CP1+B9+Lecture+No.+2+ +Power+System+Modeling

Competency Training and Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering
Certificate in
Power System Modeling and Analysis

Training Course in
Power System Modeling
U. P. NATIONAL ENGINEERING CENTER NATIONAL ELECTRIFICATION ADMINISTRATION
Training Course in Power System Modeling
Course Outline
1. Utility Thevenin Equivalent Circuit 2. Load Models 3. Generator Models 4. Transformer Models 5. Transmission and Distribution Line Models
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration
Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering
Utility Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

Thevenins Theorem Utility Fault MVA Equivalent Circuit of Utility
Thevenins Theorem
Any linear active network with output terminals AB can be replaced by a single voltage source Vth in series with a single impedance Zth A Linear Active Network B Vth B + A Zth
The Thevenin equivalent voltage Vth is the open circuit voltage measured at the terminals AB. The equivalent impedance Zth is the driving point impedance of the network at the terminals AB when all sources are set equal to zero.
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration Competency Training & Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering
Utility Fault MVA

Electric Utility Grid IF Fault Electric Utilities conduct short circuit analysis at the Connection Point of their customers Customers obtain the Fault Data at the Connection Point to represent the Utility Grid for their power system analysis
Customer Facilities
Utility Fault MVA

Electric Utility provides the Fault MVA and X/R ratio at nominal system Voltage for the following types of fault: Three Phase Fault
Fault MVA3
Single Line-to-Ground Fault
X/R3 X/RLG
Fault MVALG
System Nominal Voltage in kV

Equivalent Circuit of Utility

Positive & Negative Sequence Impedance
From Three-Phase Fault Analysis
I TPF =
Z1
S TPF
= V f I TPF =
[V ]
f
Z1
Z1 =
Where, Z1 and Z2 are the equivalent positive2 sequence and kV = Z 2 negative-sequence Fault MVA 3 impedances of the utility
[ ]

Zero Sequence Impedance
From Single Line-to-Ground Fault Analysis
I SLGF =
3V f Z1 + Z2 + Z0
S SLGF = V f I SLGF =
3Vf
[ ]
2Z 1 + Z 0
2Z1 + Z0 =
3 Vf
[ ]
Z1 = Z2
Resolve to real and imaginary components then solve for Zo
SSLGF

Example: Determine the equivalent circuit of the Utility in per unit quantities at a connection point for the following Fault Data:
System Nominal Voltage = 69 kV Fault MVA3 = 3500 MVA, Fault MVALG = 3000 MVA, X/R3 = 22 X/RLG = 20
The Base Power is 100 MVA

10

Base Power: 100 MVA Base Voltage: 69 kV Base Impedance: [69]2/100 = 47.61 ohms
Z1 = Z2 =
In Per Unit,
[kV ]
Fault MVA 3
[69 ]
3500
= 1.3603
or
Z actual 1.3603 = = 0.0286 p.u. Z1 = Z2 = Z base 47 . 61

100MVA BASE Z1 = Z2 = = 0.0286 p.u. 3500 MVA FAULT
11

Solving for the Resistance and Reactance, Z [(1 + (X/R)2] X
= tan 1 [ X / R ] X/R R = Z cos X = Z sin

+
0.0013+j0.028571 +
R 1 = 0.0286 cos [tan -1 (22 )] X 1 = 0.0286 sin [tan = 0 . 028571 = 0 . 00 13 p.u. = R 2

-1
(22 )]
V f 10
-
p.u. = X 2
12

For the Zero Sequence Impedance,
SLGF P .U . = Voltage
3000 MVA SLGF ( actual ) 100 MVA BASE 69 kV = = 1 . 0 p .u . 69 kV

2
= 30 p .u .
P .U .
2Z 1 + Z 0 =
3Vf
[ ]
S SLGF
3[1.0 ] = = 0 .1 30
2
Re al {2 Z 1 + Z 0 } = 0.1cos tan -1 (20 ) = 0.004994 Im ag {2 Z 1 + Z 0

-1
[ } = 0.1sin [tan
] (20 )] = 0.099875
p.u. p.u.
13

2 Z 1 + Z 0 = 0.004994 + j0.099875 Z 0 = (0.004994 + j0.099875) 2(0.0013 + j0.028571) = 0.003694 + j0.042733 p.u.
+
0.0013+j0.028571 +
+
0.0013+j0.028571
+
0.003694 + j0.042733
V f 10
-
Positive Sequence
Negative Sequence
Zero Sequence
14

Example: Determine the equivalent circuit of the Utility in per unit quantities at a connection point for the following Fault Data:
Pos. Seq. Impedance = 0.03 p.u., Zero Seq. Impedance = 0.07 p.u., System Nominal Voltage = 69 kV Base Power = 100 MVA X/R1 = 22 X/R0 = 22
15

The equivalent sequence networks of the Electric Utility Grid are:
+ + +
r + Eg
-
R1 +jX1 R2 +jX2
-
R0 +jX0
-
Positive Sequence
Negative Sequence
Zero Sequence
Utility Thevenin Equivalent Circuits

16
Load Models
Types of Load Customer Load Curve Calculating Hourly Demand Developing Load Models
17
Types of Load
An illustration:
Sending End Line Receiving End
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

ISR = ?
VS = ?
VR = 13.2 kVLL Load 2 MVA, 3Ph 85%PF 13.2 kVLL
18
Types of Load
An illustration:
Sending End Line Receiving End
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

ISR = ?
VS = ?
VR = 13.2 kVLL Load 2 MVA, 3Ph 85% pf lag 13.2 kVLL
Constant Power (P & Q)

2 MVA = 1.7 MW + j1.0536 MVAR
Constant Current (I)

I = 87.4773 -31.79o A
Constant Impedance (R & X)

Z = 87.12 = 74.0520 + j 45.8948
19
Types of Load
Sending End Line
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

ISR = ?
Receiving End
VS = ?
VR = 13.2 kVLL Load 2 MVA, 3Ph 0.85 pf, lag 13.2 kVLL
r r r r VS = VR + I SR ( Z line )
r VSLL = 13.510 KVLL
13,200 o = 0 + (87.4773 31.79o )(1.1034 + j 2.0856) 3 = 7,8000.760o V
20
Types of Load
Sending End Line
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

ISR = 87.48-31.79o
Receiving End
VS = 13.51 kVLL
r r* 3VS I S = 3(7,8000.76o )(87.477331.79o ) = 1.7256 MW + j1.1010 MVAR
21
Types of Load
Sending End Line
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

ISR = 87.48-31.79o
Receiving End
VS = 13.51 kVLL
Plosses = 1.7256 1.7 MW = 25.6 KW

13.510 13.2 VR = 100% 13.2 = 2.35%
22
Types of Load
Sending End Line
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

ISR = ?
Receiving End
VS = ?
VR = 11.88 kVLL Load
What happens if the Voltage at the Receiving End drops to 90% of its nominal value?
VR =11.88 KVLL
We will again analyze the power loss (Ploss) and Voltage Regulation (VR) for different types of loads
23
Types of Load
Case 1: Constant Power Load 2 MVA = 1.7 MW + j1.0536 MVAR r 1.7 j1.0536 MVA I SR = 311.88KV = 97.1979 31.79o
11.88 0 = 0 + (97.1979 31.78)(1.1034 + j 2.0856) 3 = 7,057.80.940 V = 12.224 KV

24
Types of Load
Case 1: Constant Power Load 2 MVA = 1.7 MW + j1.0536 MVAR
Plosses = 3(97.19792 )(1.0134) W = 28.722 KW 12.224 11.88 VR = 100% 11.88 = 2.9%
25
Types of Load
Case 2: Constant Current Load I = 87.4773 -31.79o A
11.88 o = 0 + (87.4773 31.79o )(1.1034 + j 2.0856) 3 = 7,037.80.84o V = 12.190 KV
26
Types of Load
Case 2: Constant Current Load I = 87.4773 -31.78o A
Plosses = 3(87.482 )(1.1034) W = 25.33 KW 12.19 11.88 VR = 100% 11.88 = 2.6%
27
Types of Load
Case 3: Constant Impedance Load Z = 87.12 31.79o = 74.0520 + j 45.8948
r VR r VS
r r Z Load r = VS r Z Load + Z Line r r r Z Load + Z Line r = VR Z Load
11.88 o 87.1231.79o + (1.1034 + j 2.0856 = 0 87.1231.79o 3 r VSLL = 12.159 KV = 7.0199 0.77o KV

28
Types of Load
r r VS r I SR = r Z Load + Z Line 7.0199 0.77 = 87.1231.79o + 1.1034 + j 2.0856 = 78.730 A

o
29
Types of Load
Plosses = 3(78.732 )(1.0134) W = 18.84 KW 12.159 11.88 VR = 100% 11.88 = 2.34%
30
Types of Load
Load
Constant
VS* 12.224
VR 2.9 %
Ploss 28.72 kW
Power
Constant
2 MVA, 0.85 pf lag 87.48 -31.78 87.12 -31.78
Current
Constant Impedance
12.190
2.6 %
25.33 kW
12.159
2.34 % 18.84 kW
* Sending end voltage with a Receiving end voltage equal to 0.9*13.2 KV

31
Types of Load
DemandReA= (PA+ IReA Va + Z DemandImA=(QA+ IImA Va + Z
-1 -1 ReA
Va2 ) Va2 )
ImA
DemandReB= (PB+ IReB Vb + Z -1ReB Vb2 ) DemandImB = (QB+ IImB Vb + Z -1ImB Vb2 ) DemandReC= (Pc+ IReC Vc + Z DemandImC= (Qc+ IImC Vc + Z
Where: -1
Vc2 ) ReC Vc2) ImC
-1
P,Q are the constant Power components of the Demand IRe,IIm are the constant Current components of the Demand Z-1Re,Z-1Im are the constant Impedance components of the Demand
32
Customer Load Curve

24-Hour Customer Load Profile
Time Demand (A) 1:00 17.76 2:00 16.68 3:00 17.52 4:00 17.40 5:00 21.00 6:00 29.88 7:00 29.64 8:00 32.28 9:00 25.92 10:00 21.72 11:00 25.20 12:00 22.08
Time Demand (A) 13:00 20.88 14:00 19.80 15:00 19.08 16:00 19.20 17:00 23.04 18:00 30.72 19:00 38.00 20:00 35.00 21:00 34.00 22:00 27.60 23:00 24.84 24:00 22.32
33
Customer Load Curve

Establishing Normalized Hourly Demand
Time Demand (A) Per Unit 1:00 17.76 0.467 2:00 16.68 0.439 3:00 17.52 0.461 4:00 17.40 0.458 5:00 21.00 0.553 6:00 29.88 0.786 7:00 29.64 0.780 8:00 32.28 0.849 9:00 25.92 0.682 10:00 21.72 0.572 11:00 25.20 0.663 12:00 22.08 0.581 Time Demand (A) Per Unit 13:00 20.88 0.549 14:00 19.80 0.521 15:00 19.08 0.502 16:00 19.20 0.505 17:00 23.04 0.606 18:00 30.72 0.808 19:00 1.000 38.00 20:00 35.00 0.921 21:00 34.00 0.895 22:00 27.60 0.726 23:00 24.84 0.654 24:00 22.32 0.587
PU = 15.567
34
Customer Load Curve

1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0
Demand (Per Unit)
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
Time
35
Calculating Hourly Demand

350 300
250
D and (W) em
200 150 100
Customer Energy Bill

1.2 Nr a z d e a d pru i ) om i e D n ( e n l m t 1
0.8
50 0
Area under the curve = Customer Energy Bill
0.6
0.4
0.2
Normalized Customer Load Curve

Time (24 hours)
Customer Energy Bill Converted to Hourly Power Demand

36

Total Total Monthly Energy Monthly Energy Daily Energy Daily Energy Hourly Demand pt Pt = Energy daily 24 pt 1
Customer Customer Load Load Curve Curve
37

Example:
kWHr Reading (Monthly Bill) = 150 kWHr Billing Days = 30 days Daily Energy = 150 / 30 = 5 kWh [24 hours] Hourly Demand1 = Daily Energy x [P.U.1 / P.U] = 5 kWh x 0.467 / 15.567 = 0.15011 kW = 150.11 W
38

350 300 250
Demand (W)
200 150 100 50 0 1:00 3:00 5:00 7:00 9:00 11:00 13:00 15:00 17:00 19:00 21:00 23:00
Hourly Real Demand

39
Qt = Pt tan cos pf t
Qt = hourly Reactive Demand (VAR) Pt = hourly Real Demand (W) Pft = hourly power factor
Example:
Real Demand (W) = 150.11 W, PF = 0.96 lag Reactive Demand = P tan (cos-1 pf) = 150.11 tan (cos-1 0.96) = 43.78 VAR
40

