
Organisational Goals
National Service
Frameworks
Fiscal Targets
Patient Charter Standards
Contract Targets
Develop a culture of
organisational learning etc
Group Goals
Equity of work load
Everyone able to go for a
break on time, take lunch and rest
periods
Achieve group objectives
Work as a team develop
team cohesiveness
Individual Goals
Personal Goals of Members
Personal Goals of the Leader
Contribute to group
achievement, develop professional
practice, implement primary
nursing, obtain promotion, complete
research project, go home on time,
show that clinical governance is a
waste of time.
Help develop patient services,
develop group cohesion, develop
own leadership knowledge, ensure
that the group delivers on its
objectives, show the department in a
good light, demonstrate leadership
ability, align individual and
organisational goals, go home on
time.
Meaningful Goals
Effective leaders set meaningful goals, in setting and
agreeing goals they remember:
- If objectives are to provide a useful aid to motivation
then they must be agreed and not imposed
- Leaders, Teams and Individuals need to be involved
in determining their own areas of responsibility and their own
objectives
- The emphasis should be on results to be achieved
rather than things to do
- Leaders, Teams and Individuals must agree on the
results required, the method(s) of measuring them, and a
timetable and method(s) for review
- The changing nature of the external operating
environment must be kept in mind throughout
- Objectives should as far as is possible be SMART ie
Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic/Relevant and Time
Bound
(Woodcock T, 1979, Team Development Manual, Aldershot: Gower Publications)
Communicating the Vision
A vision should communicate an innovative, ambitious, far-
reaching, goal for the whole work group in a few words. The
leaders vision of where the group is going adds meaning to
the work, focuses attention on the future, the core tasks of
the group, increases motivation and boosts team spirit. Most
important, it provides direction and excitement to the work.
(Tappen R, 2001, p.66)
Clarity and Congruence
Clarity: Effective leaders ensure that goals are understood
by all, they provide opportunities for people to question the
rationality of the proposed goal and their own practice, they
actively look for opportunities to facilitate learning in relation
to the goals. They do not assume that in the absence of
obvious/active resistance the goals have been internalised by
all group members.
Congruence: Effective leaders plan to ensure that every
opportunity is used to align individual and group goals with
those of the organisation by eg use of staff appraisal, ensuring
that followers are aware of the wider environmental demands,
facilitating regular meetings, disseminating information in an
open manner to all group members, actively questioning the
relevance and validity of individual goals.
Action
The effective leader is action orientated. All of the
components that came before this one knowledge, self
awareness, communication, energy, and goals are of value in
leadership only if they are put to use. (Tappen R, 2001, p.68)
Building Blocks of Effective Leadership Actions
Able to work with others
Prepared to initiate action take reasonable risks
Able to apply the principles of rational problem solving and
decision making - (apply the principles of the generic nursing
process to the context of leadership).
Proactive in the development of professional practice and in
professional activities.
Activity
In groups of 2-3 review the article: Clinical
Leadership in Nursing Development Units
Christian S L & Norman I J, Clinical Leadership in Nursing Development Units, Journal
of Advanced Nursing, 27(1), p.108-116, 1998)
In the form of a table identify the core elements of
an effective clinical leader as identified by Christian &
Norman (1998) in the above study and the implications for
your everyday practice.
Core element of Clinical
Leadership
Implications for Practice
(What do I need to do more of/less
of?/What do I need to learn?)
Nature of Leadership
(Woodcock M, Team Development Manual, Gower, 1979, 1989)
Leadership is the ability to influence individuals, (team
members, colleagues, superiors and subordinates) in order to
achieve set objectives
not all teams need leaders of a permanent nature, and many
Developed/Performing Teams are able to change their
leadership to suit the circumstances
Leadership is an important part of the management function,
however, Management is a function of a position within an
organisational structure, whilst Leadership may come from any
individual within that organisation
Organisations which allow decision making to be devolved to
Teams will over a period of time provide opportunities for
leadership to be provided by many different individuals, with a
wide range of specialist skills and knowledge
Developing A Vision
(Yukl G, 1998, Leadership in Organisations, Chp 17, Prentice Hall)
"A vision should be simple and idealistic, a picture of a
desirable future, not a complex plan with quantitative
objectives and detailed action steps. The vision should appeal
to the values, hopes and ideals of organisation members and
other stakeholders whose support is needed. The vision
should emphasise distant [but attainable] ideological
objectives rather than immediate tangible benefits. The
vision should be challenging but realistic. To be meaningful
and credible, it should not be a wishful fantasy, but rather
an attainable future about what is important for the
organisation, how it should relate to the environment, and
how people should be treated." (Yukl G, 1998, pp.443)
A vision should be focussed enough to guide decisions and
actions, but general enough to provide flexibility in creativity
in attaining its goals. A successful vision should simple enough
to communicate clearly in 5 minutes ors less.
