Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Roberto Casalbuoni
Dipartimento di Fisica
Universita di Firenze
Lectures given at the Florence University during the academic year 1998/99.
Contents
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1 Notations and Conventions 4
1.1 Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Relativity and Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 The Noether's theorem for relativistic elds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Field Quantization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4.1 The Real Scalar Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4.2 The Charged Scalar Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4.3 The Dirac Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4.4 The Electromagnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.5 Perturbation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.5.1 The Scattering Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.5.2 Wick's theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.5.3 Feynman diagrams in momentum space . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.5.4 The cross-section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2 One-loop renormalization 36
2.1 Divergences of the Feynman integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.2 Higher order corrections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.3 The analysis by counterterms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.4 Dimensional regularization of the Feynman integrals . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.5 Integration in arbitrary dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.6 One loop regularization of QED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.7 One loop renormalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3 Vacuum expectation values and the S matrix 73
3.1 In- and Out-states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.2 The S matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.3 The reduction formalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4 Path integral formulation of quantum mechanics 85
4.1 Feynman's formulation of quantum mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.2 Path integral in conguration space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
1
4.3 The physical interpretation of the path integral . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.4 The free particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.5 The case of a quadratic action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.6 Functional formalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.7 General properties of the path integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.8 The generating functional of the Green's functions . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.9 The Green's functions for the harmonic oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5 The path integral in
eld theory 123
5.1 The path integral for a free scalar eld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.2 The generating functional of the connected Green's functions . . . . . 127
5.3 The perturbative expansion for the theory '4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.4 The Feynman's rules in momentum space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
5.5 Power counting in '4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
5.6 Regularization in '4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5.7 Renormalization in the theory '4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
6 The renormalization group 152
6.1 The renormalization group equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6.2 Renormalization conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
6.3 Application to QED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
6.4 Properties of the renormalization group equations . . . . . . . . . . . 161
6.5 The coecients of the renormalization group equations and the renor-
malization conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
7 The path integral for Fermi
elds 169
7.1 Fermionic oscillators and Grassmann algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
7.2 Integration over Grassmann variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
7.3 The path integral for the fermionic theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
8 The quantization of the gauge
elds 180
8.1 QED as a gauge theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
8.2 Non-abelian gauge theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
8.3 Path integral quantization of the gauge theories . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
8.4 Path integral quantization of QED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
8.5 Path integral quantization of the non-abelian gauge theories . . . . . 200