350
Demand (W and VAR)
300 250 200 150 100 50

1:00 3:00 5:00 7:00 9:00 11:00 13:00 15:00 17:00 19:00 21:00 23:00
Hourly Real & Reactive Demand

41
Developing Load Models

Load Curves for each Customer Type
Residential load curves Commercial load curves Industrial load curves Public building load curves Street Lighting load curves Administrative load curves (metered) Other Load Curves (i.e., other types of customers)
Variations in Load Curves

Customer types and sub-types Weekday-Weekend/Holiday variations Seasonal variations
42
Developing Load Models

Converting Energy Bill to Power Demand
Data Requirements
Customer Data; Billing Cycle Data; Customer Energy Consumption Data; and Load Curve Data. Distribution Utility Data Tables and Instructions
43
Generator Models
Generalized Machine Model Steady-State Equations Generator Sequence Impedances Generator Sequence Networks
44
Generalized Machine Model

Constructional Details of Synchronous Machine
Axis of b q-axis Phase c winding d-axis Phase b winding
Stator: distributed threephase winding (a, b, c) Rotor:
Field winding F Damper winding Q Phase a winding
Axis of a Damper winding D
DC field winding (F) and shortcircuited damper windings (D, Q)
Axis of c
45

Primitive Coil Representation
phase b q-axis b ib
b +V -
d-axis
vQ
iQ + F iF
D
-+
v
D
e
iD
-
a ia
+ Va -
m
+V c
phase a
ic c
phase c
d v = Ri + dt
46

Voltage Equations for the Primitive Coils
For the stator windings For the rotor windings
dF dt dD dt dQ
da v F = R F iF + v a = R a ia + dt db v D = R D iD + v b = R b ib + dt dc v Q = R Q iQ + v c = R c ic + dt Note: The D and Q windings are shorted (i.e. v D
dt
= v Q = 0 ).
v abc Rabc v = FDQ
i abc i + R FDQ FDQ
abc p FDQ
= Li
47

The flux linkage equations are:
or
a Laa L b ba c Lca = F LFa D LDa Q LQa
Lab Lbb Lcb LFb LDb
Lac Lbc Lcc LFc LDc
LaF LbF LcF LFF LDF
LQb LQc LQF
LaD LaQ ia LbD LbQ ib LcD LcQ ic LFD LFQ iF LDD LDQ iD LQD LQQ iQ
abc [L SS ] = FDQ [L RS ]
[LSR ] i abc [L RR ] i FDQ

48

COIL INDUCTANCES
Stator Self Inductances L aa = L s + L m cos 2 e
L bb = L s + L m cos( 2 e + 120 o )
Lcc = Ls + Lm cos( 2 e 120 o )

Stator-to-Stator Mutual Inductances
Lab = Lba = M s + Lm cos(2 e 120o ) Lbc = Lcb = M s + Lm cos2e Lca = Lac = M s + Lm cos(2e + 120o )
49

COIL INDUCTANCES
Rotor Self Inductances
LFF = LFF LDD = LDD LQQ = LQQ

Rotor-to-Rotor Mutual Inductances
L FD = L DF = LFD L FQ = L QF = 0 L DQ = L QD = 0
50

COIL INDUCTANCES
Stator-to-Rotor Mutual Inductances
LaF = LFa = LaF cos e LbF = LFb = LaF cos( e 120o ) LcF = LFc = LaF cos( e + 120 )
o
LaD = LDa = LaD cose LbD = LDb = LaD cos(e 120o ) LcD = LDc = LaD cos(e + 120o )
LaQ = LQa = LaQ sin e LbQ = LQb = LaQ sin( e 120 o ) LcQ = LQc = LaQ sin( e + 120 o )
51

Equivalent Coil Representation
q-axis b-axis Q iQ vQ + ib
+V b-
Rotor coils FDQ stationary

b
Stator coils abc rotating
F ic c m a
+ V c-
iF iD + vF - + vD + Va a-axis
ia
d-axis
c-axis
52

Equivalent Generalized Machine
Replace the abc coils with equivalent commutated d and q coils which are connected to fixed brushes.
q-axis vQ + vq + d
m
- i
Q
- i
q
F = LFd i d + LFF i F + LFD i D D = LDd id + LDF i F + LDD i D Q = LQq iq + LQQ iQ

F i + vF F D i + vD D d-axis
i
d
+ vd -
d = L dd i d + L dF i F + L dD i D q = L qq i q + L qQ iQ
53

Transformation from abc to Odq
q-axis b-axis q-axis
ib c-axis
m
q i q d-axis id
ic ia
d d-axis
Note: The d and q windings are pseudo-stationary. The O axis is perpendicular to the d and q axes.
a-axis
54

Equivalence: 1. The resultant mmf of coils a, b and c along the d-axis must equal the mmf of coil d for any value of angle e. 2. The resultant mmf of coils a, b and c along the q-axis must equal the mmf of coil q for any value of angle e. We get Ndid = Kd [Naia cos e + Nbib cos (e - 120o) + Ncic cos (e + 120o)] Nqiq = Kq [-Naia sin e - Nbib sin (e - 120o) -Ncic sin (e + 120o)] where Kd and Kq are constants to be determined.
55

Assume equal number of turns. Na = Nb = Nc = Nd = Nq Substitution gives id = Kd [ia cos e + ib cos (e - 120o) + ic cos (e + 120o)] iq = Kq [-ia sin e - ib sin (e - 120o) -ic sin (e + 120o)] The O-coil contributes no flux along the d or q axis. Let its current io be defined as io = Ko ( ia + ib + ic )
56

Combining, we get
io id = iq Ko K d cos e K q sin e K d cos ( e 120 ) Ko ia K d cos ( e + 120 ) ib K q sin ( e + 120 ) ic Ko
K q sin ( e 120 )
The constants Ko, Kd and Kq are chosen so that the transformation matrix is orthogonal; that is
[P ] 1
K =
[P ]T
1 3
Assuming Kd = Kq, one possible solution is

o
2 Kd = Kq = 3
57

Parks Transformation Matrix
2 3 2 3 1 2 cos e sin e 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 cos ( e 120 ) sin ( e 120 ) cos cos ( e 120 ) cos ( e + 120 ) 2 cos ( e + 120 ) sin ( e + 120 ) 1 sin ( e 120 ) sin ( e + 120 ) sin e
[P ] =
[P ]1
58

Voltage Transformation
The relationship between the currents is
i odq = [P ]i abc
or
i abc = [P ] iodq
1
Assume a power-invariant transformation; that is
vaia + vbib + vcic = voio + vd id + vqiq

or
v i
T abc abc
=v
T odq odq
59

Substitution gives
T abc
[P]
i odq = v
T odq
T odq odq
=v
T abc
[P]
Transpose both sides to get
v odq = [P ]v abc
1
v abc = [P ] v odq
Note: Since voltage is the derivative of flux linkage, then the relationship between the flux linkages must be the same as that of the voltages. That is,
odq
= [P ]
abc
60

In summary, using Parks Transformation matrix,
i odq = [P ]i abc v odq = [P ]v abc
i abc = [P ] iodq
1
v abc = [P ] v odq
1
odq = [P ] abc
abc = [P ] odq
1
61

Recall the flux linkage equation
or
a Laa L b ba c Lca = F LFa D LDa Q LQa
Lab Lbb Lcb LFb LDb
Lac Lbc Lcc LFc LDc
LQb LQc
LaF LaD LaQ ia LbF LbD LbQ ib LcF LcD LcQ ic LFF LFD LFQ iF LDF LDD LDQ iD LQF LQD LQQ iQ
abc [L SS ] = FDQ [L RS ]
[LSR ] i abc [L RR ] i FDQ

62

Recall
where
Laa [LSS ] = Lba Lca
Lab Lbb Lcb
Lac Lbc Lcc
L aa = L S + L m cos 2 e Lbb = L S + L m cos 2 e + 120 o
L cc = L S + L m 120 o e L ab = Lba = M S + L m cos 2 e 120 o
( (cos 2
) )
) )
Lbc = Lcb = M S + L m cos 2 e Lca = L ac = M S + L m cos 2 e + 120 o

63

Substitution gives
LS [LSS ] = M S M S MS LS MS MS MS LS
cos(2 e 120 ) cos(2 e + 120 ) cos 2 e cos 2 e + Lm cos(2 e 120 ) cos(2 e + 120 ) cos(2 e + 120 ) cos 2 e cos(2 e 120 )
64

Similarly,
L aQ sin e L aF cos e L aD cos e [L SR ] = LaF cos ( e 120 ) LaD cos ( e 120 ) LaQ sin ( e 120 ) LaF cos ( e + 120 ) L aD cos ( e + 120 ) LaQ sin ( e + 120 )
Apply Park's transformation to Flux Linkage equation
[P ] abc
or
= [P ][L SS ]i abc + [P ][L SR ]i FDQ

1
odq = [P ][L SS ][P ] i odq + [P ][L SR ]i FDQ

65
Generalized Machine Model The term [P ][LSS ][P ]1 can be shown

Ls 2M =
s
3 Ls + M s + Lm 2
3 Ls + M s + Lm 2
Let
L oo = L S 2 M L dd = L S + M L qq = L S + M
S S
3 Lm 2 3 Lm 2 +
[P ][Lss ][P ]
Loo =
Ldd
Lqq
66

Similarly, it can be shown that
0 3 [P][LSR ] = LaF 2 0 0 3 LaD 2 0 0 0 = LdF 3 LaQ 2 LqQ
LdD
where
LdF =
3 LaF 2
LdD =
3 LaD 2
L qQ =
3 L aQ 2
67

Substituting, [P ][LSS ][P ]
1
and [P ][LSR ]
1
odq = [P ][L SS ][P ] i odq + [P ][L SR ]i FDQ

Finally, we get
o = Loo io d = Ldd i d + LdF i F + LdD i D q = Lqq i q + LqQ iQ

Note: All inductances are constant.
68

The Flux Linkage Equations for the FDQ coils in matrix form is
FDQ = [L RS ]i abc + [L RR ]i FDQ

Since we get
[LRS] =[LSR]
FDQ = [LSR ] [P] i odq + [LRR ]i FDQ

T 1
69

It can be shown that
[P ]1 = 0 0 0 3 LaF 2 3 LaD 2 0 0 0 = 3 LaQ 2
[LSR ]T
LFd LDd
LQq
L Fd =
3 L aF 2
L Dd =
3 L aD 2
L Qq =
3 L aQ 2
70

Recall that the rotor self- and mutual inductances are constant Upon substitution, we get
LFF LFD 0 [LRR] = LDF LDD 0 0 0 LQQ
F = LFd id + LFF iF + LFDiD D = LDd id + LDF iF + LDDiD Q = LQqiq + LQQiQ
Note: All inductances are also constant.

71

The Flux Linkage Equation
q-axis vQ +
Q i
Q
q iq vq + d F iF
o d q F o o Loo d Ldd LdF d q q Lqq = LFd LFF F F D D LDd LDF LQq Q Q

D d-axis i + vF - + vD D
D
LdD LFD LDD
Q io i d LqQ iq iF iD LQQ iQ
id
+ vd -
72

Transformation of Stator Voltages
Assume Ra = Rb = Rc in the stator. Then,
v abc = Ra [u3 ]i abc
Recall the transformation equations
d + abc dt
i odq = [P ] i abc
v odq = [P ] v abc
odq
= [P ]
abc
73

Apply Parks transformation
[P ]v abc
= [P ]R a [u 3 ][P ] i odq
1
d + [P ] dt
{[P ]
odq
Simplify to get
v odq = R a [u 3 ]i odq + [P ][P ]
d d 1 odq + [P ] [P ] odq dt dt
74

2 d 1 [P] = 3 dt
where
0 0 0
de sin(e 120) cos(e 120) dt sin(e +120) cos(e +120)
sine
cose
d e = e = m dt
P = m 2
for a twopole machine
for a Ppole machine

75

It can also be shown that
0 d 1 [P] [P] = 0 dt 0
Finally, we get
0 0 m
0 m 0
for a two-pole machine
d v o = R aio + o dt d v d = R a i d + d m q dt
d v q = R aiq + q + m d dt
76

Voltage Equation for the Rotor
vF vD vQ
d = R F iF + F dt d = R D iD + D = 0 dt d = R Q iQ + Q = 0 dt
Note: No transformation is required.