Activity
In groups of 2-3 use the materials provided to create and
communicate a vision to the rest of the group of what effective
nursing leadership should be about!
Guidelines for Developing and Communicating a Vision
(Yukl G, 1998, Leadership in Organisations, Chp 17, Prentice Hall)
Involve Key Stakeholders
A single leader or change agent is unlikely to have the knowledge
needed to develop a vision that will appeal to all stakeholders whose
support is necessary to accomplish major organisational change.
Even when the initial ideas for a vision originate with the leader or
change agent it is desirable to involve key stakeholders in refining these
ideas into a vision with widespread appeal.
This can be achieved through a process of dialogue where the vision
statements can be examined to identify share values and appealing
images.
Identify Strategic Objectives with wide appeal
It is easier to get agreement on strategic (organisational) objectives with
a wide organisational appeal eg improving the quality of services.
One technique is to ask stakeholders to identify strategic
(organisational) objectives they feel most strongly about and examine
the reasons why such objectives are important.
This may provide an insight into values and ideals, which can become
the basis for a vision with wide appeal.
Identify elements in the old ideology
Even when radical change is necessary in an organisation, some
elements in current ideology will be worthy of preservation eg patient
centred care.
In developing a vision for change it is important to identify values and
ideals which will continue to be relevant to the organisation during and
after the change.
Link the vision to core competencies
A successful vision must be credible as well as appealing.
People will be sceptical about a vision that promises too much and
seems impossible to attain.
Leaders and change agents face a difficult task in crafting a vision that
is both challenging and believable.
Lofty visions often require innovative strategies, and untested strategies
are risky and difficult to assess.
A vision, which entails new and difficult types of activities, is more
credible if the core competencies of the organisation are relevant to
these activities.
Continually assess and refine the vision
A successful vision is likely to evolve over time.
As strategies to achieve the vision are implemented, people can learn
more about what is feasible and what is not.
As progress is made towards achieving the vision, new possibilities may
be discovered, an objectives which seemed unattainable suddenly
become achievable.
Although as in art and literature some thematic continuity is desirable in
order to provide underlying structure to the vision, the leader or change
agent needs to be on the look out for ways to make the vision more
appealing and credible and the change process progresses.
"The development of a vision is an interactive, circular
process, not a simple, linear progression from vision to
strategy to action. Indeed an intensive review of strategy
may provide the ideas for a new vision, rather than the other
way around." (Yukl G, 1998, pp.447)
Leadership Power and Influence
Power
is the ability to influence others. It is the means whereby A is likely
to get B to do or think something
Influence
is the process of using power ie whereby A tries to get B to do or
think something, which B may otherwise not do.
Authority
is the right to use power over the behaviours of others (ie
legitimisation of power). It is the permitted or legitimate use of
power, which is derived from official roles or positions.
Politics
Is the art of using legitimate power wisely within accepted
ethical dimensions of practice
Leaders use power and politics to influence
and empower followers
Managers use authority to compel
subordinates to act
Power, Politics and Influence in Nursing Leadership
(Yoder-Wise P, 1999, Leading and Managing in Nursing, Chp 25, Mosby International)
Simply defined power is the ability to influence others in
the effort to achieve goals. [ ] Nurses have sometimes
viewed power as if it were something immoral, corrupting,
and totally contradictory to the caring nature of nursing.
However the above definition demonstrates the essential
nature of power to nursing. (Yoder-Wise P, 1999, p.419)
Nurses regularly influence patients eg provision of relevant
information, in order to improve the health of their patients as an
essential element of nursing practice.