8.6 The -function in non-abelian gauge theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
9 Spontaneous symmetry breaking 213
9.1 The linear -model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
9.2 Spontaneous symmetry breaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
9.3 The Goldstone theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
9.4 The Higgs mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
9.5 Quantization of a spontaneously broken gauge theory in the R -gauge 230
2
9.6 -cancellation in perturbation theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
10 The Standard model of the electroweak interactions 239
10.1 The Standard Model of the electroweak interactions . . . . . . . . . . 239
10.2 The Higgs sector in the Standard Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
10.3 The electroweak interactions of quarks and the Kobayashi-Maskawa-
Cabibbo matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
10.4 The parameters of the SM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
A 259
A.1 Properties of the real antisymmetric matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
3
Chapter 1
Notations and Conventions
1.1 Units
In quantum relativistic theories the two fundamental constants c e /h, the light
velocity and the Planck constant respectively, appear everywhere. Therefore it is
convenient to choose a unit system where their numerical value is given by
c = /h = 1 (1.1)
For the electromagnetism we will use the Heaviside-Lorentz system, where we take
also
0 = 1 (1.2)
From the relation 0 0 = 1=c2 it follows
0 = 1 (1.3)
In these units the Coulomb force is given by
jF~ j = e41
e2 j~x ;1 ~x j2 (1.4)
1 2
and the Maxwell equations appear without any visible constant. For instance the
gauss law is
r~ E~ = (1.5)
dove is the charge density. The dimensionless ne structure constant
= e /
2
(1.6)
4
0 hc
is given by
= 4e
2
(1.7)
4
Any physical quantity can be expressed equivalently by using as fundamental
unit energy, mass, lenght or time in an equivalent fashion. In fact from our choice
the following equivalence relations follow
ct ` =) time lenght
E mc2 =) energy mass
E pv =) energy momentum
Et /h =) energy (time);1 (lenght);1 (1.8)
In practice, it is enough to notice that the product ch/ has dimensions E `]. Therefore
ch/ = 3 108 mt sec;1 1:05 10;34 J sec = 3:15 10;26 J mt (1.9)
Recalling that
1 eV = e 1 = 1:602 10;19 J (1.10)
it follows
ch/ = 3:15 10;26 MeV mt = 197 MeV fermi (1.11)
1:6 10;13
From which
1 MeV;1 = 197 fermi (1.12)
Using this relation we can easily convert a quantity given in MeV (the typical unit
used in elementary particle physics) in fermi. For instance, using the fact that also
the elementary particle masses are usually given in MeV , the wave lenght of an
electron is given by
1
eCompton = m1 0:5 MeV 200 0MeV fermi 400 fermi (1.13)
e :5 MeV
Therefore the approximate relation to keep in mind is 1 = 200 MeV fermi. Fur-
thermore, using
c = 3 1023 fermi sec;1 (1.14)
we get
1 fermi = 3:3 10;24 sec (1.15)
and
1 MeV;1 = 6:58 10;22 sec (1.16)
Also, using
1 barn = 10;24 cm2 (1.17)
it follows from (1.12)
1 GeV;2 = 0:389 mbarn (1.18)
5
1.2 Relativity and Tensors
Our conventions are as follows: the metric tensor g is diagonal with eigenvalues
(+1 ;1 ;1 ;1). The position and momentum four-vectors are given by
x = (t ~x) p = (E ~p) = 0 1 2 3 (1.19)
where ~x and ~p are the three-dimensional position and momentum. The scalar prod-
uct between two four-vectors is given by
a b = a b g = a b = a b = a0 b0 ; ~a ~b (1.20)
where the indices have been lowered by
a = g a (1.21)
and can be raised by using the inverse metric tensor g g . The four-gradient
is dened as
@
@ @
@ = @x = @t @~x = @t r ~ (1.22)
The four-momentum operator in position space is
p ! i @x@ = (i@t ;ir
~) (1.23)
The following relations will be useful
p2 = pp ! ; @x@ @x@ = ; (1.24)
x p = Et ; p~ ~x (1.25)
8
it follows the existence of six locally conserved currents (one for each Lorentz trans-
formation)
@ M = 0 (1.43)
and consequently six constants of motion (notice that the lower indices are antisym-
metric) Z
M = d3 xM0 (1.44)
Three of these constants (the ones with and assuming spatial values) are nothing
but the components of the angular momentum of the eld.
9
1.4.1 The Real Scalar Field
The relativistic real scalar free eld (x) obeys the Klein-Gordon equation
( + m2 )(x) = 0 (1.48)
which can be derived from the variation of the action
Z
S= d4xL (1.49)
where L is the lagrangian density
L = 21 @ @ ; m2 2
(1.50)
giving rise to the canonical momentum
= @ L_ = _ (1.51)
@
From this we get the equal time canonical commutation relations
(~x t) _ (~y t)] = i3 (~x ; ~y) (~x t) (~y t)] = _ (~x t) _ (~y t)] = 0 (1.52)
By using the box normalization, a complete set of solutions of the Klein-Gordon
equation is given by
f~k (x) = p1 p 1 e;ikx f~k(x) = p1 p 1 eikx (1.53)
V 2!k V 2!k
