Hy of the eng lang .The notion of the hy lang : internal hy, external hy .

1 Internal hy is the evolution of the structure of a lang; inside the lanf is phonology, morphology, syntax and vocabulary.2. External lang : a very diff perspective , socio historical, data about language ( culture,religion, nr of speackers, geographical area ) in which the lang was spoken.Lang contacts,.All loang have suffered the effect of lang contacts and the most typical result of lang contents is barrowing.Periods in the Hy of eng lang. The period in hy of any lang are established by convetion . Period-start and end point. The periods : old engl 449/7001100,middle eng1100-1450/1500 modern 1500-at present.It sometimes divided in to stages: early M.E 1500-1700 and present day eng 1700-at present. 449 is the year of anglo-saxons invasion and 700 corespondes to the year of the first text in eng descovered .1100 corespondes to the norman conquest.In the midd eng the end point is 1500 is the end of the middle ages historical event that took place everywhere.In M.E 1700 is the end of renaissance.English was a very diff lang in the O.E period.In the beganing eng was a lang with a very rich morphology ( with declination),hovewer eng started changing considerably in particular in the midd age period , a period in which eng lost most of its morphology, endings and by the end the structure.Depending on the period there are diff in the following: 1 the geog area .In the midd eng period , eng started gradually to become a national lang. 2 depending on the period in the hy of eng there are enormas differences in the nr of speakers .Around 1800 it is estimated that the nr of speakers was 10 mil.History of Britan .Britan is the general term covering the following regions: England,Wales,Scotland,Cranwall. Pre-celtic Britan Celtic Tribes. About this age we know very little things. The name of population are unknown , the language spoken and their name are unknown .The mein reason for this is the absence of any written in that period.The only avabile evidence is the archeological evidence.The most famous is Sone Hange. They are belived in temples.This is the oldest period we know of Britan. Celtic Britan There are several avaible types of evidence: archelogicaland written documents.The archelogical evidence consists of a large nr of settelments, ruins of temples, the religion of the Celtic , population , we have coins and weapens.We also know that the celtic lang were spoken in the specific area of Britan: british wales ; sates- scotland; ireland- irish gaelic; carnish lariwal ( death lang).The celtic society in britan was rural, they made trade with other teritories, the level of civilisation was very light and the situation changed radically in the next period.Roman Britan 40.000 soilders occupy Britan The most radical changes introduced by the romans were the following: they introduced urbane civilization, they built roads, they introduces a system of public bath , they built an extensive network of bridges, they introduces a legal system of Roman Empire .Britan was transformed by the romans from a rural society into a urban society.The entire life in roman britan was governed and bases of a specific legal system of administration and were importantly codificated written texts.Although the roman ocupy lasted almost 4 century it did not affect the lang .By the end of the roman period the population of britan were still speakers of the celtic lang. Anglo-Saxons is a trem refering to Britan after the so called Anglo-Saxon invasion.The trem anglo-saxons implice the only 2 tribes the angles and the saxons who invaded england. In reality were 4 germanic speaking lang : the angles _ from south denemark , the Jutes _from denmark ( juteland peninsula) , the Frisians from N-Eof holland and the Saxons from germany. All 4 germaninc tribes had in common 2 characteristic : 1they came from the continent and 2all 4 tribes spoke germanic lang.In 449 year the celtic trbes ask military help from the germanic tribes in the fight between britans and Piets.In return of this favour they given land in S-E of england.Finally for the next 1 century a masive nr of settles arrive in Britan.They were 2 waves : the 1st Algels, the 2 nd the Saxons and the 3rd the jutes including frisians.The most important consequence is the linguistic one given the fact that al the invading tribes spoke grmanic lang.The 4 invading tribes mixt together to some extend , they live together in the same comunitys However the region wich