Coaching in an effort to change behaviours of fellow
professionals in a care setting is an example of the exercise of
power.
Providing feedback to a colleague in order to influence his/her
behaviour is also and exercises of power.
Empowerment
Empowerment is a term, which has come into common usage
in nursing in recent years. It has been used extensively in
the nursing literature related to administration and
management; it is also highly relevant to the domain of
clinical practice. Empowerment is the process by
which we facilitate the participation of others in
decision making and taking action where there is an
equitable distribution of power.
(Yoder-Wise P, 1999, p.420)
Activity
Reflect on the last month (or week if you prefer). Identify 6-8
instances when you exercised power and as a result provided
leadership.
In each case identify why you were able to exercise power to
provide leadership. What was the source of your power?
Remember
Your examples may be related to either clinical practice and/or
nursing management administration
A basic definition of leadership, which is the use of power to
influence individuals or groups to achieve to a common goal.
Bases of Social Power in Organisations
(Hersey, Blanchard and Natemeyer, 1979 Situational Leadership, perception and impact of power,
Group and Organisational Studies, 4, 418-428)
Coercive Power: based on fear, coercion, and the ability to
punish.
Reward Power: based on the ability to grant rewards and
favours.
Expert power: results from the knowledge and skills one
possesses which are needed by others
Legitimate power: possessed by virtue of ones position
or status within a group
Referent power: results from followers desire to identify
with a powerful person.
Information power: stems from ones possession of
selected information that is needed by others
Connection power: gained by association with people
who are perceived as powerful
Bases of Social Power in Organisations
(French & Raven, 1959, The bases of social power in Marquis B L & Huston C J, 2000, Leadership
Roles and Management Functions in Nursing, Lippincott, p.168)
Reward power: is obtained by the ability to grant favours
or reward others with whatever they value
Punishment or coercive power: is the opposite of
reward power and is based on fear of punishment if the managers
expectations are not met
Legitimate power: is positional power the authority to
require that work is done by virtue of a position within an
organisation or organisational sub-structure
Expert power: is power gained through knowledge,
expertise or experience. Having critical knowledge allows a
manager/leader to gain power over those who need that knowledge
Referent power: is power a person has because others
identify with that leader or with what the leader symbolises.
Referent power is given to others through association with the
powerful.
Building A Personal Power Base
Marquis B L & Huston C J, 2000, Leadership Roles and Management Functions in Nursing,
Lippincott, p.174-175
- Expand personal resources: Power and energy go hand in
hand. Effective leaders take sufficient time to unwind, reflect, rest, and have
fun when they feel tired. Taking time for significant relations and
developing outside interests are important so that other resources are
available for sustenance when political forces in the organisation drain
energy.
- Present a powerful picture to others: How people look,
act and talk influence whether others view them as powerful or powerless.
The nurse who is poised, assertive, articulate and well groomed presents a
picture of personal control and power.
- Pay the entry fee: Newcomers who stand out and appear
powerful are those who do more, work harder, and contribute to the
organisation. They attend meetings and in-service training days, take their
fair share of night shifts and weekend and holiday working without
complaining. Leaders seek out opportunities to represent the organisation
and their profession.
- Determine the powerful in the organisation:
understanding and working within the formal and informal power structures
are necessary. Leaders need to seek out and develop relationships with the
powerful people when working with powerful people, look for similarities
and shared values rather than focussing on differences. Powerful people
(sources) within the informal structure are often more difficult to identify
than those in the formal structure.
- Learn the language and symbols of the
organisation: each organisation has its own culture and values
represented by rites, rituals, formal and informal alliances. Take time to
understand the organisation - being unaware of institutional taboos and
sacred cows will detract from a leaders power.
- Understand the organisations priorities: Leaders
seeking to build a power base must be aware of the organisational goals, the
environmental factors framing these and priorities these result in. Do not
expend a great deal of energy on goals, which are not aligned to those of the
organisation that is non-leadership.
- Increase Professional Skills and Knowledge: because all
nurses are expected to perform well in their jobs a leaders performance
must be excellent to enhance power. One method of being extraordinary is
to increase professional knowledge and skills until reaching expertise level.