corresponding respectively to positive and negative energies, with
q
k0 = !k = j~kj2 + m2 (1.54)
and
~k = 2
~n (1.55)
L
with
~n = n1~i1 + n2~i2 + n3~i3 ni 2 ZZ (1.56)
and L being the side of the quantization box (V = L3 ). For any two solutions f and
g of the Klein-Gordon equation, the following quantity is a constant of motion and
denes a scalar product (not positive denite)
Z
hf jgi = i d3~xf @t(;) g (1.57)
where
f @t(;) g = f g_ ; f_g (1.58)
10
The solutions of eq. (1.53) are orthogonal with respect to this scalar product, for
instance
Y3
hf~k jf~k i = ~k~k nini
0 0 0 (1.59)
i=1
We can go to the continuum normalization by the substitution
p1 ! p 1 3 (1.60)
V (2
)
and sending the Kronecker delta function into the Dirac delta function. The expan-
sion of the eld in terms of these solutions is then (in the continuum)
Z
(x) = d3~kf~k (x)a(~k) + f~k(x)ay(~k)] (1.61)
or, more explicitly
Z
(x) = d3~k p 1 3 a(~k)e;ikx + ay(~k)eikx ] (1.62)
(2
) 2!k
using the orthogonality properties of the solutions one can invert this expression
Z Z
a(~k) = i d3~xf~k(x)@t(;) (x) ay(~k) = i d3~x(x)@t(;) f~k (x) (1.63)
and obtain the commutation relations
a(~k) ay(~k0)] = 3 (~k ; ~k0 ) (1.64)
a(~k) a(~k0)] = ay(~k) ay(~k0)] = 0 (1.65)
From these equations one constructs the Fock space starting from the vacuum state
which is dened by
a(~k)j0i = 0 (1.66)
for any ~k. The states
ay(~k1) ay(~kn)j0i (1.67)
describe n Bose particles of equal mass m2 = ki2 , and of total four-momentum
k = k1 + kn. This follows by recalling the expression (1.33) for the energy-
momentum tensor, that for the Klein-Gordon eld is
;
T = @ @ ; 21 @ @ ; m2 2 g
(1.68)
from which
Z 1
Z
P = H = d xT = 2 d x + jrj + m
0 3 00 3 2 ~ 2 2 2 (1.69)
11
Z Z @ Z
Pi = d3xT 0i =; d3x @xi (P~ = ; ~ )
d3xr (1.70)
and for the normal ordered operator P we get (the normal ordering is dened by
putting all the creation operators to the left of the annihilation operators)
Z
: P := d3~k kay(~k)a(~k) (1.71)
implying
: P : ay(~k)j0i = k ay(~k)j0i (1.72)
The propagator for the scalar eld is given by
h0jT ((x)(y))j0i = ;iF (x ; y) (1.73)
where Z d4k
F (x) = ; e ;ikx F (k) (1.74)
(2
) 4
and
F (k) = k2 ; m1 2 + i (1.75)
13
We get also
Z X
2 Z h i
: P := d3kk a i(k)ai(k) = d3kk ay(~k)a(~k) + by(~k)b(~k)
y ~ ~ (1.92)
i=1
Therefore the operators ay(~k) e by(~k) both create particles states with momentum
k, as the original operators ayi. For the normal ordered charge operator we get
Z h i
: Q := d3k ay(~k)a(~k) ; by(~k)b(~k) (1.93)
showing explicitly that ay and by create particles of charge +1 and ;1 respectively.
The only non vanishing propagator for the scalar eld is given by
h0jT ((x)y(y))j0i = ;iF (x ; y) (1.94)
The canonical momenta do not depend on the velocities. In principle, this creates
a problem in going to the hamiltonian formalism. In fact a rigorous treatment
requires an extension of the classical hamiltonian approach which was performed by
Dirac himself. In this particular case, the result one gets is the same as proceeding
in a naive way. For this reason we will avoid to describe this extension, and we
will proceed as in the standard case. From the general expression for the energy
momentum tensor (see eq. 1.33) we get
! ; g(!(i@^ ; m))
T = i (1.98)
and using the Dirac equation
!
T = i (1.99)
The momentum of the eld is given by
Z Z
Pk = d3x T 0k =) P~ = ;i ~
d3 x yr (1.100)
14
and the hamiltonian
Z Z
H= d3x T 00 =) H = i d3x y@t (1.101)
For a Lorentz transformation, the eld variation is dened by
i = ; 12 ij j (1.102)
In the Dirac case one has
(x) = 0(x0 ) ; (x) = ; i (x) (1.103)
4
from which
= 2i = ; 41 ] (1.104)
Therefore the angular momentum density (see eq. (1.42)) is
i
1
M = i
! x@ ; x @ ; = i
! x @ ; x @ + ]
2 4
(1.105)
By taking the spatial components we obtain
Z 1
J~ = (M M M ) = d x ;i~x ^ r
23 31 12 3 y ~ + ~ 12
2 (1.106)
where 12 is the identity matrix in 2 dimensions, and we have dened
~ 0
~ 12 = 0 ~ (1.107)
The expression of J~ shows the decomposition of the total angular momentum in
the orbital and in the spin part. The theory has a further conserved quantity, the
current ! resulting from the phase invariance ! ei .
The decomposition of the Dirac eld in plane waves is obtained by using the
spinors u(p n) e v(p n) solutions of the Dirac equation in momentum space for
positive and negative energies respectively. We write
X Z d3 p r m h i
(x) = p(2
)3 Ep b(p n)u(p n)e;ipx + dy(p n)v(p n)eipx (1.108)
n
X Z d3 p r m h i
y
(x) = p(2
)3 Ep d(p n)!v(p n)e;ipx + by(p n)!u(p n)eipx 0
n
p
where Ep = jp~j + m . We will collect here the various properties of the spinors.
2 2
(1.109)
The four-vector n is the one that identies the direction of the spin quantization in
the rest frame. For instance, by quantizing the spin along the third axis one takes
n in the rest frame as nR = (0 0 0 1). Then n is obtained by boosting from the
rest frame to the frame where the particle has four-momentum p .