77

Matrix Form of Voltage Equations
vo Ra io o v i Ra d d d vq iq d q Ra = + + m RF vF iF dt F vD iD D RD RQ iQ Q vQ -1 1 o d q F D Q
The equation is now in the form
[v ] = [R ][i ] + [L ] p [i ] + m [G ][i ]
Resistance Voltage Drop Transformer Voltage Speed Voltage
78

d d Ldd q [L] = F LFd D LDd Q q F LdF D LdD Q
Lqq LFF LQq LFD LDF LDD
Note: All entries of [L] and [G] are constant.
LqQ d q F D Q LQQ d Lqq LqQ q Ldd LdF LdD [G] = F D Q

79

Summary of Equations
Voltage Equations Flux Linkages
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
vo = Ra io + p o vd = Ra id + p d m q vq = Ra iq + p q + m d vF = RF iF + p F vD = Rd iD + p D = 0 vQ = RQiQ + p Q = 0
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
o = Looio d = Ldd id + LdF iF + LdDiD q = Lqqiq + LqQiQ F = LFd id + LFF iF + LFDiD D = LDd id + LDF iF + LDDiD Q = LQqiq + LQQiQ
80

Electromagnetic Torque Equation
Te = [i] [G][i]
T
= io id iq iF iD
We get
Te = ( q id + d iq )
0 q d iQ 0 0 0
= (Ldd Lqq ) id iq + LdF iF iq + LdDiDiq LqQiQid

for a 2-pole machine
81
SteadyState Equations
At steadystate condition, 1. All transformer voltages are zero. 2. No voltages are induced in the damper windings. Thus, iD = iQ = 0
Voltage Equations
vo = Ra io
vd = Ra id m Lqq iq vq = Ra iq + m (Ldd id + LdF iF ) v F = R F iF

82
Cylindrical-Rotor Machine
If the rotor is cylindrical, then the air gap is uniform, and Ldd = Lqq. Define synchronous inductance Ls LS = Ldd = Lqq when the rotor is cylindrical Voltage and Electromagnetic Torque Equations at Steady-state v = R i L i
d a d m s q
vq = Raiq m Ls id + m LdF iF Te = LdF iF iq

83
For Balanced Three-Phase Operation
( ) i = 2 I cos (t + + 120 ) Apply Parks transformation i odq = [P ]i abc , We get

ib = 2 I cos t + 120 o
o c
ia = 2 I cos (t + )
io = 0
id = 3 I cos iq = 3 I sin
Note: 1. ia, ib and ic are balanced three-phase currents. 2. id and iq are DC currents.
84
A similar transformation applies to balance threephase voltages. Given
va = 2 V cos(t + ) vc =
vb = 2 V cos t + 120
We get
( ) 2 V cos(t + + 120 )
o o
vo = 0 vd = vq = 3 V cos 3 V sin
85
Inverse Transformation Given id and iq, and assuming io = 0,
i abc = [P ] i odq
1
We get
2 ia = id cos t iq sin t 3
2 = id cos t + iq cos t + 90o 3

)]
86
Recall the phasor transformation
2 I cos ( t + ) I
Using the transform, we get
1 Ia = id 0o + iq 90o 3
assuming the d and q axes as reference. Simplify
iq id Ia = + j 3 3 I a = I d + jI q
87
Similarly, given vd and vq with vo = 0
2 va = vd cos t vq sin t 3 2 o = v d cos t + vq cos (t + 90 ) 3
In phasor form,
vq vd Va = + j 3 3
=Vd + jV q
88
Steady-State Operation-Cylindrical Recall at steady-state
vd = Ra id m Ls iq vq = Ra iq + m Ls id + m LdF iF
Divide by 3
Vd = Ra I d m Ls I q 1 Vq = Ra I q + m Ls I d + m LdF iF 3
89
Xs = mLs = synchronous reactance 1 E f = m LdFiF = Excitation voltage 3 Phasor Voltage V a
Define
V a = Vd + jVq
= Ra I d X s I q + j (Ra I q + X s I d + E f ) = Ra (I d + jI q ) + jX s (I d + jI q ) + jE f
(motor equation)
V a = Ra I a + jX s I a + E m
90
For a generator, current flows out of the machine
V a = Ra I a + jXs I a + E g E g = Ra I a + jXs I a + V a
R a + jX
+
AC
( )
( )
+
Eg
-
Ia
Va
-
Equivalent Circuit of Cylindrical Rotor Synchronous Generator

91
Salient-Pole Machine
If the rotor is not cylindrical, no equivalent circuit can be drawn. The analysis is based solely on the phasor diagram describing the machine. Recall the steady-state equations
vd = Raid m Lqqiq vq = Raiq + m Ldd id + m LdF iF

Divide through by
Vd = Ra I d X q I q Vq = R a I q + X d I d +
m LdF iF
3
92
where
Xd =mLdd =
direct axis synchronous reactance quadrature axis synchronous reactance
Xq =mLqq =
Define:
Ef =
m LdF
3
iF
= excitation voltage
93
We get
Vd = Ra I d X q I q Vq = Ra I q + X d I d + E f
Va =Vd + jV , we get q V a = Ra Id Xq Iq + j(Ra Iq + Xd Id + Ef )
= Ra (Id + jIq ) Xq Iq + jXd Id + jEf
From
or
V a = Ra I a X q Iq + jXd Id + jEf
94
Steady-State Electromagnetic Torque
At steady-state
Te = (Ldd Lqq ) id iq + LdF iF iq
saliency cylindrical torque torque The dominant torque is the cylindrical torque which determines the mode of operation. For a motor, Te is assumed to be negative. For a generator, Te is assumed to be positive.
95
Since the field current iF is always positive,
LdFiF iq < 0 > 0

Recall that
when iq > 0 (motor) when iq < 0 (generator )
I a = Id + jIq
Note: The imaginary component of Ia determines Whether the machine is operating as a motor or a Generator.
96
What about Id? Assume From we get
Iq = 0
Vd = Ra I d X q I q Vq = Ra I q + X d I d + E f
Vd = Ra I d Vq = X d I d + E f
In general, Ra << Xd. We get
V a = V d + jV q
= R a I d + j (X d I d + E f j (X d I d + E f )
97
If the magnitude of Va is constant,
Vq = X d I d + E f = constant
Recall that
Ef =
m L dF
3
iF
Thus, the excitation voltage depends only on the field current since m is constant. For some value of field current iFo, Ef = Va and Id = 0.
99
Operating Modes
q-axis Over-excited Motor Id < 0, Iq > 0 Id < 0, Iq < 0 Over-excited Generator Under-excited Motor Id > 0, Iq > 0 d-axis Id > 0, Iq < 0 Under-excited Generator
98
Over-excitation and Under-excitation
1. If the field current is increased above iFo, then Ef > Va and the machine is over-excited. Under this condition, Id < 0 (demagnetizing). 2. If the field current is decreased below iFo, then Ef < Va and the machine is under-excited. Under this condition, Id > 0 (magnetizing).
100
Drawing Phasor Diagrams
A phasor diagram showing Va and Ia can be drawn if the currents Id and Iq are known. Recall
I a = I d + jI q V a = Vd + jVq V a = Ra I a X q I q + jX d I d + jE f V a = jE f X q I q + jX d I d + Ra I a
101
Over-excited Motor
Id < 0 Iq > 0
Ra I a
X q Iq
q-axis
jEf
Va
jXd Id
jIq
Ia
Id
Leading Power Factor
d-axis
102
Under-excited Motor
Id > 0 Iq > 0
Ra I a
jX d I d
Va
q-axis
XqIq jIq
Lagging Power Factor
jEf
Ia
Id
d-axis
103
Over-excited Generator q-axis XqIq
jEf
Id < 0 Iq < 0
jXd Id
Ra I a
Id
Va
Actual Current
jIq
Lagging Power Factor
d-axis
Ia
104
Under-excited Generator
Id > 0 Iq < 0
jXd Id
jEf Xq Iq
Ra I a
Va

Actual Current
Id
Leading Power Factor

jIq
d-axis
Ia
105
Observations
1. The excitation voltage jEf lies along the quadrature axis. 2. V a leads jEf for a motor V a lags jEf for a generator The angle between the terminal voltage Va and jEf is called the power angle or torque angle . 3. The equation
V a = Ra I a + jXd Id X q Iq + jEf
applies specifically for a motor.
106
4. For a generator, the actual current flows out of the machine. Thus Id, Iq and I a are negative.
V a = Ra I a jXd Id + Xq Iq + jEf
or
jEf = V a + Ra I a + jXd Id Xq Iq
5. Let
jE f = E m jE f = E g
for a motor for a generator

107
The generator equation becomes
E g = V a + Ra I a + jXd Id X q Iq
For a motor, the equation is
V a = Em + Ra I a + jXd Id Xq Iq
6. No equivalent circuit can be drawn for a salient-pole motor or generator.
108
Example 1: A 25 MVA, 13.8 kV, 3600 RPM, Y-connected cylindrical-rotor synchronous generator has a synchronous reactance of 4.5 ohms per phase. The armature resistance is negligible. Find the excitation voltage Eg when the machine is supplying rated MVA at rated voltage and 0.8 jXs power factor. Single-phase + + equivalent circuit Ia
Eg
AC
Va = 13.8 kV = 7.97 kV
line-to-line line-to-neutral
Va
-
109
Pa = 25(0.8) = 20 MW, three-phase = 6.67 MW/phase Qa = Pa tan = 15 =5
Let MVar, three-phase MVar/phase
V a = 7.970o kV, the reference.
Using the complex power formula
Pa + jQa = V I
Ia = Pa jQa V
* a
* a a
6,667 j5,000 = 7.970o

110
We get Ia = 837
j628 A
= 1,046 36.87o A
Apply KVL,
Eg = jXS I a + V a
= 10,791 + j3,766 = 11,42919.24o V
= j 4.5 1,046 36.87o + 7,9700o
Eg = 11,429 volts, line-to-neutral = 19,732 volts, line-to-line

111
Example 2: A 100 MVA, 20 kV, 3-phase synchronous generator has a synchronous reactance of 2.4 ohms. The armature resistance is negligible. The machine supplies power to a wye-connected resistive load, 4 per phase, at a terminal voltage of 20 kV line-to-line. (a) Find the excitation voltage
X S = 2.4
+ +
Eg
-
AC
Ia
Va
-
R = 4 Va(L-L) = 20,000 volts Va(L-N) = 11,547 volts

112
V a = 11,5470o V, the reference V a 11547 , o Ia = = = 2,8870 Amps R 4 Applying KVL, E g = jXS I a + V a
Let
= j 2.4(2,887) + 11,547 = 11,547 + j 6,928
= 13,46630.96o V line to neutral
E g = 3 (13,466 ) = 23,324 V = 23 .32 kV, line to line

113
(b) Assume that the field current is held constant. A second identical resistive load is connected across the machine terminal. Find the terminal voltage, Va. Since iF is constant, Eg is unchanged. Thus, Eg = 13,466 V, line-to-neutral.
Req = 4 // 4 = 2
Let Va = Va 0 o , the reference
Va 1 o Ia = = Va0 Req 2
114
Apply KVL,
E g = jX s I a + V a 1 = j 2.4 Va + Va 2 = Va + j1.2Va
2 2 2
We get Eg = Va + (1.2Va )
13 , 466 = 2 . 44 V a
2 2
Va = 8,621 V , line to neutral Va = 14,932 V , line to line

115
(c) Assume that the field current iF is increased so that the terminal voltage remains at 20 kV line-to-line after the addition of the new resistive load. Find Eg.
V a = 11 , 547 0 o V , line to neutral
V a 11,547 Ia = = = 5,774 0 o Amps Req 2 E g = j 2.4(5774 ) + 11,547

= 11,547 + j13,856 = 18,037 50 .19 o V line to neutral
E g = 3 (18 , 037 ) = 31, 241 V = 31 .24 kV line to line

116
Generator Sequence Impedances

The equivalent Circuit of Generator for Balanced Three-Phase System Analysis
a Za Ea Eb Zb Ec Zc Ib Ic c b Ia
R a + jX
+
Ia
Eg
-
Va
-
Three-Phase Equivalent
Single-Phase Equivalent
117
Sequence Impedance of Power System Components

From Symmetrical Components, the Sequence Networks for Unbalanced Three-Phase Analysis
+ + +
Ia1 Va1
-
Ia2 Va2 Z2 Va0

-
Ia0 Z0
Z1
+
E
-
V a1 = E I a1 Z 1
V a2 = - I a2 Z 2
V ao = - I ao Z o
Zero Sequence
Positive Sequence Negative Sequence

118

Positive-Sequence Impedance: Xd=Direct-Axis Subtransient Reactance Xd=Direct-Axis Transient Reactance Xd=Direct-Axis Synchronous Reactance Negative-Sequence Impedance:
X2 = 1 (X d "+ X q " ) for a salient-pole machine 2 for a cylindrical-rotor machine X2 = X d "

Zero-Sequence Impedance:
0.15X d " X 0 0.6X d "

