Overview: The Fundamental Units of Life

Ch 6: A Tour of the Cell All organisms are made of cells Cell structure is correlated to cellular function - cells of organisms are identical, but become specialized for specific functions All cells are related by their descents from earlier cells Concept 6.2: Eukaryotic cells have internal membranes that compartmentalize their functions Concept 6.3: The eukaryotic cells genetic instructions are housed in the nucleus and carried out by the ribosome Concept 6.4: The endomembrane system regulates protein traffic and performs metabolic functions in the cell Concept 6.5: Mitochondria and chloroplasts change energy from one form to another Concept 6.6: The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers that organizes structures and activities in the cell Concept 6.7: Extracellular components and connections between cells help coordinate cellular activities Though cells cant be seen by unaided eye, cells can be complex Scientist use microscopes to help see cells In a light microscope (LM), visible light is passed through specimen then through a glass lens Lenses refract (bend) he light, so the image is magnified Three important parameter of microscopy - Magnification- ratio of an objects image size to its real size - Resolution- measure of the clarity of an image or minimum distance ot two distinguishable points - Contrast- visible differences in parts of the sample Cell fractionation takes cells apart and separates the major organelles from one another Ultracentrifuges fractionate cells into their component parts Cell f. allows to determine the functions of organelles Biochemistry and cytology help correlate cell function with structure Basic structural and function unit of every cell is on of two types of cells: - Prokaryotic: only organisms of the domain Bacteria and Archaea - Eukaryotic: Protists, fungi, animals, and plants Basic features of ALL cells - plasma membrane - semi-fluid substance, cytosol - chromosomes (carry genes) - ribosomes (make proteins) No nucleus and DNA is an unbound region called nucleoid No membrane-bound organelles Cytoplasm bound by the plasma membrane DNA in a nucleus that is bounded by a membranous nuclear envelope Membrane-bound organelles Cytoplasm in the region between the plasma membrane and the nucleus

Key Concepts

C 6.1: Biologist use microscopes and the tools of biochemistry to study cells

Microscopy- Key Elements

Cell Fractionation

C 6.2: Eukaryotic cells have internal membranes that compartmentalize their function

Proteins are characterized by having..

Eukaryotic cells are characterized by having

 Eukaryotic cells are generally much larger than prokaryotic cells Plasma membrane is a selective barrier that allows sufficient passage or oxygen, nutrients, and waste to service the volume of every cell General structure of a biological membrane is a double layer of phospholipids Logistics of carrying out cellular metabolisms sets limits on the size of cells (mitosis) Surface are to volume ration of a cell is critical As surface are increases by a factor of n2 the volume increases by n3 Small cells have greater surface area relative to volume

Animal Cell

Plant Cell

C 6.3: the eukaryotic cells genetic instructions are housed in the nucleus and carried out by the ribosome

Nucleus contains most of the DNA (the cellss genes) and is usually the most conspicuous organelle Nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus, separating it from the cytoplasm Nuclear membrane is a double membrane; each membrane consists of a lipid bilayer Ribosomes use the information from the DNA to make proteins In nucleus, DNA and proteins form genetic material called chromatin (uncondensed DNA), chromatin condenses to form discrete chromosomes (condensed DNA) in cell Nucleolus is located within nucleus and site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis Pores regulate entry and exit of molecules from the nucleus Shape on nucleus is maintained by nuclear lamina which is composed of protein Ribosomes are particles made of ribosomal RNA and protein Ribosomes carry out proteins synthesis in two locations: - in the cytosol (free ribosomes) - outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or the nuclear envelope (bound ribosome) Components of the endomembrane system - nuclear envelope - endoplasmic reticulum - golgi apparatus - lysosomes - vacuoles - plasma membrane These components are either continuous or connected via transfer by vesicles The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) accounts for more than half of the membrane in many eukaryotic cells The ER membrane is continuous with the nuclear envelope There are two distinct region of ER - Smooth ER, which lacks ribosome - Rough ER, surface is studded with ribosome Synthesizes lipids Metabolizes carbohydrates Detoxifies poison Stores calcium Has bound ribosomes, which secrete glycoprotein (proteins covalently bonded to carbohydrates) Distributes transport vesicles, proteins surrounded by membrane Is a membranefactory for the cell Golgi apparatus consists of flattened membranous sacs called cisternae Functions of golgi apparatus: -modifies products of the ER -manufactures certain macromolecules -sorts and packages material into transport vesicles Lysosome is a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that can digest macromolecules Lysosomal enzymes can hydrolyze proteins. Fats, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids

Ribosomes: Protein Factories

C 6.4: The endomebrane system regulates protein traffic and performs metabolic functions in the cell

The endoplasmic reticulum: Biosynthetic factory

Functions of Smooth ER

Functions of Rough ER

Golgi Apparatus: Shipping & receiving center

Lysosomes: Digestive compartments

 Some can surround another cell by phagocytosis; this forms a food vacuole after which fusion with a lysome digests the molecule Lysosomes also use enzymes to recycle the cells own organelles and macromolecules, process called autophagy Vacules: Diverse Food vacuoles are formed by phagocytosis Maintenance compartments Contractile vacuoles, found in many freshwater protests, pump excess water out of cells Central vacuoles, found in many mature plan cells, hold organic compounds of water

C 6.5: mitochondria and chloroplasts change energy form one form to another

Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration, a metabolic process that uses oxygen to generate ATP Chloroplast, found in plants and algae, are the sites of photosynthesis Peroxisomes are oxidative organelles Mitochondria and chloroplast have similarities with bacteria -enveloped by a double membrane -contain free ribosomes and circular DNA molecules -grows and reproduces somewhat independently in cells An early ancestor of eukaryotic cells engulfed a nonphotosynthetic prokaryotic cell, which formed an endosymbiont relationship with its host The host cell and endosymbiont merged into a single organism, an eukaryotic cell with a mitochondrion At least one of the cells may have taken up a photosynthetic prokaryote, becoming the ancestor of cells that contain chloroplasts Mitochondria are in nearly all eukaryotic cells They have a smooth outer membrane and a inner membrane folded into cristae

The endosymbiont theory

Mitochondria: chemical energy conservation

 The inner membrane create two compartments: intermembrane space and mitochondrial matrix Some metabolic steps of cellular respiration are catalyzed in the mitochondrial matrix Cristae present a large surface area for enzymes that synthesize ATP Chloroplast is one of a group of plant organelles, called plastids Chloroplast structure include - Thylakoids- membranous sacs, stacked to form a granum that contain chlorophyll - Stroma- the internal flud that enzymatically builds sugars from CO2 Chloroplasts are found in leaves and other green organs of plants an in algae Peroxisomes: Oxidation Peroxisomes are specialized metabolic compartments bounded by a single membrane Peroxisomes produce hydrogen peroxide and convert it to water Oxygen is used to break down different types of molecules Cytoskeleton is a network of fibers throughout the cytoplasm that organizes and anchors the cells structure and activities Its composed of three types of molecular structures - Microtubules (thickest) - Microfulaments or actins (thinnest) - Intermediate filaments The cytoskeleton helps to (a) support and maintain cell shape; (b) interact with motor proteins to produce mobility Inside the cell, vesticles can travel along mono rails provided by the cytoskeleton Recent evidence says that the cytoskeleton may help regulate biochemical activities Microtubules are hollow rods about 25nm in diameter and about 200nm to 25microns long Functions of microtubules: - shaping cell - guiding movement of organelles - separating chromosome during cell division Centrosomes and centrioles In many cells, microtubules grow out from a centrosome near the nucleus The centrosome is a microtubule organizing center In animal cell, the centrosome has a pair of centrioles, each with nine triplets of microtubules arranged in a ring Microtubules control the beating of cilia and flagella, locomotor appendages of some cells Cilia and flagella differ in their beating pattern Cilia and flagella share common structure -core of microtubules sheathed by the plasma membrane - basal body that anchors the cilium or flagellum -motor protein, dyneim, which drives the bending motion of a cilium or flagellum How dynein walking moves flagella and celia: - dynein arms alternately grab, move, and release the outer microtubules - protein cross-links limit sliding -forces exerted by dynein arms cause doublets to curve,bending the cilium or flagellum Require ATP to make movement