15
Dirac equation
(^p ; m)u(p n) = u!(p n)(^p ; m) = 0
(^p + m)v(p n) = v!(p n)(^p + m) = 0 (1.110)
Orthogonality
u!(p n)u(p n0) = ;v!(p n)v(p n0) = nn 0
Then, up to a four divergence, we can write the new lagrangian density in the form
L = ; 14 F F ; 21 (@ A )2 (1.152)
One can check that this form gives the correct equations of motion. In fact from
@ L = ;A + A ; g (@ A ) @L = 0 (1.153)
@A @A
we get
0 = ;A + @ (@ A ) ; @ (@ A) = ;A (1.154)
the term
; 12 (@ A )2 (1.155)
which is not gauge invariant, is called the gauge
xing term. More generally, we
could add to the original lagrangian density a term of the form
; 2 (@ A )2 (1.156)
The corresponding equations of motion would be
A ; (1 ; )@ (@ A) = 0 (1.157)
20
In the following we will use = 1. From eq. (1.153) we see that
0 = @ L_ = ;@ A (1.158)
@ A0
In the Lorentz gauge we nd again 0 = 0. To avoid the corresponding problem
we can ask that @ A = 0 does not hold as an operator condition, but rather as a
condition upon the physical states
hphysj@ A jphysi = 0 (1.159)
The price to pay to quantize the theory in a covariant way is to work in a Hilbert
space much bigger than the physical one. The physical states span a subspace which
is dened by the previous relation. A further bonus is that in this way one has to
do with local commutation relations. On the contrary, in the Coulomb gauge, one
needs to introduce non local commutation relations for the canonical variables. We
will come back later to the condition (1.159).
Since we don't have to worry any more about the operator condition 0 = 0, we
can proceed with our program of canonical quantization. The canonical momentum
densities are
= @ L_ = F 0 ; g0(@ A ) (1.160)
@ A
or, explicitly
0 = ;@ A = ;A_ 0 ; r ~ A~
i = @ i A0 ; @ 0 Ai = ;A_ i + @ i A0 (1.161)
Since the spatial gradient of the eld commutes with the eld itself at equal time,
the canonical commutator (1.141) gives rise to
A (~x t) A_ (~y t)] = ;ig 3(~x ; ~y) (1.162)
To get the quanta of the eld we look for plane wave solutions of the wave equation.
We need four independent four vectors in order to expand the solutions in the
momentum space. In a given frame, let us consider the unit four vector which
denes the time axis. This must be a time-like vector, n2 = 1, and we will choose
n0 > 0. For instance, n = (1 0 0 0). Then we take two four vectors () , = 1 2,in
the plane orthogonal to n and k . Notice that now k2 = 0,since we are considering
solutions of the wave equation. Therefore
k () = n() = 0 = 1 2 (1.163)
The four vectors () , being orthogonal to n are space-like, then they will be chosen
orthogonal and normalized in the following way
() ( ) = ;
0
0 (1.164)
21
Next, we dene a unit space-like four vector, orthogonal to n and lying in the plane
(k n)
n (3) : = 0 (1.165)
with
(3) (3) = ;1
(1.166)
By construction (3) ()
is orthogonal to . This four vector is completely xed by
the previous conditions, and we get
(3) k ; (n k)n
= (n k) (1.167)
As a last unit four vector we choose n
(0)
= n (1.168)
These four vectors are orthonormal
() ( ) = g
0 0
(1.169)
and linearly independent. Then they satisfy the completeness relation
() ( ) g = g
0
0 (1.170)
In the frame where n = (1 ~0) and k = (k 0 0 k), we have
(1) = (0 1 0 0) (2) = (0 0 1 0) (3) = (0 0 0 1) (1.171)
The plane wave expansion of A is
Z d 3k X3 h i
A (x) = p () (k ) a (k)e;ikx + ay (k )eikx (1.172)
2!k (2
)3 =0
where we have included the hermiticity condition for A(x). For any xed , this
expansion is the same as the one that we wrote for the Klein-Gordon eld, with the
substitution () a(k) ! a(k). Then, from eq. (1.63)
Z
() (k)a(k) = i d3x f~k(x)@t(;) A (x) (1.173)
with the functions f~k (x) dened as in eq. (1.53). Using the orthogonality of the
( ) 's we nd
0
Z
a(k) = ig d3x ( ) (k)f~k (x)@t(;) A(x)
0
0
(1.174)
and analogously
Z
ay (k) = ig
0 d3x ( ) (k)A (x)@t(;) f~k (x)
0
(1.175)
22
From these expressions we can evaluate the commutator
Za (k) ay (k0 )] =
0
h _ 0
= d x d y ; f~k (x)f~k (y) ig g (k) (k )g (~x ; ~y)
3 3 ( ) ( ) 3 00 000
i
0 00 0 000
Z 0 00 0 000
The commutation rules we have derived for the operators a(k) create some problem.