119

Positive Sequence Impedance
The AC RMS component of the current following a three-phase short circuit at no-load condition with constant exciter voltage and neglecting the armature resistance is given by
t E E E + I( t ) = X ' X exp ' X ds d ds d E t E + X " X ' exp " d d d

where E = AC RMS voltage before the short circuit.
120

The AC RMS component of the short-circuit current is composed of a constant term and two decaying exponential terms where the third term decays very much faster than the second term. If the first term is subtracted and the remainder is plotted on a semi-logarithmic paper versus time, the curve would appear as a straight line after the rapidly decaying term decreases to zero. The rapidly decaying portion of the curve is the subtransient portion, while the straight line is the transient portion.
121

IEEE Std 115-1995: Determination of the Xd and Xd (Method 1) The direct-axis transient reactance is determined from the current waves of a three-phase short circuit suddenly applied to the machine operating open-circuited at rated speed. For each test run, oscillograms should be taken showing the short circuit current in each phase. The direct-axis transient reactance is equal to the ratio of the open-circuit voltage to the value of the armature current obtained by the extrapolation of the envelope of the AC component of the armature current wave, neglecting the rapid variation during the first few cycles.
122

The direct-axis subtransient reactance is determined from the same three-phase suddenly applied short circuit. For each phase, the values of the difference between the ordinates of Curve B and the transient component (Line C) are plotted as Curve A to give the subtransient component of the short-circuit current. The sum of the initial subtransient component, the initial transient component and the sustained component for each phase gives the corresponding value of I.
123

Current in phase 1 (per unit)
14 12 + 10 + + Curve B + + ++ 8 ++ + ++ + ++ 6 Line ++ +++ 5 ++ + 4 3+
+ +
C
++ ++ + ++
2.0 1.5 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0
Line A
+ + + +
+ +
Curve A
20 30 40 50 60
10
Time in half-cycles
124

Example: Calculation of transient and subtransient reactances for a synchronous machine
Phase 1 (1) Initial voltage (2) Steady-state Current (3) Initial Transient Current (4) I = (2)+(3) (5) Xd = (1)(4) (6) Init. Subtransient Current 3.8 (7) I = (4)+(6) (8) Xd = (1)(7)
Phase 2 Phase 3 Ave 1.0 1.4 9.1 10.5 5.6 16.1 1.4 8.6 10.0 4.4 14.4 14.67 0.0682 10.07 0.0993
1.4 8.3 9.7
13.5
125

Negative Sequence Impedance
IEEE Std 115-1995: Determination of the negativesequence reactance, X2 (Method 1) The machine is operated at rated speed with its field winding short-circuited. Symmetrical sinusoidal three-phase currents of negative phase sequence are applied to the stator. Two or more tests should be made with current values above and below rated current, to permit interpolation. The line-to-line voltages, line currents and electric power input are measured and expressed in perunit.
126

Let E = average of applied line-to-line voltages, p.u. I = average of line currents, p.u. P = three phase electric power input, p.u.
E Z2 = =Negative Sequence Impedance, p.u. I P R 2 = 2 =Negative Sequence Resistance, p.u. I

X2 = Z2 R 2
2 2
=Negative Sequence Reactance, p.u. Note: The test produces abnormal heating in the rotor and should be concluded promptly.
127

Zero Sequence Impedance
IEEE Std 115-1995: Determination of the zero-sequence reactance, X0 (Method 1) The machine is operated at rated speed with its field winding short-circuited. A single-phase voltage is applied between the line terminals and the neutral point. Measure the applied V voltage, current and electric power. Field
128

Let E = applied voltage, in p.u. of base line-toneutral voltage I = test current, p.u. P = wattmeter reading, in p.u. single-phase base volt-ampere
3E Z0 = =Zero Sequence Impedance, p.u. I

X0 = Z0 P 1 EI
2
=Zero Sequence Reactance, p.u.

129

Average Machine Reactances
Turbo Water-Wheel Synchronous Reactance Generators Generators Motors Xd 1.10 1.15 1.20 Xq X d X q X d X q X2 1.08 0.23 0.23 0.12 0.15 0.12 0.75 0.37 0.75 0.24 0.34 0.24 0.90 0.35 0.90 0.30 0.40 0.35
130
Generator Sequence Networks

Grounded-Wye Generator
The sequence networks for the grounded-wye generator are shown below.
F1 F2 F0
r + Eg
-
jZ1 jZ2
N1 N2
jZ0
N0
Positive Sequence
Negative Sequence
Zero Sequence
131

Grounded-Wye through an Impedance
If the generator neutral is grounded through an impedance Zg, the zero-sequence impedance is modified as shown below.
F1 F2 F0
r + Eg
-
jZ1 jZ2
N1 N2
jZ0 3Zg
N0
Positive Sequence
Negative Sequence
Zero Sequence
132

Ungrounded-Wye Generator
If the generator is connected ungrounded-wye or delta, no zero-sequence current can flow. The sequence networks for the generator are shown below.
F1 F2 F0
r + Eg
-
jZ1 jZ2
N1 N2
jZ0
N0
Positive Sequence
Negative Sequence
Zero Sequence
133
Transformer Models
Two Winding Transformer Short-Circuit and Open-Circuit Tests Three Winding Transformer Autotransformer Transformer Connection Three Phase Transformer Three Phase Model
134
Two-Winding Transformer
Ideal Transformer
The voltage drop from the polaritymarked terminal to the non-polaritymarked terminal of the H winding is in phase with the voltage drop from the polarity-marked terminal to the non-polarity-marked terminal of the X winding. N N Voltage Equation:
r VH NH r = NX VX
r VH
_
r IH
r + IX r VX
_
135
r VH
_
r IH
NH N X
r IX
r VX
_
Current Equation:
r r NH IH = N X IX
The current that enters the H winding through the polarity-marked terminal is in phase with the current that leaves the X winding through the polarity-marked terminal. Note: Balancing ampere-turns satisfied at all times.
must
be
136
Referred Values
From therTransformation Ratio,
VH a= r VX
r IX a= r IH
r r V H = aV X
r IH r IX = a
Dividing VH by IH,
r r VH 2 VX r =a r IH IX
ZH = a2 Z X
137
Practical Transformer
1. 2. 3. 4. The H and X coils have a small resistance. There are leakage fluxes in the H and X coils. There is resistance loss in the iron core. The permeability of the iron is not infinite.
iH
+
m
+
iX eX
-
vH
eH
-
NH
NX
vX
iron core
138
Equivalent Circuit v RH + jX H I ex
N H N X R X + jX X
r VH
-
r IH R c
H winding
jX m
v EH
-
+ -
v EX
r IX
r VX
-
Ideal
X winding
RH, XH =resistance and leakage reactance of H coil RX, XX =resistance and leakage reactance of X coil Rc, Xm =core resistance and magnetizing reactance
139
Referring secondary quantities at the primary side, RH + jX H a 2 R X + ja 2 X X NH N X v
r VH
-
I ex r IH R jX m c
r IX a
r v aV X EH
-
+ -
v EX
RH + jX H
r VH
-
r IH R c
v I ex
a 2 R X + ja 2 X X jX m
r IX a
r aV X
-
140
The transformer equivalent circuit can be approximated by
Req + jX eq
r VH
-
r IH R c
v Iex
jX m
r + 1 a IX r
-
R eq = R H + a 2 R X X eq = X H + a 2 X X
v Iex
aV X
+
r r IH V H Rc
Req + jX eq
1 a
r IX
jX m
r aV X
-
141
For large power transformers, shunt impedance and resistance can be neglected
R eq + jX eq
jX eq
r VH
-
r r 1 IH = a IX
r aV X
-
r VH
-
r r 1 IH = a IX
r aV X
-
142
Tap-Changing Transformer
a:1 q s p r
1 y pq a
The equivalent circuit of transformer with the per 1 a y pq 2 unit transformation ratio: a
a 1 y pq a
143
Short-Circuit and Open-Circuit Tests

Short-Circuit Test
Conducted to determine series impedance With the secondary (Low-voltage side) shortcircuited, apply a primary voltage (usually 2 to 12% of rated value) so that full load current H1 x1 flows.
W A V
H2
x2
144

Short-Circuit Test
Req + jX eq
+
Ie
I SC
Rc
I1
jX m
VSC
-
Ie 0 I sc = I 1
PSC Req = 2 I SC
Z eq
VSC = I SC
X eq = Z R
2 eq
2 eq
145

Open-Circuit Test
Conducted to determine shunt impedance With the secondary (High-voltage side) opencircuited, apply rated voltage to the primary.
x1
W A V
H1
x2
H2
146

Open-Circuit Test
Req + jX eq
+
Ie
I OC
Rc
VOC
-
jX m
I OC = I e
V Rc = POC
2 OC
I OC 1 1 = 2 Xm Rc VOC
147

Example: 50 kVA, 2400/240V, single-phase transformer Short-Circuit Test: HV side energized
VSC = 48 volts VOC = 240 volts
I SC = 20.8 amps I OC = 5.41 amps
PSC = 617 watts POC = 186 watts
Open-Circuit Test: LV side energized
Determine the Series and Shunt Impedance of the transformer. What is %Z and X/R of the transformer?
148

Solution: From the short-circuit test
R eq ,H =
Z eq ,H
48 = = 2.31 ohm 20.8
617 = 1 .42 o hm 2 (20 .8 )

2 2
X eq ,H = 2.31 1.42 = 1.82 ohm
From the open-circuit test
Rcq ,L
186 2 2 1 5.41 1 = Xm 240 310

(240 )2 =
= 310 ohm
X m ,L = 45 ohm
149

Referred to the HV side
Rc ,H = a 2 Rc ,L = 30 ,968 ohm
X m ,H = a 2 X m ,L = 4 ,482 ohm
%Z and X/R
Z BASE =
[2.4 ]2
50 / 1000
= 115.2 ohm
1.82 X /R= = 1.28 1.42
2.31 %Z = x100 = 2% 115.2

150
X/R Ratios of Transformers
151
Three-Winding Transformer
r VH
_
r IH
NH
NX
r IX r IY
r VX
_
NY
r VY
_
r VH NH r = NX VX
r VH NH r = NY VY r r r NH IH = N X IX + N Y IY
r VX NX r = NY VY
152
From 3 short-circuit tests with third winding open, get ZHX=impedance measured at the H side when the X winding is short-circuited and the Y winding is open-circuited ZHY=impedance measured at the H side when the Y winding is short-circuited and the X winding is open-circuited ZXY=impedance measured at the X side when the Y winding is short-circuited and the H winding is open-circuited Note: When expressed in ohms, the impedances must be referred to the same side.
153
ZH ZX
+ r +
r VH
-
ZY
r VX
-
VY Z HY = Z H + Z Y
Z HX = Z H + Z X
Z XY = Z X + Z Y
or
Z H = 1 ( Z HX + Z HY Z XY ) 2 1 Z X = 2 ( Z HX Z HY + Z XY ) Z Y = 1 ( Z HX + Z HY + Z XY ) 2
154
Example: A three-winding three-phase transformer has the following nameplate rating: H: 30 MVA 140 kV X: 30 MVA 48 kV Y: 10.5 MVA 4.8 kV Short circuit tests yield the following impedances: ZHX = 63.37 @ the H side ZHY = 106.21 @ the H side ZXY = 4.41 @ the X side Find the equivalent circuit in ohms, referred to the H side. 140 2
Z XY = (
48
) ( 4.41 ) = 37 .52
155
With all impedances referred to the H side, we get
1 Z H = 2 ( 63.37 + 106.21 37.52 ) = 66.03
Z X = 1 ( 63.37 106.21 + 37.52 ) = 2.66. 2

1 ZY = 2 ( 63.37 + 106.21 + 37.52 ) = 40.18
66.03
2.66
+ + r -
r VH
-
40.18
r VX
-
VY
156
Transformer Connection
Transformer Polarity
V1 H1 H2 H1 V1 H2
V
Less than V1 x1 x2 Greater than V1
x2
x1
Subtractive Polarity
Additive Polarity
157
H1 Subtractive X1 X2 X2 H2 H1 H2 Additive X1
Single-phase transformers in sizes 200 kVA and below having high-voltage ratings 8660 volts and below (winding voltage) shall have additive polarity. All other single-phase transformers shall have subtractive polarity. (ANSI/IEEEC57.12.001993)
158
Parallel Connection
H1 H2 H1 H2
x1
x2
x1
x2
LOAD
159
Parallel Connection
same turns ratio Connected to the same primary phase Identical frequency ratings Identical voltage ratings Identical tap settings Per unit impedances within 0.925 to 1.075 of each other
160
H1 H2 H1 H2 H1 H2
x1
x2
x1
x2
x1
x2
WYE-WYE (Y-Y)
Three Phase Transformer Bank