Learn to learn and avail yourself of every educational opportunity formal or
informal.
- Maintain a broad vision: Because people can work within
specific wards/depts for long period of time power builders always look
upward and outward across the organisational/departmental boundaries
- Use experts and seek counsel: By looking to others for
advice and counsel, people demonstrate that they are willing to be team
players aligning oneself with appropriate veterans in the organisation is an
excellent way to build power.
- Develop visibility and a voice in the organisation:
Seek out opportunities to represent the organisation and the profession -
ensure that spoken contributions to meetings etc., are well thought, timely
and articulate.
- Learn to toot your own horn: leaders are gracious but
certainly not passive in accepting compliments and praise. Ensure that your
line manager is aware of any extra roles you have taken on within the
organisation or relevant interests outside the organisation.
- Maintain a sense of humour: the ability to laugh at oneself
and not take oneself too seriously is an important power builder.
- Empower Others: Leaders need to empower others, and
followers must empower their leaders. When nurses empower each other,
they gain referent power. Nurses can empower other nurses by sharing
knowledge, maintaining cohesiveness, valuing the profession and supporting
each other.
Leadership Roles and Management Functions Associated
with organisational politics power acquisition and authority.
(Marquis B L & Huston C J, 2000, Leadership Roles and Management Functions in Nursing,
Lippincott, p167)
Leadership Roles
- Creates a climate that promotes followership in response to
authority
- Recognises the dual pyramid of power, which exists between
the organisation and its employees
- Uses a powerful persona to increase respect and decrease fear
in subordinates
- Recognises when it is appropriate to have authority questioned
or to question authority
- Is personally comfortable with power in the political arena
- Empowers other nurses
- Assists staff using appropriate political strategies
Management Functions
- Uses authority to ensure that organisational goals are met
- Uses political strategies that are complementary to the units
[Trusts] functioning
- Builds a power base adequate for the assignment management
role
- Maintains a small authority-power gap
- Is Knowledgeable about the essence an appropriate use of
power
- Maintains personal credibility with subordinates
- Serves as a role model of the empowered nurse
Leadership Influence Tactics
(Adapted From: Yukl G, 1998, Leadership in Organisations, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, p.207-208)
Rationale Persuasion: the leader uses logical arguments and
factual evidence to persuade followers that a proposal or request is
viable and likely to result in the attainment of task objectives.
Inspirational Appeals: the leader makes a request or proposal
that arouses follower enthusiasm by appealing to follower values, ideals
and aspirations, or by increasing follower self-confidence.
Consultation: the leader seeks followers participation in
planning a strategy, activity, or change for which follower support and
assistance are desired, or is willing to modify a proposal to deal with
follower concerns and suggestions.
Ingratiation: the leader uses praise, flattery, friendly behaviour,
or helpful behaviour to get the follower in a good mood or to think
favourably of him/her before asking for something
Exchange: the leader offers an exchange of favours, indicates
willingness to reciprocate at a later time, or promises a share of the
benefits if the follower help him/her achieve the task.
Coalition Tactics: the leader seeks the aid of others to persuade
the follower to do something, or uses the support of others as a reason
for the follower to agree also.
Legitimating tactics: the leader seeks to establish the
legitimacy of a request by claiming the authority or right to make it, or
by verifying that it is consistent with the organisational policies, rules,
practices, or traditions.
Pressure: the leader uses demands, threats, frequent checking,
or persistent reminders to influence followers to do what s/he wants.