Let us consider a one-particle state
Z
j1 i = d3k f (k)ay(k)j0i (1.179)
its norm is given by
Z
h1 j1 i = d3k d3k0 f ?(k)f (k0)h0ja(k)ay(k0)j0i
Z
= d3k d3k0 f ?(k)f (k0)h0ja(k) ay(k0)j0i
Z
= ;g d3k jf (k)j2 (1.180)
Therefore the states with = 0 have negative norm. This problem does not come
out completely unexpected. In fact, our expectation is that only the transverse
states ( = 1 2), are physical states. For the moment being we have ignored the
gauge xing condition hphysj@ A jphysi = 0, but its meaning is that only part of
the total Hilbert space is physical. Therefore the relevant thing is to show that the
states satisfying the Lorentz condition have positive norm. To discuss the gauge
xing condition, let us notice that formulated in the way we did, being bilinear in
the states, it could destroy the linearity of the Hilbert space. So we will try to
modify the condition in a linear one
@ A jphys:i = 0 (1.181)
But this would be a too strong requirement. Not even the vacuum state satises it.
However, if we consider the positive and negative frequency parts of the eld
Z d3k X 3
A (x) = p
(+) () (k)a (k)e;ikx A(;) (x) = (A(+) (x))y (1.182)
2!k (2
) =0
3
23
it is possible to weaken the condition, and require
(x)jphys:i = 0
@ A(+) (1.183)
This allows us to satisfy automatically the original requirement
hphys:j(@ A(+)
+ @ A )jphys:i = 0
(;) (1.184)
To make this condition more explicit let us evaluate the four divergence of A(+)
Z X
p2!d (2k
)3 e;ikx
3
i@ A(+)
(x) = k() (k)a(k) (1.185)
k =03
Using eq. (1.167), we get
= ;(n k)
k (3) = (n k)
k(0) (1.186)
from which
a0(k) ; a3 (k)]jphys:i = 0 (1.187)
Notice that
a0(k) ; a3 (k) ay0(k0) ; ay3 (k0)] = ;3 (~k ; k~0) + 3 (~k ; k~0) = 0 (1.188)
Let us denote by #~k (n0 n3 ) the state with n0 scalar photons (that is with polarization
(0) (3)
(k)), and with n3 longitudinal photons (that is with polarization (k)). Then
the following states satisfy the condition (1.183)
#~(km) = 1 (ay0(k) ; ay3 (k))m#~k (0 0) (1.189)
m!
These states have vanishing norm
jj#~(km) jj2 = 0 (1.190)
More generally we can make the following observation. Let us consider the number
operator for scalar and longitudinal photons
Z
N= d3k (ay3 (k)a3 (k) ; ay0 (k)a0 (k)) (1.191)
Notice the minus sign that is a consequence of the commutation relations, and it
ensures that N has positive eigenvalues. For instance
Z
Nay (k)j0i = ;
0 d3k0 ay0(k0 )a0(k0 ) ay0(k)]j0i = ay0 (k)j0i (1.192)
24
Let us consider a physical state with a total number n of scalar and longitudinal
photons. Then
h'njN j'ni = 0 (1.193)
since a0 and a3 act in the same way on a physical state (see eq. (1.187)). It follows
nh'nj'ni = 0 (1.194)
Therefore all the physical states with a total denite number of scalar and longitu-
dinal photons have zero norm, except for the vacuum state (n = 0). Then
h'nj'ni = n0 (1.195)
A generic physical state with zero transverse photons is a linear superposition of the
previous states X
j'i = c0 j'0i + cij'ii (1.196)
i6=0
This state has a positive denite norm
h'j'i = jc0j2 0 (1.197)
The proof that a physical state has a positive norm can be extended to the case in
which also transverse photons are present. Of course, the coecients ci, appearing
in the expression of a physical state, are completely arbitrary, but this is not going
to modify the values of the observables. For instance, consider the hamiltonian, we
have
Z
H = d3x : A_ ; L] :
Z 1 F F + 1 (@ A )2 : (1.198)
= d3x: F 0 A_ ; (@ A)A_ 0 +
4 2
One can easily show the hamiltonian is given by the sum of all the degrees of freedom
appearing in A
Z "X
3 #
H = 12 d3 x : ~ Ai)2 ; A_ 20 ; r
A_ 2i + (r 2
~ A0 :
Z "iX
=1
3 #
= 3 d k !k : y y
a(k)a (k) ; a0 (k)a0 (k) : (1.199)
=1
Since on the physical states a0 and a3 act in the same way, we get
Z X
2
hphys:jH jphys:i = hphys:j d3 k !k ay(k)a (k)jphys:i (1.200)
=1
25
The generic physical state is of the form j'T i j'i. with j'i dened as in eq.
(1.196). Since only j'T i, contributes to the evaluation of an observable quantity ,
we can always choose j'i proportional to j'0i. However, this does not mean that
we are always working in the restricted physical space, because in a sum over the
intermediate states we need to include all the degrees of freedom. This is crucial for
the explicit covariance and locality of the theory.