C 6.6: The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers that organizes structure and activities in the cell

Roles of Cytoskeleton: Support, mobility, and regulation

Microtubles

Cilia and Flagella

Microfilaments (actin filaments)

Microfilaments are solid rods (~7nm diameter) built as a twisted double chain of actin subunits Structural role of microfilaments is to resist the pulling forces (tension) within the cell Form a d network called the cortex just inside the plasma membrane to help support cells shape Microfilaments that function in cellular motility contain the protein myosin in addition to actin In muscle cells, thousands of actin filaments are arranged parallel to one another Thicker filaments composed of myosin interdigitate with the thinner actin fibers Localized contraction brough about by actin and myosin also drives amoeboid movement Pseudopodia (cellular extentions) extend and contract through the reversible assembly and contraction of
actin subunits into microfilaments Cytoplasmic streaming is a circular flow of cytoplasm within cells The streaming speeds distribution of material within the cell In plant cells, actin-myosin interactions and sol-gel transformations drive cytoplasmic streaming

Intermediate Filaments

Intermediate filaments range in diameter from 8-12 nanometer, larger than microfilaments but smaller than microtubules They support cell shape and fix organelles in place Intermediate filaments are more permanent cytoskeleton fixtures than the other two classes Most cells synthesize and secrete materials that are external to the plasma membrane These extracellular structures include - cell walls of plants - the extrecellular matrix (ECM) of animal cells - intercellular junctions The cell wall is an extracellular structure that distinguishes plant cells form animal cells Prokaryotes, fungi, and some protest also have cell walls Cell wall protects plant cell, maintains its shape, and prevents excessive uptakes of water Plant cell walls are made up of cellulose fibers embedded in other polyscc and proteins Plant cell walls may have multiple layers: - primary cell wall: relatively thin and flexible - middle lamella: thin layer between primary walls of adjacent cells - secondary cell wall (in some cells): added between the plasma membrane and the primary cell wall Plasmadesmata are channels between adjacent plant cells Animal cells lack cell walls but are covered by elaborate extracellular matrix (ECM) made up of glycoproteins (e.g., collagen, proteoglycans, and fibronectin that bind to plasma membrane receptor proteins called integrins Functions of EMC: support, adhesion, movement, regulation Neighboring cells in tissues, organs, or organ system often adhere, interact, and communicate through direct physical contact Intercellular junctions fasciliate this contact There are several types of intercellular junctions - Plasmodesmata - Tight junctions - Desmosomes - Gap junctions

C 6.7: Extracellular components and connections between cells help coordinate cellular activities Cell walls of plants

Extracellular Matrix (EMC) of animal cells

Cell Junctionss

Plasmodesmata in Plant Cells Tight Junctions, Desmosomes, and gap junctions in animal cells

Plasmodesmata are channesl that perforate plant cell walls through which water and small solutes (and sometimes protein and RNA) can pass from cell to cell At tight junctions, membranes of neighboring cells are pressed together, preventing leakage of extracellular fluid Desmosomes (anchoring junctions) fasten cells together into strong sheets Gap junctions (communication junctions) provide cytoplasmic channels between adjacent cells Cells rely on the integration of structures and organelles in order to function E.g. amacrophages ability to destroy bacteria involves the whole cell, coordinating components such as the cytoskeleton, lysosomes, and plasma membrane

The Cell: a living unit greater that the sum of its parts You should now be able to

1.Distinguish between the following pairs of terms: magnification and resolution; prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell; free and bound ribosomes; smooth and rough ER 2.Describe the structure and function of the components of the endomembrane system 3.Briefly explain the role of mitochondria, chloroplasts, and peroxisomes 4.Describe the functions of the cytoskeleton 5.Compare the structure and functions of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments 6.Explain how the ultrastructure of cilia and flagella relate to their functions 7.Describe the structure of a plant cell wall 8.Describe the structure and roles of the extracellular matrix in animal cells 9.Describe four different intercellular junctions