Influence Tactics
(Yukl G & Tracey B, (1992) Consequences of influence tactics used with subordinates, peers and the
boss, journal of Applied Psychology, 77, p.525-535)
Influence
Tactic
Directional
use of Tactic
Sequencing
Results
Used Alone
or in
Combinations
Likelihood of
Commitment
Rational
Persuasion
More up than
down or lateral
Used more for
initial request
Used
frequently
both ways
Moderate
Inspirational
Appeal
More down
then up or
lateral
No difference Used most
with other
tactics
High
Consultation
More down
and lateral than
up
No difference Used most
with other
tactics
High
Ingratiation
More down
and lateral than
up
Used more for
initial request
Used most
with other
tactics
Low to
moderate
Personal
Appeal
More lateral
than down or
up
Used more for
initial request
No Difference Low to
moderate
Exchange
More down
and lateral than
up
Used most for
immediate
follow up
No Difference Low to
moderate
Coalition
Tactic
More lateral
and up than
down
Used most for
delayed follow
up
No Difference Low
Legitimating
Tactic
More down
and lateral than
up
Used most for
immediate
follow up
Used most
with other
tactics
Low
Pressure
More down
than lateral or
up
Used most for
delayed follow
up
No Difference Low
Effectiveness of Influencing Tactic Combinations
(Fable C M & Yukl G, 1992, Consequences of managers using single influence tactics and combinations of
tactics, Academy of Management Journal, 35, p.638-653)
Guidelines for Primary Influencing Tactics
Rational Persuasion
- Explain the reason for a request or proposal
- Explain how the person would benefit from your proposal
- Provide evidence that you proposal is feasible
- Explain why your proposal is better than competing ones
- Explain how likely problems or concerns would be handled
Inspirational Appeals
- Appeal to the persons ideals and values
- Link the request to the persons self-image
- Link the request to a clear and appealing vision
- Use dramatic, expressive style of speaking
- Use positive optimistic language
Consultation
- Ask for suggestions on how to improve a tentative proposal
- State your objective and ask what that person can do to help
you attain it
- Involve the person in planning how to attain an objective
- Respond to the persons concerns and suggestions
Guidelines for Secondary Influencing Tactics
Exchange Tactics
- Offer to share the benefits
- Offer an incentive unrelated to the task
- Offer to help the person carry out the request
- Offer to do some of the persons regular work
- Modify your request to make it easier to do
- Indicate you will owe the person a favour
Personal Appeals
- Appeal to friendship for a personal favour
- Explain why the request is important to you
- Say that you are counting on the persons help
- Say you need to ask for a favour before you say what it is
Ingratiation
- Compliment the person on past achievements
- Emphasise the persons unique qualifications
- Be sympathetic about problems caused by your request
- Be sensitive to the persons moods and needs
Legitimating Tactics
- Refer to the organisations policies or rules
- Verify legitimacy be referring to a written document
- Say that your request has been approved by someone in authority
- Invoke tradition or precedent
Pressure Tactics
- Use persistent requests
- Remind the person s/he agreed to do something for you
- Check frequently on the persons progress
- Ask the person for a specific date when the task will be done
Coalition Tactics
- Mention credible people who support your proposal
- Bring someone along to help you in an influence attempt
- Get other people to provide evidence or an endorsement
- Ask someone with higher authority to help you
Practical Characteristics of Effective Leadership
Characteristic
Leaders know where they are going, they
have a clear sense of vision and purpose
-
Mechanisms
Become strategically aware
Know where is your organisation is going and what effect will this have
on your team/department
Use SMART objectives as the basis for developing vision and for
decision making;
S Small (incremental)
M Measurable
A Achievable
R Realistic/Relevant
T Time constrained
Act
I
Act
1
The Practical Skills of Effective Leadership
Characteristic
Clear Objectives and agreed Goals
-
Mechanisms
Effective Leaders Remember the Rules For Setting Objectives
- If objectives are to provide a useful aid to motivation then they must be agreed
and not imposed
- Managers, Teams and Individuals need to be involved in determining their
own areas of responsibility and their own objectives
- The emphasis should be on results to be achieved rather than things to do
- Managers, Teams and Individuals must agree on the results required, the
method(s) of measuring them, and a timetable and method(s) for review
- The changing nature of the external operating environment must be kept in
mind throughout
- Objectives should as far as is possible be SMART ie Specific, Measurable,
Achievable, Realistic/Relevant and Time Bound
Act
1
Woodcock M
Effective
Teams
-Building
Block
Characteristic
Leaders are able to stay focused at all times!