The arbitrariness in dening the state j'i has, in fact, a very simple interpreta-
tion. It corresponds to add to A a four gradient, that is it corresponds to perform
a gauge transformation. Consider the following matrix element
X
h'jA(x)j'i = c?ncm h'njA (x)j'mi (1.201)
nm
Since A change the occupation number by one unit and all the states j'ni have
zero norm (except for the state with n = 0), the only non vanishing contributions
come from n = 0, m = 1 and n = 1, m = 0
Z
p2!d (2k
)3 e;ikx (3)
3
h'jA(x)j'i = c?0c1 h0j (k)a3 (k) + (k)a0 (k)]j'1 i + c:c:
(0)
k
(1.202)
In order to satisfy the gauge condition the state j'1i must be of the form
Z
j'1i = d3q f (~q)ay3 (q) ; ay0 (q)]j0i (1.203)
and therefore
Z
p2!d (2k
)3 (3)
3
h'jA(x)j'i = (0) ? ;ikx f (~k) + c:c:]
(k) + (k)]c0 c1 e (1.204)
k
From eqs. (1.167) and (1.168) we have
(3) (0) k
+ = (k n) (1.205)
from which
h'jA(x)j'i = @ (x) (1.206)
with Z
p2!d (2k
)3 n 1 k (ic?0c1e;ikx f (~k) + c:c:)
3
(x) = (1.207)
k
It is important to notice that this gauge transformation leaves A in the Lorentz
gauge, since
= 0 (1.208)
26
because the momentum k inside the integral satises k2 = 0. From the expansion
in eq. (1.172) one gets immediately the expression for the photon propagator
Z d4k e;ikx
h0jT (A(x)A (y)j0i = ;ig (2
)4 k2 + i (1.209)
By dening Z d4k
D(x) = (2
)4 e;ikx D(k) (1.210)
and
1
D(k) = ; k2 + (1.211)
i
we get
h0jT (A(x)A (y)j0i = ig D(x ; y) (1.212)
27
Therefore Sfi is the S matrix element between free states (j#ii and h#f j are called
in and out states respectively). In the interaction representation dened by
j#(t)i = eiHS t j#S (t)i O(t) = eiHS tOS (t)e;iHS t
0 0 0
(1.217)
where the index S identies the Schrodinger representation and HS0 is the free hamil-
tonian, the state vectors satisfy the Schrodinger equation with the interaction hamil-
tonian (evaluated in the interaction picture)
@ j#(t)i = H j#(t)i
i @t (1.218)
I
whereas the operators evolve with the free hamiltonian. To evaluate the S matrix
we rst transform the Schrodinger equation in the interaction representation in an
integral equation
Zt
j#(t)i = j#(;1)i ; i dt1 H I (t1 )j#(t1 )i (1.219)
;1
One can verify that this is indeed a solution, and that it satises explicitly the
boundary condition at t = ;1. The perturbative expansion consists in evaluating
j#(t)i by iterating this integral equation. The result in terms of ordered T -products
is n Z +1 Z +1
X1
( ; i) ; I
1 n T H (t1 ) H (tn )
S =1+ dt dt I (1.220)
n=1 n! ;1 ;1
The T -product of n terms means that the factors have to be written from left to
right with decreasing times. For instance, if t1 t2 tn, then
;
T H I (t1 ) H I (tn) = H I (t1 ) H I (tn) (1.221)
This result can be written in a more compact form by introducing the T -ordered
exponential Z +1
;i dt H I (t)
S = T e ;1 (1.222)
This expression is a symbolic one and it is really dened by its series expansion. The
motivation for introducing the T -ordered exponential is that it satises the following
factorization property
Zt Zt Zt
O(t)dt O(t)dt O(t)dt
3 3 2
T e t1 = T e t2 T e t1 (1.223)
If there are no derivative interactions we have
Z +1 Z
;i dt H (t) +i d4x Lint
I
S=T e ;1 =T e (1.224)
It follows that if the theory is Lorentz invariant, also the S matrix enjoys the same
property.
28
1.5.2 Wick's theorem
The matrix elements of the S matrix between free particle states can be expressed
as vacuum expectation values (VEV's) of T -products. These V EV 0s satisfy an
important theorem due to Wick that states that the T -products of an arbitrary
number of free elds (the ones we have to do in the interaction representation) can
be expressed as combinations of T -products among two elds, that is in terms of
Feynman propagators. The Wick's theorem is summarized in the following equation
Z
;i d4x j (x)(x)
T e
Z 1 Z
;i d4x j (x)(x) ; 2 d4x d4y j (x)j (y)h0jT ((x)(y))j0i
=: e :e (1.225)
where (x) is a free real scalar eld and j (x) an ordinary real function. The previous
formula can be easily extended to charged scalar, fermionic and photon elds. The
Wick's theorem is then obtained by expanding both sides of this equation in powers
of j (x) and taking the VEV of both sides. Let us now expand both sides of eq.