were ocupyed where initially invaded by one particular trib. The Angels occupy the E Anglia, Middle Eng , Mercia and Northumbria , Saxons occupy Essex , Sussex and Wessex and the Jutes : kent and the isle of Wigld.The frisians they belived they are lived together with the other tribes. Viking Periods The 1 st viking period Begining with the year of 793 the Vikings started raiding england in a serious attaks.In 865 they occupy a large teritory including the following regions: Northumbria , Mercia , england a half of N-E engl. Gradually they advance more and more to the S until finally they were defited by eng of the historical battle of Eddington ( king Alfred The Great) The 2 nd Viking period 1013 the Vk invaded the S of Eng.They manage to occupy London 3 years later .The entire Eng is now under Vk rule and the king of the vk Knut is at the same time the king of Denmark, Norway and New Eng.The Vk spoke dialects over germanic lang called old norseand was a germanic lang as well.The vk invadators lived together with the eng populaton, they lived in the mixt families.All of this factors explain why eng even today has several hundred words , basic words including the vk origin.Eng is today a germanic lang for 2 main reason : the angles, the saxon the jutes and the frisians all spoke germanic lang and the vk invasion add a new gremanic component. Old English (449/700- approximatly 1100) 449 anglo-saxon invasion;700-first inscriptions in English;1100-norman invasion.Old engl had dialects:northumbrian,mercion-mercia;Kentishkent;west saxon-westsex. The names of he dialects ae given by convention.The second important dialect was northubrian;and this explaines why most of the texts were written in this lang.Sources of our knowledge of old English:written texts,inscriptions,manuscrips . Inscription were the first written records of Oe .The most incriptions are written in the runic alph and the mauscrips are written in the latin alph. The first inscription written in old engl was aprox in 700.The mansuscrips are written in the west saxon and include historical texts, legal , literary tet in prosa and a signifinat nr of petic texts. O.e poetry is written mainly in West Saxon, the date is frequently unknown . O.E poetic text can be clasifed acording to their content : heroic poems ( mith, legends) historic poems, christian religious, the life of the saints ( andreas, helene , juliana), poetic text wit religious subject, consists of poems which had as a topic felling of sadnessand melancolly, alegorical poems.Differecnce: no rihme , alliteration, the vocabulary of poetic text was highly specifit, an enormus nr of compundes made up of 2 nouns most of which had a metaphorical meaning you could not guess the meaning. Old English Prosa text Those texts wich do not satisfy the criterism of being poetic texts, they do not have a special vocabulary,specific compounds and they dont have alliteration.Diff between old eng poetic and texts:the date when prosa text was composed was unknown;the name of the author is freaquantly known;in old engl text are frraquantly translations from latin. Classification of Oe prosa text By content-differ from poetic texts witch respect their content,prosa texts include scientific and medical texts.Hystorical text,real events in the hy of engl.The first hy text transl from latin was the title.The most of the texts in prosa are quite long significantly longer then poetic texts.Unlike poetic texts prosa texts are a very good source of the old engl because the lang of prosa did not include special carac.and it was closer to the spoken engl lang.the poetic texts and prosa in old engl provide 2 types of essential info:about England as country,they provide an exceptional rich source of knowledge about the old engl lang. The poetic texts and prosa provide many information : about England as a country ( geog, administration, society, the legal system, about medicine , etc ) , the alphabet , morphology and vocabulary ( sinonims , existence of borrowing etc) The O.E alphabets- they were 2 alph used to writte in o.e : the runic alph and the latin alph.The first was the runic alph and the latin aplh was introduced later.The lat alph after it was introduced did not immediately repleace the runinc. They were used in the same time.The runic was preferred for inscription and the latin for the manuscrips.The runic alph : is the rightly system typical of the Germanic people, the origin is not exactly known ,the earliest texts were written in the runic alph.The written in the runic alph typical appearing in a short or very short

expression written on the hard material such as stone ( funerally inscription , on metal ( wappends or jewelry ) are more rarely on wood and animal bounds.The large nr of inscriptions were found today in Norway, Denemark, Sweeden and Britan.In Britan was used for only about 4 centruries. Caracteristic of the texts using or written in rhe runic alph: they are usually extremely short, written on the tombs indicated the name of the families or the parson buried ,maybe the age or the name of the prson who made the construction.On the metal or jewleryes the inscription indicated usually the name of the person who made it and the inscription on the metal like coins contains the name of the king.In the rare cases we find inscription on buildings such as churches. This are usually provided information about the bilder.In England the best known inscription dates from 8th in Ruthwell ( Scotland) and it is on a cross and it contain a part of poem.The shape of the laters is very different from latin one in particular what is striking the apsence of the circular or semicircular shapes.Instead of this shapes the Runic alph preferred vertical lines, orizontal and diagonal lines.this are result of the difficulty in carving circular forms on a very hard material. The relation between laters and sound In principal corresponds 1 to 1 between the runic laters and the sound.This means that in principal each later cporespond to 1 sound only , and each sound corresponded to 1 later only.There were no diphtongs, they were special laters corsponding to sounds typical og Germanic lang . The nr of laters differed for 2 reason : 1 the r alph represented the pronunciation of severl germ lang which had a diff nr of sounds accordingly the respective variant of the runica alph had a smaller or a bigger nr of latter 2 As the time past they were changes in the pronunciation of the various germ lang including eng. The latin alph it was the second in chronological oreder, it was typically used in mansuscrips , mansucrips were written or paint by hand which allowed for the use of cerucular or semini cerular shapes, was introduced in England after 597, it was first used in o.e for texts written inlatin which was the lang of churches. Caracteristic of the latin alph it consisted of laters of the latin alph to wich a nr of special laters were add , the o.e phonology including sounds which not exist in latin , for such sounds there was no corresponding latin later. In such cases new laters were add : by borroing later .Unlike the runic alph the latin alph did not contain diphtongs.Latin alphabet for O.E consisted of vowles laters and consonant later, o.e distinguish between short and long vowles, in o.e unlik m.e all vowles could be eather short or long, in other words the system was numeric. M.e have 1 short vowles and 5 long vowles and o.e has 7 vowles : 7 short vowles an 7 long vowles .Each of all represented by one single later.The vowles of o.e included vowles wich no longer exist in eng,m.e have vowles which is not exist in o.e.The vowles in o.e and m.e were not indentical , also have diftongs.Other spelling rules : proper laters are written with capital later, fullstops are uses at the end of the sentence , coma were not frequently used , the stress in o.e was not marked. O.E grammar Morphology.One of the main differences between o.e and m.e is the domanin of morphology. As the general characterization o.e have an extremely rich Morph, in particular a very rich system of endings ( suffixes) and the second one o.e distinguish several chategories which are no longer distinguish in m.e.Category of gender .Unlike m.e in which nouns do not belong to a grammatical gender o.e had 3 genders: masc, fem, neuter.The grammatical gender was normally not indicated by a specific ending.This category is one of the category lost by eng which only preserves gender or personal pronumes.The lost started in the midd eng period. The category of numbers wich nouns : o.e had 2 nr ,sg and pl ,however unlike m.e they were several ways to form the pl .The first pl ending is the only which is continuated today ( -s; -es) .of the many ways of forming the pl one which was not frequent becoming a general ending.In addition to the sg and the pl in the case of the personal pronounce form the first and 2nd person there was a 3rd nr which is called dual.Dual is a special nr referring to something more then one but smaller than many and refered to two.The category of the dual was lost with the beganing of midd eng.Category of case O.e had several cases unlike Me in which