-
Mechanisms
To lead a team effectively - you must not loose sight of the long-term
view. You need to see patterns, trends and opportunities rather than
always getting caught up in the detail. Some strategies which may help
are;
No details until '10.00 am'; many manager work best in the
morning, but often this time is consumed by small issues. To
concentrate of long term views/goals and thus provide a greater sense of
leadership
You're Top SIX; before you leave work write down the six
most important activities for the next day. (These are not necessarily
the most urgent but are the most important in terms of achieving long
terms visions)
Assess your focus; think about yesterday what percentage of your
time was spent moving towards your vision and what percentage was
spent with the daily drama of life.!
Act
2 22
II
Characteristic
Leaders are able to Communicate effectively with
ALL members of their team.
-
Mechanisms
Remember for communications to be effective you need to concentrate
on the 3M's
Message
Medium
Meaning
Remember for communications to be effective the message must be in
the language of the receiver and lead to some form of permanent
change.
Give praise and constructive criticism when warranted and DO NOT
forget the importance of feedback as a motivator.
Act
3
333II
I
Leaders are able to make the best decisions they can
by doing it and then evaluating by observing results.
-
Mechanisms
Avoid 'perfection paralysis' you do not live in a
perfect world - you are not going to o make perfect
decisions all the time! You need to make the best decision
you can based on the overall goal, the information &
resources available & the organisational culture within which
we work.
Try to observe the following guidelines
O Does it add value?
O What will happen if I do not do it? ie what are the do nothing costs?
O Can I delegate it? - If yes - who to?
O Can I spend less time on it or do I need more detail?
Act
4
Characteristic
Sound Procedures - Decision Making
-
Mechanisms
Effective Leaders recognise the need for Sound Working
Methods!
..sound working methods and decision making lead to the
achievement of objectives..
+
in making decisions, good teams develop the ability to collect
information quickly and then discuss alternatives openly.
+
Teams become committed to their decisions and
ensure that action follows quickly!
Act
5
Woodcock M
Effective
Teams
-Building
Block
Characteristic
Sound Procedures - Decision Making
-
Mechanisms
Effective leaders consider the following:
How is the decision making accomplished?
- Is it mainly formal or informal - at what level are decisions taken
- Are people who will be affected really involved
- Is information collected properly and accurately
- Do the Team have the right information
- Is gossip or are hard (observable/testable) facts used
- Do power groups operate and if so are they harmful
How are decision implemented?
- Do those who make the decisions give the necessary authority for others to
implement them
- Are decisions communicated effectively
- Are the right resources available are these co-ordinated
- Are some Team members resistant to change, and if so how should this be
overcome
How are decisions reviewed?
- Who carries out the review
- How often is it carried out
Act
5
Woodcock M
Effective
Teams
-Building
Block
- Does the review really change things
Characteristic
Leaders are able to Identify Stake Holders &
work with them
-
Mechanisms
Work with stakeholders who are likely to support you vision and not
hinder it. In a real world particularly during times of change there are
likely to be many stakeholders who are not supportive of your view.
You need to be aware of who these are.
Stakeholders are those who can help you attain your vision because
they have something at stake. This will include your colleagues, your
manager(s), your subordinates, customers, patients and clients etc.
On the one hand Stakeholders are people who can provide you with
the information and resources needed to achieve your goals. On the
other hand they may be individuals who see your ideas as threatening
their power or security. Undertake a stake holder analysis list those
who are;
Likely to Help=VS=Likely to hinder
Act
6
Characteristic
Leaders are prepared to take reasonable risks
-
Mechanisms
Wherever possible you need to encourage and support your team
members take risks in order to add value to your team.
Where it is safe to do so view mistakes as a natural part of the
learning process and in such situations feedback becomes the mechanisms
by which individuals and the team are able to learn from their mistakes.
Act
7
In order to achieve goals you
sometimes need to let go -
free up the decision making
process
Characteristic
Leaders are prepared to empower other team members'
employees at all times
-
Mechanisms
Remember
Delegation without a framework for review is abdication
You can delegate responsibility but NOT accountability
Act
8
Remember to delegate
tasks within an
environment which is
safe supportive and
encourages constant
review.
Act 9
Characteristic
Co-operation and Conflict
-
Mechanisms
Effective Leaders recognise the nature (and desirability) of co-
operation and conflict in teams!