161
H1 H2 H1 H2 H1 H2
x1
x2
x1
x2
x1
x2
DELTA-DELTA (-)

162
H1 H2 H1 H2 H1 H2
x1
x2
x1
x2
x1
x2
WYE-DELTA (Y-)

163
H1 H2 H1 H2 H1 H2
x1
x2
x1
x2
x1
x2
DELTA-WYE (-Y)

164
H1 H2 H1 H2
x1
x2
x1
x2
OPEN DELTA OPEN DELTA

165
H1 H2 H1 H2
x1
x2
x1
x2
OPEN WYE - OPEN DELTA

166
Three-Phase Transformer
Windings are connected Wye or Delta internally

167
Angular Displacement
ANSI/IEEEC57.12.00-1993: The angular displacement of a three-phase transformer is the time angle (expressed in degrees) between the line-to-neutral voltage of the high-voltage terminal marked H1 and the the line-to-neutral voltage of the low-voltage terminal marked X1. The angular displacement for a three-phase transformer with a - or Y-Y connection shall be 0o. The angular displacement for a three-phase transformer with a Y- or -Y connection shall be 30o, with the low voltage lagging the high voltage.
168
Vector Diagrams
H2 X2 H2 X1 H1 X2 H2 H3 X3 X2 X2
X1 H1 H2 H3
X3
- Connection
Y- Connection
X1
X1 H1 H3
X3 H1 H3
X3
Y-Y Connection
-Y Connection
169
IEC Designation
0
IEC Designation for - Dd0 Dd2 Dd4 Dd6 Dd8 Dd10
10
IEC Designation for Y-Y Yy0 Yy6
8 6
Note: The first letter defines the connection of the H winding; the second letter defines the connection of the X winding; the number designates the angle.
170
IEC Designation
IEC Designation for Y- Yd1 Yd5 Yd7 Yd11 IEC Designation for -Y Dy1 Dy5 Dy7 Dy11
7 5 9 11 1 3
Note: The first letter defines the connection of the H winding; the second letter defines the connection of the X winding; the number designates the angle.
171
PositiveSequence Voltages
B H2 N X1 X2 b
A C
r VBN1
H1
H3
X3
(A-B-C) r
r Vab1 r Vca1
Van1
r r r Vbc1 Van1 lags VAN1 o r Vcn1

by 30
r Vbn1
r VAN1
r VCN1
172
PositiveSequence r Currents
B r
IB1 r IA1 A r IC1 H1
H2
Iba1
X1
H3
r Iac1
r IB1
(A-B-C)
r Icb1
r b X2 r Ib1 Icb1 r Ic1 r c X3 Ia 1
r Ib1
r IA1
r IC1
r Ia1 r Iba1
r r Ia1 lags IA1

by 30o
r Iac1 r I Training & Certification Program in Competencyc1

Electric Power Distribution System Engineering
173
Positive Sequence Impedance
Whether a bank of single-phase units or a threephase transformer unit (core type or shell type), the equivalent impedance is the same. Using per-unit values, the positive-sequence equivalent circuit is
Z1 = R1 + jX1
r VH
-
r r IH = IX
r VX
-
Note: The negativesequence impedance is equal to the positivesequence impedance.

174
NegativeSequence Voltages
B H2 N H1 X1 X2 b
H3
r C
VCN2
(A-C-B)
r Vcn2
X3
r Vac2 r Van2
r VAN2
r VBN2
r Vcb2 r Vbn2 r Vba2
r r Van2 leads VAN2

by 30o
175
NegativeSequence Currents r
B r
IB 2 r IA2 A r H IC2 1
H2
Iba2
X1
H3
r IC 2 r IB 2
r Ic 2
r Iac2
r Iac2
b r X2 r Ib2 Icb2 r Ic2 r c X3 Ia 2 a
(A-C-B)
r IA 2
r Iba2
r Ia2
r Icb2
r Ib 2
r r Ia2 leads IA2

by 30o
176
Positive & Negative Sequence Networks
Z1
+
Primary Side
Z2
+
Secondary Side
r I1
+
Primary Side
r I2
+
Secondary Side
Positive Sequence Network
Z1 = Z2
Negative Sequence Network
177
Transformer Core
3-Legged Core Type
Shell Type 4-Legged Core Type

Note: Only the X windings are shown.

178
Three-Legged Transformer Core
The 3-legged core type three-phase transformer uses the minimum amount of core material. For balanced three-phase condition, the sum of the fluxes is zero. Note: For positive- or negative-sequence flux,
a + b + c = 0
179
Zero Sequence Flux
The 3-legged core type three-phase transformer does not provide a path for zero-sequence flux. On the other hand, a bank of single-phase units, the 4-legged core type and the shell-type three-phase transformer provide a path for zero-sequence flux.
30
Note: The zerosequence flux leaks out of the core and returns through the transformer tank.
3-Legged Core Type

180
Zero Sequence Impedance*
Transformer Connection Zero-Sequence Network
Z0 = Z1
VH
-
+ r
VX
-
+ r
Z0 = Z1
VH
+ r
VX
-
+ r
*Excluding 3-phase unit with a 3-legged core.

181
Z0 = Z1
VH
-
+ r
VX
-
+ r
Z0 = Z1
VH
+ r
VX
-
+ r

182
Z0 = Z1
VH
-
+ r
VX
-
+ r
Z0 = Z1
VH
+ r
VX
-
+ r

183
Example: Consider a two-winding three-phase transformer with the following nameplate rating: 25 MVA 69 -13.8YG kV (Dyn1) Z=7%. Draw the positive and zero-sequence equivalent circuits. Use the transformer rating as bases. Positive/Negative Sequence impedance Z1=j0.07
+ r + r -
Zero Sequence impedance Z0=j0.07

+ r + r -
VH
VX
VH
VX
184
Example: A three-winding three-phase transformer has the following nameplate rating: 150/150/45 MVA 138zG-69zG-13.8 kV (Yy0d1). H-X @ 150 MVA = 14.8% H-Y @ 45 MVA = 21.0% X-Y @ 45 MVA = 36.9% Draw the positive and zero-sequence equivalent circuits. Use 100 MVA and the transformer voltage ratings as bases. At the chosen MVA base,
Z HX = 0.148 ( 100 / 150 ) = 0.10 p.u. Z HY = 0.21( 100 / 45 ) = 0.47 p.u. Z XY = 0.369 ( 100 / 45 ) = 0.82 p.u.
185
We get
1 Z H = 2 ( 0.10 + 0.47 0.82 ) = 0.125 p.u. Z X = 1 ( 0.10 0.47 + 0.82 ) = 0.225 p.u. 2 1 Z Y = 2 ( 0.10 + 0.47 + 0.82 ) = 0.595 p.u.
Positive/Negative Sequence Network
Zero Sequence Network
ZH
ZX ZY
+ r -
VH
-
+ r
r VX
-
ZH
ZX ZY
+ r -
VY
VH
-
+ r
r VX
-
VY
186
Three Phase Model

THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER AND 3 SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS IN BANK Primary
A B C
Secondary
abc T
Core Loss
a b c
Admittance Matrix
187
Three Phase Model

CORE LOSS MODELS
1. Constant P & Q Model 2. EPRI Core Loss Model
2 kVA Rating 2 CV A V + B Pp .u . = System Base 2 kVA Rating 2 FV Q p .u . = D V + E System Base
( (
) )
|V| in per unit
A = 0.00267 D = 0.00167
B = 0.734x10 -9 E = 0.268x10 -13
C = 13.5 F = 22.7
188
Three Phase Model

I1 I2 z12 z11 z23 z22 I3 z34 z33 I4 z45 z44 I5 z56 z55 z66 I6
+ V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 + V5 + V6
Primitive Coils
-
z11 z21 z31 z41 z51 z61
z12 z22 z32 z42 z52 z62
z13 z23 z33 z43 z53 z63
z14 z24 z34 z44 z54 z64
z15 z35 z45 z55 z65
z16 z36 z46 z56 z66

z25 z26
Primitive Impedances
189
Transformer Model
Three Identical Single-phase Transformers in Bank z11 z21 z12 z22 z33 z43 z34 z44 z55 z65 z56 z66
I1
z11 z12 z22
I2
I3
z33 z34 z44
I4
I5
z55 z56 z66
I6
190
Transformer Model Node Connection Matrix, C

V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 VA VB VC Va Vb Vc
[V123456] = [C][VABCabc ]
Matrix C defines the relationship of the Primitive Voltages and Terminal Voltages of the Three-Phase Connected Transformer
191
Transformer Model
VA IA 1 3 5 IB 6 Ic Vc 2 Ia 4 Ib Vb Va VC IC
VB
Wye Grounded-Wye Grounded Connection
Node Connection Matrix, C

V1 V2 1 1 1 1 1 1 VA VB VC Va Vb Vc
[V123456]
[C][VABCabc ]
V3 V4 V5 V6
192
Transformer Model
VA IA 1 3 5 IC 4 Ic Vc 6 2 Ib Vb Ia Va
VC VB
IB
Wye Grounded-Delta Connection
Node Connection Matrix, C

V1 V2 1 1 -1 1 1 -1 1 -1 1 VA VB VC Va Vb Vc
[V123456] = [C][VABCabc ]
V3 V4 V5 V6
193
Transformer Model
R1
M
1 L1
R2
a
L2 2 R2
3 Identical Single-Phase B Transformers connected Wye-Delta C Let,
R1 R1 N
3 L1
M L2 4 M L2 6
b
R2
5 L1
Z 1 = R1 + jL1 = Z 3 = Z 5 Z 2 = R2 + jL2 = Z 4 = Z 6 Z M = Z 12 = jM = Z 34 = Z 56
194
Transformer Model
V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 Z1 ZM ZM Z2 Z1 ZM ZM Z2 Z1 ZM ZM Z2 I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 I6 Z2 -ZM -ZM Z1 Z2 -ZM -ZM Z1 Z2 -ZM
The Primitive Voltage Equations
The Inverse of the Impedance Matrix
The Primitive Admittance Matrix
1 Z1 Z2 ZM2
-ZM Z1
195
Transformer Model
YBUS = [C][ Yprim][CT]
A
Z2 Z2
a
-ZM
b
ZM -ZM
c A
ZM -ZM
B C a b c
YBUS =
1 Z1 Z2 ZM2 -ZM ZM -ZM ZM
Z2 ZM
ZM 2Z1 -Z1 -Z1 2Z1 -Z1
-Z1 -ZM 2Z1
-ZM
-Z1
196
Transformer Model
The Bus Admittance Matrix
Iinj = [C Yprim CT] Vnode YBUS = [C][Yprim][CT]

1 1
Z2 -ZM
1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1
-ZM Z1 Z2 -ZM -ZM Z1 Z2 -ZM -ZM Z1
1 1 1 1 1 -1 1 -1 -1
1 Z1 Z2 ZM2
197
Three Phase Model

Define
z2 yt = 2 z1 z 2 z m
yt yt
n1 a= n2
-ayt ayt -ayt yt ayt 2a2yt -a2yt -ayt -a2yt -a2yt 2a2yt -a2yt ayt -ayt -a2yt -a2yt 2a2yt
YBUS =
-ayt ayt -ayt ayt
ayt
198
Three Phase Model

If the admittances are already in per unit system, then the effective turns ratio a must be
n1 1 = a= n2 3
yt yt yt
1 3 1 3
1 3
yt
1 3 1 3
yt yt
1 3 1
z2 yt = 2 z1 z 2 z m
yt yt
yt yt
1 3 1 3
1 3
yt
yt yt
1 3
yt
3 2 yt 3 1 yt 3 1 yt 3
yt
3 1 1 yt yt 3 3 2 yt 1 yt 3 3 2 1 y yt 3 t 3
199
Three Phase Model

Summary
A A B C B C a b c
YAA YBA YCA YaA YbA YcA
YAB YBB YCB YaB YbB YcB
YAC YBC YaC YbC YcC
YAa
Yab
YAc
YBa YBb YBc YCb Ycc Yab Ybb Ycb Yac Ybc Ycc Yaa Yba Yca
[Ybus] =
YPP YPS YSP YSS
YCC YCa
a b c
200
Three Phase Model

PRI
Wye-G Wye-G Wye-G Wye Wye Wye Delta Delta Delta
SEC
Wye-G Wye Delta Wye-G Wye Delta Wye-G Wye Delta
YPP
YI YII YI YII YII YII YII YII YII
YSS
YI YII YII YII YII YII YI YII YII
YPS
-YI -YII YIII -YII -YII YIII YIIIT YIIIT -YII
YSP
-YI -YII YIIIT -YII -YII YIIIT YIII YIII -YII
201
Three Phase Model

Summary yt
2yt -yt -yt

yt yt
YI =
YII = 1/3 -yt 2yt -yt -yt -yt 2yt -yt yt -yt yt -yt
-yt YIII = 1/3 yt
yt -yt yt -yt YIIIT = 1/3
yt
202
Three Phase Model