only one case is preserved.Only one case- genitive.However in o.e they were several cases: for nouns, personal nouns nominative, gen,dative, acustaive and for adj demonstrative they were 4 cases n,g,d, ac and instrumental. The instrumental case corespondes to Romanian constructions with preposition cu.Beganing with the midd eng period , eng starts gradually losing the cases with 2 exceptions: it still has the genitive case and eng has diff forms for personal pronume Declination cases O.e had declinations classes: each noun or pronume or adj belong to a particular declination classes.Given the lost of cases endings beganing with the mid eng period eng lost enterly the declination classes.In some cases the declination of the nouns also included sound alternations where sometimes the only mark , marking the diff betw sg and pl.However treces of the original sounds alternation continue to exist today in the so called irregular nouns.In o.e adj had 2 declination : the weack declination and and the strong delination Like all the lag adj had degress of comprecing ( positive, comparative and superlative)Unlike m.e all adj formed the comparative and superlative by means of suffixes, they did not used the equivalent to form the comparative and superlative and alos had nr of adj which had diff formes from diff rules to the comparative and superlative. Words which in there declination have diff forms from diff roots are called suppletive froms which are particulary frequent in the most frequently used words.The verb The category of nr : in o.e they were 3 diff ndings for the sg for each person and diff ending in the pl for all the persons.The category of persons : persons were only distinguished only in the sg. category of tense: The o.e had 2 times : non past ( present, future) and past ( past tense , past perfect).The non-past form of the vb expressed either the present or the future.The present or future meanings were distinguished with the help of the adverbs of time.The past : the past tense and past perfect meanings were distinguished with the help of the time adverbial or by the context.The category of mood : indicative, subjunctive and imperative. It had a secial meaning and it could express uncertainty of the speaker.The category of aspect : Unlike m.e there was no specific form of possessive and there was a special form of the vb to expressed a perfective meaning. The category of voice: in o.e the passive voice was extremely rare , whenever it was used it the built of 2 auxiliar vb. The evolution of the category in eng : the distinction between sg and pl is preserved to a small extent , the distionction between persons in only preserved in the 3rd person sg, the tense system become more complex beginning with the midd eng period, it has lost the original way of forming perfective, the prefix start being lost with the mid eng period.The infinitive in o.e the inf of vb was in fact a noun , it behave like a noun for ex it still had 2 cases endings ( dative, nominative).Clases of the verbes as m.e , o.e had regillar and irregular verbes. Aphonomy it is a typically Germanic way of form of past tense by changing the vowles in the root.Vocabulary of English and its evolution Eng has a mixical character , a very large non-grem vocabulary. The vocabulary is basic which includes body parts , the basic colors, personal pronouns , cardinal nr to 1-10 , basic sounds , vb or adij and the non basic vocabulary wich includes tehnical , medical and scientific trems. In addition of Germanic words there vere a nr of inscriptions from the latin.Midd eng period starts changing radically the vocabulary of eng.1000 of French origin words are barrowed and used in administration, government, treathy.Evolution in phonology The first phonological influence of eng is conferse and very limited.Under the influence of French, eng has barroed 1 phonem ( j) . The second important evolution in the ph of e is not the result of borroing but rather the result of the internal development.This evolution is proably the most radical and more important one in the entirely hy of eng. The great vowle shift ( GVS) took pleace in the period of transation from the midd eng to early m.e .It has affected the long vovles of eng ( diphtongs) .The result is the following one: some long vowles becomes diphtongs and some long vowles becomes different long vovles.As the consequesnce the great vowles shift the entire vowle system of e

has been modified.This means that after GVS the pronunciation of e was more less similar to the pronunciation today.