(1.225) in a series of j (x) and compare term by term. We will use the simplied
notation i (xi). We get
T () = : : (1.226)
X
4 h
T (1234) = : 12 34 : + : ij : h0jT (kl )j0i
i6=j 6=k6=l=1
i
+ h0jT (ij )j0ih0jT (kl)j0i (1.229)
and so on. By taking the VEV of these expression, and recalling that the VEV of
a normal product is zero, we get the Wick's theorem. The T -product of two eld
operators is sometimes called the contraction of the two operators. Therefore to
evaluate the VEV of a T -product of an arbitrary number of free elds, it is enough
to consider all the possible contractions of the elds appearing in the T -product.
For instance, from the last of the previous relations we get
X
4
h0jT (12 34)j0i = h0jT (ij )j0ih0jT (kl )j0i (1.230)
i6=j 6=k6=l=1
29
An analogous theorem holds for the photon eld. For the fermions one has to
remember that the T -product is dened in a slightly dierent way. This gives a
minus sign any time we have a permutation of the fermion elds which is odd with
respect to the original ordering. As an illustration the previous formula becomes
X
4
h0jT (12 3 4 )j0i = P h0jT (ij )j0ih0jT (kl )j0i (1.231)
i6=j 6=k6=l=1
where P = 1 is the sign of the permutation (i j k l) with respect to the funda-
mental one (1 2 3 4) appearing on the right hand side. More explicitly
h0jT (12 3 4)j0i = h0jT (12 )j0ih0jT (34)j0i
; h0jT (13 )j0ih0jT (24)j0i
+ h0jT (14 )j0ih0jT (23)j0i (1.232)
30
In a typical experiment in particle physics we prepare beams of particles with def-
inite momentum, polarization, etc. At the same time we measure momenta and
polarizations of the nal states. For this reason it is convenient to work in a mo-
mentum representation. The result for a generic matrix element of the S matrix can
be expressed in the following form
X X Y r 1 Y rm
hf jS jii = (2
)44 ( pin ; pout ) 2EV VE M (1.239)
in out ext: bosons ext: fermions
Here f 6= i, and we are using the box normalization. The Feynman amplitude M
(often one denes a matrix T wich diers from M by a factor i) can be obtained by
drawing at a given perturbative order all the connected and topologically inequiv-
alent Feynman's diagrams. The diagrams are obtained by combining together the
graphics elements given in Figures 1.5.1 and 1.5.2. The amplitude M is given by the
sum of the
P amplitudes associated to these diagrams, after extraction of the factor
(2
)44 ( p) in (1.239).
.
Fermion line
Photon line
Scalar line
Fig. 1.5.1 - Graphical representation for both internal and external particle lines.
.
QED vertex
Fig. 1.5.2 - Graphical representation for the vertices in scalar and spinor QED.
31
At each diagram we associate an amplitude obtained by multiplying together the
following factors
for each ingoing and/or outgoing external photon line a factor (or its com-
plex conjugate for outgoing photons if we consider complex polarizations as
the circular one)
for each ingoing and/or outgoing external fermionic line a factor u(p) and/or
u!(p)
for each ingoing and/or outgoing external antifermionic line a factor v!(p)
and/or v(p)
for each internal scalar line a factor iF (p) (propagator)
for each internal photon line a factor ig D(p) (propagator)
for each internal fermion line a factor iSF (p) (propagator)
P P
for each vertex in scalar QED a factor ;ie(p + p0)(2
)44( in pi ; out pf ),
where p and p0 are the momenta of the scalar particle (taking p ingoing and p0
outgoing)
P P
For each seagull term in scalar QED a factor 2ie2 g (2
)44( in pi ; out pf )
P P
for each vertex in spinor QED a factor ;ie (2
)44 ( ingoing pi ; outgoing pf )
Integrate over all the internal momenta with measure d4p=(2
)4. This gives
rise automatically to the conservation of the total four-momentum.
In a graph containing closed lines (loops), a factor (;1) for each fermionic
loop (see Fig. 1.5.3)
.
Fermion loop
Fig. 1.5.3 - A fermion loop can appear inside any Feynman diagram (attaching the
rest of the diagram by photonic lines).