Example:
Three single-phase transformers rated 50 kVA, 7.62kV/240V, %Z=2.4, X/R=3 are connected Wye(grounded)-Delta. Determine the Admittance Matrix Model of the Transformer Bank. Assume yt = 1/zt
Zp.u. = ____ +j ____
yp.u. = ____ -j ____
[Ybus] =
203
3-Phase Transformer Impedance Matrix Model

Distributing Transformer Impedance Between Windings Impedance Matrix in BackwardForward Sweep Load Flow
Wye-Grounded Wye-Grounded Delta-Delta
204
Transformer Equations
Consider the winding-to-winding relationship between primary and secondary:
From transformer equations,
VPRI =a VSEC
Z PRI 2 =a Z SEC
N PRI a= N SEC
I PRI 1 = I SEC a
205
Distributing Transformer Impedance Between Windings

Transformers are typically modeled with series impedance lumped at either end. To properly model transformer behavior, series impedance must be modeled in both windings. PROBLEM: divide ZT into ZP and ZS given a
ZT = Z P + Z S '
206

ASSUMPTION: Transformer impedance varies as number of wire turns.
Z S = aZ P
Referring ZS to primary side ,
ZS ' = a ZS = a ZP
2 3
Substituting,
ZT = Z P + a Z P
3
= (1 + a3 ) Z P
207

To find ZP and ZS,
1 ZP = ZT 3 (1 + a )
a ZS = ZT 3 (1 + a )
208
Impedance Matrix in BackwardForward Sweep Load Flow

Transformer model involved in
backward summation of current forward computation of voltage
Wye-Grounded Wye-Grounded Delta-Delta
209
Wye Grounded Wye Grounded
210
WyeGnd-WyeGnd Backward Sweep

Secondary to Secondary Winding
I Sec _ Winding _1 1 0 0 I a I Sec _ Winding _ 2 = 0 1 0 I b I Sec _ Winding _ 3 0 0 1 I c
Secondary Winding to Primary Winding

if in PU: If not in PU:
I Pr i _ Winding _1 1 0 0 I Sec _ Winding _1 I Pr i _ Winding _ 2 = 0 1 0 I Sec _ Winding _ 2 I Pr i _ Winding _ 3 0 0 1 I Sec _ Winding _ 3
Primary Winding to Primary
1 I Pr i _ Winding _1 a I Pr i _ Winding _ 2 = 0 I Pr i _ Winding _ 3 0
0 1 a 0
0 I Sec _ Winding _1 0 I Sec _ Winding _ 2 I 1 Sec _Winding _ 3 a
I A 1 0 0 I Pr i _ Winding _1 I = 0 1 0 I B Pr i _ Winding _ 2 I C 0 0 1 I Pr i _ Winding _ 3

211
WyeGnd-WyeGnd Forward Sweep

Primary to Primary winding
VPr i _ Winding _1 1 0 0 VAN I Pr i _ Winding _1 * Z Pr i _ Winding _1 VPr i _ Winding _ 2 = 0 1 0 VBN I Pr i _ Winding _ 2 * Z Pr i _ Winding _ 2 VPr i _ Winding _ 3 0 0 1 VCN I Pr i _ Winding _ 3 * Z Pr i _ Winding _ 3
Primary Winding to Secondary Winding

If in PU: VSec _ Winding _1
Secondary Winding to Secondary
1 0 0 VPr i _ Winding _1 If not in PU: VSec _ Winding _1 a V VSec _ Winding _ 2 = 0 1 0 Pr i _ Winding _ 2 VSec _ Winding _ 2 = 0 VSec _ Winding _ 3 0 0 1 VPr i _ Winding _ 3 V
Sec _ Winding _ 3
0 1 a 0
Van 1 0 0 VSec _ Winding _1 I Sec _ Winding _1 * Z Sec _ Winding _1 V = 0 1 0 V I Sec _ Winding _ 2 * Z Sec _ Winding _ 2 bn Sec _ Winding _ 2 Vcn 0 0 1 VSec _ Winding _ 3 I Sec _ Winding _ 3 * Z Sec _ Winding _ 3
0 VPr i _ Winding _1 0 VPr i _ Winding _ 2 V 1 Pr i _ Winding _ 3 a
212
Delta-Delta Transformer Connection
213
Delta-Delta Backward Sweep

Secondary to Secondary Winding
I Sec _ Winding _1 1 1 0 I a 1 I Sec _ Winding _ 2 = 0 1 1 I b 3 I Sec _ Winding _ 3 1 0 1 I c
Secondary Winding to Primary Winding

If in PU:
I Pr i _ Winding _1 1 0 0 I Sec _ Winding _1 I Pr i _ Winding _ 2 = 0 1 0 I Sec _ Winding _ 2 I Pr i _ Winding _ 3 0 0 1 I Sec _ Winding _ 3
If not in PU:
Primary Winding to Primary
I a 1 0 1 I Pr i _ Winding _1 I = 1 1 0 I b Pr i _ Winding _ 2 I c 0 1 1 I Pr i _ Winding _ 3

1 I Pr i _ Winding _1 a I Pr i _Winding _ 2 = 0 I Pr i _ Winding _ 3 0
0 1 a 0
0 I Sec _ Winding _1 0 I Sec _ Winding _ 2 I 1 Sec _ Winding _ 3 a
214
Delta-Delta Forward Sweep

Primary to Primary Winding
VPr i _ Winding _1 1 1 0 VAN I Pr i _ Winding _1 * Z Pr i _ Winding _1 VPr i _ Winding _ 2 = 0 1 1 VBN I Pr i _ Winding _ 2 * Z Pr i _ Winding _ 2 VPr i _ Winding _ 3 1 0 1 VCN I Pr i _ Winding _ 3 * Z Pr i _ Winding _ 3
Primary Winding to Secondary Winding

If in PU:
1 VSec _ Winding _1 1 0 0 VPr i _ Winding _1 VSec _ Winding _1 a VSec _ Winding _ 2 = 0 1 0 VPr i _ Winding _ 2 VSec _ Winding _ 2 = 0 VSec _ Winding _ 3 0 0 1 VPr i _ Winding _ 3 VSec _ Winding _ 3 0 Secondary Winding to Secondary
If not in PU:
0 1 a 0
1 3 0 3 V a V = 1 1 5 0 b 3 V c 1 3 0 3
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 VPr i _ Winding _1 0 VPr i _ Winding _ 2 V 1 Pr i _ Winding _ 3 a
V S e c _ W in d in g _ 1 V S e c _ W in d in g _ 2 V S e c _ W in d in g _ 3
215
Transmission and Distribution Line Models

Series Impedance of Lines Shunt Capacitance of Lines Nodal Admittance Matrix Model Data Requirements
Transmission Line
Distribution Line
216
Transmission and Distribution Line Models +

Z = R + jXL
1 Y C 2 1 Y C 2
+
VR
A B C
Balanced Three-Phase System
Zaa Zba Zca Yaa Yba Yca Yab Ybb Ycb Yac Ybc Ycc
Zab Zbb Zcb
Zac Zbc Zcc Yaa Yba Yca Yab Ybb Ycb Yac Ybc Ycc
a b c
Unbalanced Three-Phase System
217
Series Impedance of Lines

Conductor Materials
Aluminum (Al) is preferred over Copper (Cu) as a material for transmission and distribution lines due to:
lower cost lighter weight larger diameter for the same resistance*
* This results in a lower voltage gradient at the conductor surface (less tendency for corona)
Copper is preferred over Aluminum as a material for distribution lines due to lower resistance to reduce system losses.
218

Stranding of Conductors
Alternate layers of wire of a stranded conductor are spiraled in opposite directions to prevent unwinding and make the outer radius of one layer coincide with the inner radius of the next. The number of strands depends on the number of layers and on whether all the strands are of the same diameter. The total number of strands of uniform diameter in a concentrically stranded cable is 7, 19, 37, 61, 91, etc. Steel Aluminum Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced
Hard-Drawn Copper
(Cu)
(ACSR)
219

Resistance of Conductors
The Resistance of a Conductor depends on the material (Cu or Al) Resistance is directly proportional to Length but inversely proportional to cross-sectional area
L R= A
R Resistance Resistivity of Material L Length A Cross-Sectional Area
Resistance increases with Temperature Skin-Effect in Conductors

220

Resistance of Conductors
Conductor Size Type Value Unit INDEX 1 ACSR 6 AWG 2 ACSR 5 AWG 3 ACSR 4 AWG 4 ACSR 4 AWG 5 ACSR 3 AWG 6 ACSR 2 AWG 7 ACSR 2 AWG 8 ACSR 1 AWG 9 ACSR 1/0 AWG 10 ACSR 2/0 AWG
Source: Westinghouse T&D Handbook
Strands 6/1 6/1 7/1 6/1 6/1 7/1 6/1 6/1 6/1 6/1
O.D. (Inches) 0.19800 0.22300 0.25700 0.25000 0.28100 0.32500 0.31600 0.35500 0.39800 0.44700
GMR Resistance (feet) (Ohm/Mile) 0.00394 3.98000 0.00416 3.18000 0.00452 2.55000 0.00437 2.57000 0.00430 2.07000 0.00504 1.65000 0.00418 1.69000 0.00418 1.38000 0.00446 1.12000 0.00510 0.89500
221

Line Inductance
Self Inductance: L = L int + L ext
Mutual Inductance (between 2 conductors): z 11 1 r I1 z

2
1
12
r I2
z 22
V 1 1' = I 1 z 11 + I 2 z 12
222

Carsons Line
Carson examined a single overhead conductor whose remote end is connected to earth.
Local Earth
REF
Va
-
+ r
z aa
r Ia
r V =0 d
r Id
z ad
Remote Earth Fictitious Return Conductor
zdd
The current returns through a fictitious earth conductor whose GMR is assumed to be 1 foot (or 1 meter) and is located a distance Dad from the overhead conductor.
223

The line is described by the following equations:
r r r r r Note: I a = I d , Vd = 0 and Va ' Vd ' = 0.

Subtracting the two equations, we get or
r r r r r Vaa ' = Va Va ' = zaa I a + zad I d r r r r r Vdd ' = Vd Vd ' = zad I a + zdd I d
r r Va = ( zaa + zdd 2 zad ) I a r r zaa Va = zaa I a
= zaa + zdd 2 zad
zaa is the equivalent impedance of the single overhead conductor.

224

Primitive Impedances:
2s 1) zaa = ra + j La = ra + j k (ln Dsa 2s zdd = rd + j k (ln 1) Dsd 2s zad = j M = j k (ln 1) Dad

k = (2 f )(2 x10 7 ) ohm/meter
ra, rd = resistances of overhead conductor and

fictitious ground wire, respectively Dsa, Dsd = GMRs of overhead conductor and fictitious ground wire, respectively Dad = Distance between the overhead conductor and fictitious ground wire
225

Earth Resistance: Carson derived an empirical formula for the earth resistance. -3 /mile r = 1.588 x 10 f
d
= 9.869 x 10-4 f
/km
where f is the power frequency in Hz Note : At 60 Hz,
rd = 0.09528
/mile /km
= 0.059214
226

Geometric Mean Radius
For a solid conductor with radius r, Ds Bundle of Two
d d d
1 4
= r
= 0.78 r
Bundle of Four
Ds = Dsc d
Ds = 1.09 4 Dsc d 3
Note: Dsc=GMR of a single conductor

227

Equivalent Impedance: Substitute the primitive impedances into
D ad 2 zaa = ( ra + rd ) + j k ln Dsa Dsd D ad 2 De = Define Dsd

We get
We get
zaa = zaa + zdd 2 zad
De zaa = (ra + rd ) + jk ln Dsa
/unit length
228

The quantity De is a function of frequency and earth resistivity.
De = 2160 / f
Return Earth Condition
Sea water Swampy ground Average Damp Earth Dry earth Sandstone
feet
Typical values of De are tabulated below. Resistivity (-m)

0.01-1.0 10-100 100 1000 109
De (ft)
27.9-279 882-2790 2790 8820 8.82x106
229

Three-Phase Line Impedances
a
+r -
b
+r
Va
Vb +r Vc
-
r Ia r Ib r Ic
z aa zbb z cc z ad zbd
zab z ca b zbc z cd
d c All wires grounded here
REF
r V =0 d
d
r Id
zdd
230

The voltage equation describing the line is
r r r Vaa ' Va Va ' r r r Vbb ' Vb Vb ' r = r r Vcc ' Vc Vc ' r r r Vdd ' Vd Vd '
zaa zba zca zda
zab zbb zcb zdb
zac zbc zcc zdc
zad zbd zcd zdd
r Ia r Ib r Ic r Id
Since all conductors are grounded at the remote end, we get from KCL or
r r r r I a + Ib + Ic + I d = 0 r r r r I d = ( I a + I b + I c )
231