- Where true co-operation is alive a degree of conflict is also seen as
necessary and useful component of problem solving.
- Whilst conflict is often viewed as the opposite of co-operation - but a
certain amount of conflict which constructively challenges established
norms prevents the Team becoming lazy and complacent.
- Conflict is an inevitable and an integral part of problem solving and
change.
- Destructive conflict based on rumours, prejudices and personal interests
will destroy co-operation
- Constructive conflict based on an open exchange of ideas and feelings
based on observable facts provides a healthy catalyst for team
development, problem solving and change management
Woodcock M
Effective
Teams
-Building
Block
Practical Leadership Skills
Co-operation & Conflict
Effective Leaders are able to recognise and resolve Destructive
Conflict
Examine what is causing the conflict between
individuals/Teams
be clear about the observable facts
be clear about individual feelings
be sure to separate cause and effect
be sure to separate symptoms from the problems
examine equity of resources, roles, experience and job
satisfaction amongst team members
Bring the parties together to discuss the issues involved and
to analyse their constituents
Actively Listen
Use open questions followed by paraphrasing and closed
questions to check understanding
Confine discussion to observable facts
Feedback to all parties
Clarify Expectations and Roles
Utilise constructive feedback to facilitate open
communications
Identify Third Parties which may be useful
Identify sources of internal and/or external expertise which
may be useful in resolving the conflict and/or developing
individual and team skills
Act 9
Act
10
Characteristic
Openness and Confrontation
-
Mechanisms
Effective Leaders recognise the importance of Open
communication & Feedback in promoting Openness
Open Communications
Candid and Honest with genuine understanding and sharing of
experiences - this type of communication promotes openness and
confrontation
Closed/Hidden Communications
Communications which tell other team members only part of the truth
inhibits openness and does not advance teamwork
Woodcock M
Effective
Teams
-Building
Block
Act
10
Openness & Confrontation
Effective Feedback
- Takes into account the needs of the receiver (and the
giver/sender) at that point in time
- Concentrates on describing events or feelings rather than
evaluating them
- Concentrates on things that the receiver can do something
about
- Is as Specific as possible
- Is timed to be near to the event and at a time when the receiver
is receptive to it
- Checks understanding of what has been said and what needs
to be done ie the action(s) required
Act
10
Openness & Confrontation
Recognises that improvements in Communication and
Feedback are achieved by:
Realising that Active Listening is done with the mind
- it requires systematic, reflective and focussed
cognitive processing.
Stop evaluating what we hear as we hear it - Do NOT make instant
judgements!
- Start putting to the back of our minds what we want to say in favour
of the speaker
- Start parking other things which are on our minds - out of the way -
do not turn them into barriers to effective understanding!
Stop looking around or being distracted - focus not only on what is
being said but how it is being said. What are the non-verbal cues
that give the message added meaning!
Stop filtering the information so that we only hear what we want to
hear or what our manager wants to hear!
Realising that Active Listening is done with the mind
- it requires systematic, reflective and focussed
cognitive processing
Act
11
Characteristic
Support and Trust
-
Mechanisms
Effective Leaders recognise the importance of Promoting
Support and Trust within the Team
to support and trust means to strengthen by assistance
conflict avoided in the name of support is like building on sand
support makes people feel wanted
Honest Dealing
+
Pragmatism
+
Predictability
+
Loyalty
Support & Trust
Woodcock M
Effective
Teams
-Building
Block
Act
11
Support and Trust
Honest Dealing
- Those who go behind peoples backs and who talk with forked
tongues are eventually found out.
- Managers who are seen as dealing dishonestly will find it almost
impossible to engender Trust
Pragmatism
- Management is the art of the possible
- Managers/Team Members who find ways of making things happen in
spite of the difficulties rather than sticking to ivory tower solutions
are more likely to be trusted
Predictability
- People find it difficult to give their trust to Managers/Team Members
who are inconsistent and constantly changing direction
- Predictability and order leads people to feel more comfortable and
comfortable people find it easier to trust
Loyalty
- Managers/Team Members who support their team through thick and
thin are more likely to be trusted.
- Team members need to support each other with constructive
criticism, mutual confidence and frank, open and direct
communications

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