We can subtract the voltage equation of the ground conductor from the equations of phases a, b and c. The resulting matrix equation is
r Va r Vb r Vc
zaa zab zac
zab zbb zbc
zac zbc zcc
r Ia r Ib r Ic
V/unit length
Self Impedances:
zaa = zaa 2 zad + zdd zcc = zcc 2 zcd + zdd
zbb = zbb 2zbd + zdd
/unit length /unit length /unit length
232

Mutual Impedances:
z ab = z ab z ad z bd + z dd z bc = z bc z bd z cd + z dd z ac = z ac z ad z cd + z dd
/unit length /unit length /unit length /unit length

x=a,b,c,d
Primitive Impedances:
2s 1) z xx = rx + j k (ln Dsx
2s z xy = j k (ln 1) Dxy
/unit length
xy=ab,bc,ca,ad,bd,cd
233

Assumptions: 1. Identical phase conductors
Ds = Dsa = Dsb = Dsc

2. Distances of the overhead conductors to the fictitious ground conductor are the same
De = Dad = Dbd = Dcd

We get
De zaa = zbb = zcc = (ra + rd ) + j k ln Ds De /unit length z xy = rd + j k ln Dxy xy=ab,bc,ca

234

Example: Find the equivalent impedance of the 69-kV line shown. The phase conductors are 4/0 hard-drawn copper, 19 strands which operate at 25oC. The line is 40 miles long. Assume an earth resistivity of 100 -meter.
ra=0.278 /mile @ 25oC Dsc=0.01668 ft @ 60 Hz
10 a b
10 c
De z aa = z bb = z cc = ( ra + rd ) + jk ln Ds 2790 = ( 0.278 + 0.095 ) + j0.121 ln 0.01668 /mile = 0.373 + j1.459 Z aa = 14.93 + j 58.38
235

z ab = z bc = 0.095 + j0.121 ln 2790 10 = 0.095 + j0.683 Z ab = 3.81 + j 27.33 z ac = 0.095 + j0.121 ln 2790 20 Z ac = 3.81 + j 23.97
We get
/mile
14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j27.33 3.81+ j23.97 Zabc= 3.81+ j27.33 14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j27.33 3.81+ j23.97 3.81+ j27.33 14.93+ j58.38
236

Lines with Overhead Ground Wire r
a b
+r
Va +r z ww z ad Vb +r w r Vc + zbd Vw z cd z wd r V =0 d REF
d r Id
Ia r Ib r Ic r Iw
z aa
zbb z cc
zab z ca zbc
b c w All wires grounded here
zdd
237

The primitive voltage equation is
r r Va Va ' r r Vb Vb ' r r Vc Vc ' r 0 Vw ' r 0 Vd '
zaa zba
=
zab zbb zcb z wb zdb
zac zbc zcc zwc zdc
zaw zbw zcw zww zdw
zad zbd zcd zwd zdd
zca zwa zda
r Ia r Ib r Ic r Iw r Id
V/unit length
From KCL,rwe get r or
r r r I a + Ib + Ic + I w + Id = 0 r r r r r I d = ( I a + Ib + Ic + I w )
238

Vw
r Va r Vb r Vc r
zaa zba zca zwa
zab zbb zcb zwb
zac zbc zcc zwc
zaw zbw zcw zww
Iw
r Ia r Ib r Ic r
where
Vw = 0
De zxx = ( rx + rd ) + jk ln Dsx
De z xy = rd + j k ln Dxy
xx=aa,bb,cc,ww
xy=ab,ac,aw,bc,bw,cw
239

Using Kron Reduction technique,
V1
Z1 Z2 = Z3 Z4 0
I1 I2
where Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4 are also matrices.
V1 = (Z1 Z2Z4 Z3 )I1

I2 is eliminated and the matrix is reduced to the size of Z1
240

Eliminating the ground wire current Iw
We get
z aa z Z 1 = ba z ca
z ab z bb z cb
z ac zaw z z bc Z2 = bw zcw z cc
z aw z wb z ab z ww z bw z wb z bb z ww z cw z wb z cb z ww
Z 3 = [zaw zbw zcw ]
Z 4 = z ww
z aw z wc z ac z ww z bw z wc z bc z ww z cw z wc z cc z ww
z abc
z aw z wa z aa z ww z z bw z wa = ba z ww z ca z cw z wa z ww
241

Example: Find the equivalent impedance of the 69-kV line shown. The phase conductors are the same as in the previous examples. The overhead ground wires have the following characteristics: w
rw=4.0 /mile @ 25oC Dsw=0.001 ft @ 60 Hz
For the ground wire, we get
15 10 a b 10 c
z ww
De = ( rw + rd ) + jk ln Dsw
Z ww
2790 = ( 4.0 + 0.095 ) + j0.121 ln 0.001 = 4.095 + j1.8 /mile = 163.8 + j72
242

z aw = z cw
Z aw
2790 = 0.095 + j0.121 ln 18.03 = Z cw = 3.81 + j 24.47
De /mile = rd + jk ln Daw
Z bw = 0.095 + j0.121 ln 2790 /mile 15 Z bw = 3.81 + j 25.36

From a previous example, we got
14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j27.33 3.81+ j23.97 3.81+ j27.33 14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j27.33 Z1= 3.81+ j23.97 3.81+ j27.33 14.93+ j58.38
243

Using the ground wire impedances, we also get
3 .81 + j 24 .47 3 .81 + j 25 .36 T = Z3 Z2 = 3 .81 + j 24 .47

17.5 + j56.11 Zabc = 6.48 + j 25.0 6.38 + j 21.7
Z 4 = 163.8 + j72
Performing Kron reduction, we get
6.48 + j 25.0 17.71+ j55.97 6.48 + j 25.0
6.38 + j 21.7 6.48 + j 25.0 17.5 + j56.11
Note: The self impedances are no longer equal.

244

Line Transposition
Line transposition is used to make the mutual impedances identical. r Ia Phase c r Pos.1 Ib Phase a r Pos.2 Ic
Pos.3 s1 Section 1
Note:
Phase b s2
s3 Section 3
Section 2
Each phase conductor is made to occupy all possible positions.

245

Voltage Equations for Each r V a Z 11 1 r V = Z 21 1 For Section 1 rb V c Z 31 1 r V c Z 11 2 r For Section 2 V a = Z 21 2 r V b Z 31 2 r V b Z 11 3 r For Section 3 V c = Z 21 3 r V a Z 31 3
Section r Z 12 1 Z 13 1 I a r I Z 22 1 Z 23 1 b r Z 32 1 Z 33 1 I c r Z 12 2 Z 13 2 I c r I Z 22 2 Z 23 2 a r Ib Z 32 2 Z 33 2 r Z 12 3 Z 13 3 I b r I Z 22 3 Z 23 3 c r I a Z 32 3 Z 33 3
volts
volts
volts
246

The total Voltage Drop at phases a, b, and c are:
r r Va = ( Z 111 + Z 22 2 + Z 33 3 )I a r + ( Z 12 1 + Z 23 2 + Z 313 )I b r + ( Z 13 1 + Z 21 2 + Z 32 3 )I c r r Vb = ( Z 211 + Z 32 2 + Z 13 3 )I a r + ( Z 22 1 + Z 33 2 + Z 11 3 )I b r + ( Z 23 1 + Z 31 2 + Z 12 3 )I c r r Vc = ( Z 311 + Z 12 2 + Z 23 3 )I a r + ( Z 32 1 + Z 13 2 + Z 213 )I b r + ( Z 33 1 + Z 11 2 + Z 22 3 )I c
247

Define f1, f2 and f3 as as the ratios of s1, s2 and s3 to the total length s, respectively. We get r r
Va = ( f 1 Z 11 + f 2 Z 22 + f 3 Z 33 )I a r
r Vb r Vc
r + ( f 1 Z 13 + f 2 Z 21 + fr3 Z 32 )I c = ( f 1 Z 21 + f 2 Z 32 + f 3 Z 13 )I a r + ( f 1 Z 22 + f 2 Z 33 + f 3 Z 11 )I b r + ( f 1 Z 23 + f 2 Z 31 + f 3 Z 12 )I c r = ( f 1 Z 31 + f 2 Z 12 + f 3 Z 23 )I a r + ( f 1 Z 32 + f 2 Z 13 + f 3 Z 21 )I b r + ( f 1 Z 33 + f 2 Z 11 + f 3 Z 22 )I c
+ ( f 1 Z 12 + f 2 Z 23 + f 3 Z 31 )I b
s1 f1 = s s2 f2 = s s3 f3 = s
248

Define:
Z k 1 = f 1 Z 12 + f 2 Z 23 + f 3 Z 13 Z k 2 = f 1 Z 13 + f 2 Z 12 + f 3 Z 23 Z k 3 = f 1 Z 23 + f 2 Z 13 + f 3 Z 12 Z s = Z 11 = Z 22 = Z 33
r V a Z s r Vb = Z k 1 r Vc Z k 2
Substitution gives
Z k1 Zs Zk3
r Z k 2 I a r I Z k 3 b Volts r Z s I c
249

De Z s = ( ra + rd )s + jks ln Ds De De De Z k 1 = rd s + jks f 1ln + f 2 ln + f 3 ln D12 D23 D31 Zk2 Z k3
De De De = rd s + jks f 1ln + f 2 ln + f 3 ln D31 D12 D23 De De De = rd s + jks f 1ln + f 2 ln + f 3 ln D23 D31 D12
250

Example: Find the equivalent impedance of the 69-kV line shown. The phase conductors are 4/0 hard-drawn copper, 19 strands which operate at 25oC. The line is 40 miles long. Assume s1=8 miles, s2=12 miles and s3=20 miles.
ra=0.278 /mile @ 25oC Dsc=0.01668 ft @ 60 Hz
10 a b
10 c
Without the transposition,
Section 1
14.93 + j58.38 3.81+ j27.33 3.81+ j23.97 Zabc = 3.81+ j27.33 14.93 + j58.38 3.81+ j27.33 3.81+ j23.97 3.81+ j27.33 14.93 + j58.38
251

Solving for the mutual impedances, we get
Z k 1 = f 1 Z 12 + f 2 Z 23 + f 3 Z 13 = 0.2( 3.81 + j 27.33 ) + 0.3( 3.81 + j 27.33 ) + 0.5( 3.81 + j 23.97 ) = 3.81 + j 25.65
Similarly, we get
Z k 2 = f 1 Z 13 + f 2 Z 12 + f 3 Z 23 Z k 3 = f 1 Z 23 + f 2 Z 13 + f 3 Z 12
= 3.81 + j 26.66 = 3.81 + j 26.32
252

The impedance matrix of the transposed line is
14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j25.65 3.81+ j26.66 Zabc= 3.81+ j25.65 14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j26.32 3.81+ j26.66 3.81+ j26.32 14.93+ j58.38
For comparison, the impedance matrix of the untransposed line is
14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j27.33 3.81+ j23.97 Zabc= 3.81+ j27.33 14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j27.33 3.81+ j23.97 3.81+ j27.33 14.93+ j58.38
253

Completely Transposed Line
ra s Vb = Z m r Vc Z m where
If s1=s2=s3, the line is completely transposed. We r r get V Z Z Z I
m
Zs Zm
ra I Z m b r Volts Z s I c
m
De Z s = ( ra + rd )s + jks ln Ds
Z m = ( Z 12 + Z 23 + Z 13 )
1 3
Ds, Dm = GMR and GMD, respectively
De = rd s + jks ln Dm
254

Geometric Mean Distance (GMD)
Typical three-phase line configurations
D12 D31 D12 D31 D23 D31 D23 D23 D12
D
31
23
D12
Dm = 3 D12D23D31
255

Example: For the same line assume a complete transposition cycle.
10 10
The GMD is
Dm = 3 10( 10 )( 20 ) = 12.6 feet

Z m = 3.81 + j 26.21
We get the average of the mutual impedances. The impedance of the transposed line is
14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j26.21 3.81+ j26.21 Zabc= 3.81+ j26.21 14.93+ j58.38 3.81+ j26.21 3.81+ j26.21 3.81+ j26.21 14.93+ j58.38
256

Phase to Sequence Impedances
Consider a transmission line that is described by the following voltage equation:
or
r Va Z aa r Vb = Z ab r Vc Z ac
Z ab Z bb Z bc
r r Vabc = Z abc I abc

and
r Z ac I a r I Z bc b r Z cc I c
volts
From symmetrical components, we have
r r Vabc = AV012
r r I abc = AI 012
257

Substitution gives or
r r AV012 = Z abc AI 012 r r 1 V 012 = A Z abc A I 012
which implies that
Z 012 = A 1 Z abc A
Performing the multiplication, we get
Z 0 Z s 0 + 2 Z m0 Z = Z Z m1 1 s1 Z 2 Z s 2 Z m 2
Z s2 Z m2 Z s0 Z m0 Z s 1 + 2 Z m1
Z s 1 Z m1 Z s 2 + 2Z m 2 Z s 0 Z m0
Note: Z012 is not symmetric.

258

1 Z s 0 = 3 ( Z aa + Z bb + Z cc ) 1 Z s 1 = 3 ( Z aa + aZ bb + a 2 Z cc ) 1 Z s 2 = 3 ( Z aa + a 2 Z bb + aZ cc )
Z m 0 = 1 ( Z ab + Z bc + Z ca ) 3 Z m 1 = 1 ( a 2 Z ab + Z bc + aZ ca ) 3
1 Z m 2 = 3 ( aZ ab + Z bc + a 2 Z ca )
259

If the line is completely transposed,
Z s0 = Z s Z s1 = Z s 2 = 0
Z 0 Z s + 2 Z m Z = 0 1 Z 2 0
Z m0 = Z m
Z m1 = Z m 2 = 0
0 Zs Zm 0 0 0 Zs Zm
The sequence impedance matrix reduces to
Note: The sequence impedances are completely decoupled.

260

For a completely transposed line, the equation in the sequence domain is r r
V a0 Z 0 r V a1 = 0 r 0 Va2
0 Z1 0
0 I a0 r I 0 a1 r Z 2 I a2
where
Dm Z 1 = Z 2 = ra s + jks ln Ds Z 0 = ra s + 3rd s + jks ln De
3 2
Ds Dm
261

Example: For the same line and assuming a complete transposition cycle, find the sequence impedances of the line.
10
10
In the previous example, we got
Z s = 14.93 + j 58.38
Z m = 3.81 + j 26.21
The sequence impedances are
Z 0 = Z s + 2 Z m = 22.55 + j110.80 Z 1 = Z 2 = Z s Z m = 11.12 + j 32.17

262
Shunt Capacitance of Lines

Caw b Cab a Cbg Ccg Cac c Cag Cbw Cbc Ccw Cwg Self-capacitance Mutual-capacitance w
Capacitance of Three Phase Lines

263

Voltage Due to Charged Conductor
Consider two points P1 and P2 which are located at distances D1 and D2 from the center of the conductor. The voltage drop from P1 to P2 is Electric charge q
+
D1
P1 D2 P2
v 12
D2 = ln 2 D1 q
Volts
r a
r r D = E=
q 2 x
ar
Permitivity of medium Electric Field of a Long Conductor

264

Capacitance of a Two-Wire Line
The capacitance between two conductors is defined as the charge on the conductors per unit of potential difference between them. Consider the two cylindrical conductors shown.
qa qb
D Due to charge qa, we get the voltage drop vab.
v ab
qa D ln = 2 ra
265

Due to charge qb, we also get the voltage drop vba.
v ba
qb D ln = 2 rb
or
v ab
qb qb rb D ln = = ln 2 rb 2 D
Applying superposition, we get the total voltage drop from charge qa to charge qb.
v ab
qa rb qb D ln + = ln 2 ra 2 D
qa D2 ln = 2 ra rb
Volts
Since qa+qb=0, we get
v ab
266

Self-Capacitance
In general, ra=rb. We get
v ab
D = ln r
qa
Volts
The capacitance between conductors is qa = C ab = Farad/meter D Vab ln r The capacitance to neutral is
C an = C bn = 2C ab
2 = D ln r
Farad/meter
267

Mutual Capacitance
In capacitance calculations, the earth is assumed as a perfectly conducting plane. The electric field that results is the same if an image conductor is used for every conductor above ground.
U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration +qa
Dab
+qb
Daw Dac
+qc
+qw
Haa Hab
Hac
Haw
-qc -qw
-qa
-qb
Mirror Conductors below ground

268

The voltage drop from conductor a to ground is
1 va = 2 vaa' H aa H ab H an 1 = ( q a ln + qb ln + ... + q n ln 4 ra Dab Dan ra Dab Dan q a ln qb ln ... q n ln ) H ab H an H aa
Combining common terms, we get
H aa H ab H an ( q a ln + qb ln + ... + q n ln ) va = Dab Dan 2 ra 1

269

In general, for the kth overhead conductor
H bk H kk H ak ( q a ln vk = + qb ln + ... + q k ln Dak Dbk rk 2 H nk + ... + q n ln ) Dnk 1

Pab Pbb M Pnb Pac Pbc M Pnc ... Pan q a H kk 1 ln q Pkk = ... Pbn b 2 rk H kj 1 M M M Pkj = 2 ln D kj ... Pnn q n
Using matrix notation, we get
v a Paa v P b = ba M M v n Pna
270
[v ] = [P ][q ]
Since, q = Cv, ,then
[C ] = [P ]
C ac Cbc M C nc
Inversion of matrix P gives
+ C aa C ba C= M C na
C ab + Cbb M C nb
... C an ... Cbn M M ... + C nn
271

The Shunt Admittance is
Ybus
+ j C aa jC ba = j C na
j C ab + jC bb j C nb
j C ac j C bc j C nc
... jC an ... j C bn ... + j C nn
The difference between the magnitude of a diagonal element and its associated off-diagonal elements is the capacitance to ground. For example, the capacitance from a to ground is
C ag = C aa C ab C ac ... C an
272

Capacitance of a Transposed Line
Pos.1 Pos.2 Pos.3
qa qb qc
1 3
Phase c Phase a Phase b
1 3
1 3
Section 1
Section 2
Section 3
The capacitance of phase a to neutral is
C an = C bn = C cn
qa 2 = = Dm v an ln r
Farad/meter, to neutral
273

Capacitive Reactance 1 xc = 2fC
Dm 2.862 9 x 10 ln xc = f r Dm 1.779 6 xc = x 10 ln f r
-meter, to neutral -mile, to neutral
Note: To get the total capacitive reactance, divide xc by the total length of the line.
274

Sequence Capacitance
r r r r I abc = jCabcVabc I abc = YabcVabc r r r r From Vabc = AV012 and I abc = YabcVabc, we get r r A I 012 = j C abc A V012 r r or 1 I 012 = jA Cabc AV012
Thus, we have
Using matrix notation, we have
C012 = A 1C abc A
275

For a completely transposed line,
Cs0 = Caa = Cbb = Ccc C m 0 = C ab = C bc = C ac

Substitution gives
C012 or
0 0 ( Cs0 2Cm0 ) = 0 ( Cs0 + Cm0 ) 0 0 0 ( Cs0 + Cm0 )

C0 = Cs0 2Cm0 C1 = C2 = Cs0 + Cm0
276

Example: Determine the phase and sequence capacitances of the transmission line shown. The phase conductors are 477 MCM ACSR 26/7 whose radius is 0.0357 ft. The line is 50 miles long and is completely transposed. 14 14 Calculate distances a b c Haa=Hbb=Hcc=80 ft
Hab=Hbc=81.2 ft Hac=84.8 ft Find the P matrix
40
H aa Paa = Pbb = Pcc = ln 2 0 ra 1

277

1 x 10 -9 0 = For air, 36
Substitution gives
9
Farad/meter
Similarly, we get
80 Paa = 18 x 10 ln 0.0357 = 138.86 x 10 9 Meter/Farad = 86.29 x 10 6 Mile/Farad
H ab Pab = Pbc = ln 2 0 Dab = 19.66 x 10 6 Mile/Farad 1

278

The P matrix can be shown to be
86.29 19.66 12.39 P = 19.66 86.29 19.66 x 106 mi/F 12.39 19.66 86.29
Using matrix inversion, we get the C matrix.
12.34 2.54 1.19 2.54 12.75 2.54 x 10-9 F/mi C= 1.19 2.54 12.34
279

For 50 miles, we get C=
The capacitances to ground are
6.17 1.27 1.27 6.38 0.60 1.27
0.60 1.27 6.17
x 10-7 F
Cag = Caa Cab Cac = 0.43 F Cbg = Cbb Cab Cbc = 0.38 F Ccg = Ccc Cbc Cac = 0.43 F
Since the line is transposed,
Cg0 = 1 (Cag + Cbg + Ccg ) = 0.41 F 3

280

The self- and mutual capacitances are
C s0 = 1 ( C aa + Cbb + Ccc ) = 0.62 F 3 C m0 = 1 ( C ab + Cbc + C ca ) = 0.105 F 3

The sequence capacitances are
C0 = C s0 2C m0
= 0.41 F
a Cg0
Cm0
b Cm0 Cm0 c
C1 = C 2 = C s 0 + C m0
= 0.725 F
Cg0
Cg0
281
Nodal Admittance Matrix Model

[Z]
IiABC ViABC
Yaa Yba Yca Yab Ybb Ycb Yac
Zaa Zba Zca Ybc [Y]/2 Ycc
Zab Zbb Zcb
Zac Zbc Zcc Yaa [Y]/2 Yba Yca Yab Ybb Ycb
Ikabc Vkabc
Yac Ybc Ycc
[IiABC] [Ik
abc]
[Z]-1+[Y]/2 -[Z]-1 6x6
-[Z]-1 [Z]-1+[Y]/2
[ViABC] [Vkabc] 6x1
6x1
282
Nodal Admittance Matrix Model

3
Example
1 B
3 C 4
A Phase Conductor 336,400 26/7 ACSR Neutral Conductor 4/0 6/1 ACSR Length: 300 ft.
24
283
Data Requirements
Phasing Configuration System Grounding Type Length Phase Conductor Type, Size & Strands Ground/Neutral Wire Type, Size & Strands Conductor Spacing Conductor Height Earth Resistivity
284
Distribution Line Models

Dca Dab Dbc a b c Dca c Dbc a Dca Hg Ha Hc a b Dab b Dab Dbc c Hb
Ha
Hb
Hc
Hg
Hg
Hc Hb Ha
Horizontal One Ground Wire (a)
Vertical One Ground Wire (b)
Triangular One Ground Wire (c)
Configuration, Spacing, and Height (Subtransmission Lines)

285

Dgg Dgg Dgg
D12 Circuit No. 1 Horizontal Two Ground Wires (d) Triangular Two Ground Wires (e) Circuit No. 2
Parallel Two Ground Wires (f)
Line Spacing (Ground Wires)
286

A B C B
A B C N
B C A N
C A B N
3-Phase (ABC)
A B B
3-Phase (BCA) A B N N N
A
3-Phase (CAB) A B A N Hg
Note:
N Consider the grounded neutral as Ground Conductor for Hg
V-Phase (AB)
V-Phase (BA)
1-Phase (A)
Configuration, Spacing, and Height (Distribution Lines)

287

CP1+B9+Lecture+No.+2+ +Power+System+Modeling

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originalbeschreibung:

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

CP1+B9+Lecture+No.+2+ +Power+System+Modeling

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Competency Training and Certification Program in Electric Power Distribution System Engineering

Power System Modeling and Analysis

Power System Modeling

U. P. NATIONAL ENGINEERING CENTER NATIONAL ELECTRIFICATION ADMINISTRATION

Training Course in Power System Modeling

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

Utility Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

Training Course in Power System Modeling

Utility Fault MVA

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

Utility Fault MVA

System Nominal Voltage in kV

Training Course in Power System Modeling

Equivalent Circuit of Utility

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

Equivalent Circuit of Utility

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

Equivalent Circuit of Utility

The Base Power is 100 MVA

Training Course in Power System Modeling

Equivalent Circuit of Utility

Z actual 1.3603 = = 0.0286 p.u. Z1 = Z2 = Z base 47 . 61

Training Course in Power System Modeling

Equivalent Circuit of Utility

= tan 1 [ X / R ] X/R R = Z cos X = Z sin

R 1 = 0.0286 cos [tan -1 (22 )] X 1 = 0.0286 sin [tan = 0 . 028571 = 0 . 00 13 p.u. = R 2

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

Equivalent Circuit of Utility

3000 MVA SLGF ( actual ) 100 MVA BASE 69 kV = = 1 . 0 p .u . 69 kV

Re al {2 Z 1 + Z 0 } = 0.1cos tan -1 (20 ) = 0.004994 Im ag {2 Z 1 + Z 0

Training Course in Power System Modeling

Equivalent Circuit of Utility

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

Equivalent Circuit of Utility

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

Equivalent Circuit of Utility

Utility Thevenin Equivalent Circuits

Training Course in Power System Modeling

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

VR = 13.2 kVLL Load 2 MVA, 3Ph 85%PF 13.2 kVLL

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration

Training Course in Power System Modeling

1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

VR = 13.2 kVLL Load 2 MVA, 3Ph 85% pf lag 13.2 kVLL

Constant Power (P & Q)

Constant Current (I)

Constant Impedance (R & X)

Training Course in Power System Modeling

1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

r VSLL = 13.510 KVLL

13,200 o = 0 + (87.4773 31.79o )(1.1034 + j 2.0856) 3 = 7,8000.760o V

U. P. National Engineering Center National Electrification Administration