In the following we will use need also the rules for the interaction with a static
external e.m. eld. The correspending graphical element is given in Fig. 1.5.4. The
32
rule is to treat it as a normal photon, except that one needs to substitute the wave
function of the photon 1 1=2
2EV
() (q) (1.240)
with the Fourier transform of the external eld
Z
A (~q ) = d3qe;i~q ~x Aext
ext
(~x ) (1.241)
where ~q is the momentum in transfer at the vertex where the external eld line is
attached to. Also, sincePthe staticPexternal eld breaks translational invariance, we
loose the factor (2
)3( in ~pin ; out p~out ).
.
33
where, for reasons of convenience, we have written
m = (2m) 1 (1.244)
VE 2V E
w gives the probability per unit time of a transition toward a state with well dened
quantum numbers, but we are rather interested to the nal states having momenta
between ~pf and ~pf + d~pf . Since in the volume V the momentum is given by ~p =
2
~n=L, the number of nal states is given by
L 3
3
2
d p (1.245)
The cross-section is dened as the probability per unit time divided by the &ux of
the ingoing particles, and has the dimensions of a length to the square
t;1 `2t] = `2] (1.246)
In fact the &ux is dened as vrel = vrel=V , since in our normalization we have a
particle in the volume V , and vrel is the relative velocity of the ingoing particles.
For the bosons this follows from the normalization condition of the functions f~k (x).
For the fermions recall that in the box normalization the wave function is
rm
;ipx
EV u(p)e (1.247)
from which Z Z
d x(x) = d3x VmE uy(p)u(p) = 1
3 (1.248)
V V
Then the cross-section for getting the nal states with momenta between ~pf e p~f +d~pf
is given by
Y V d3pf
d = w vV dNF = w vV (2
)3 (1.249)
rel rel f
We obtain
Y V d3 pf 1 Y 1 Y (2m)jMj2
d = vV V (2
) 4 4 (P ; P )
f i
rel f (2
)3 4V 2 E1E2 f 2V Ef fermioni
Y Y 3
= (2
)44(Pf ; Pi) 4E E1 v (2m) (2
d)3p2fE jMj2 (1.250)
1 2 rel fermioni f f
34
In fact, as it follows from the Feynman rules, M is invariant, as the factors d3p=2E .
Furthermore
~vrel = ~v1 ; ~v2 = E~p1 ; E~p2 (1.251)
1 2
but in the frame where the particle 2 is at rest (laboratory frame) we have p2 =
(m2 ~0) and ~vrel = ~v1, from which
j p
~ 1j
q 2 2
E1 E2j~vrelj = E1 m2 E = m2jp~1j = m2 E1 ; m1
q 1 q
= m22 E12 ; m21 m22 = (p1 p2)2 ; m21 m22 (1.252)
We see that also this factor is Lorentz invariant.
35
Chapter 2
One-loop renormalization
2.1 Divergences of the Feynman integrals
Let us consider the Coulomb scattering. If we expand the S matrix up to the
third order in the electric charge, and we assume that the external eld is weak
enough such to take only the rst order, we can easily see that the relevant Feynman
diagrams are the ones of Fig. 2.1.1
. .
p p’ p p’
=
’
’ p −p
p −p
’
p p
p−k p p’−k
p’
k k
’ ’
p −p p −p
p p’
a) b)
k
p p’ ’
p−κ p −k
k k+q ’
p −p
’
c) p −p d)
Fig. 2.1.1 - The Feynman diagram for the Coulomb scattering at the third order
in the electric charge and at the rst order in the external eld.
36
The Coulomb scattering can be used, in principle, to dene the physical electric
charge of the electron. This is done assuming that the amplitude is linear in ephys,
from which we get an expansion of the type
ephys = e + a2 e3 + = e(1 + a2 e2 + ) (2.1)
in terms of the parameter e which appears in the original lagrangian. The rst
problem we encounter is that we would like to have the results of our calculation in
terms of measured quantities as ephys . This could be done by inverting the previous
expansion, but, and here comes the second problem, the coecient of the expan-
sion are divergent quantities. To show this, consider, for instance the self-energy
contribution to one of the external photons (as the one in Fig. 2.1.1a). We have
Ma = u!(p0)(;ie )Aext i 2
The problem of the divergences is a serious one and in order to give some sense to
the theory we have to dene a way to dene our integrals. This is what is called the
regularization procedure of the Feynman integrals. That is we give a prescription in
order to make the integrals nite. This can be done in various ways, as introducing
an ultraviolet cut-o, or, as we shall see later by the more convenient means of
dimensional regularization. However, we want that the theory does not depend on
the way in which we dene the integrals, otherwise we would have to look for some
physical meaning of the regularization procedure we choose. This bring us to the
other problem, the inversion of eq. (2.1). Since now the coecients are nite we can
indeed perform the inversion and obtaining e as a function of ephys and obtain all
the observables in terms of the physical electric charge (that is the one measured in
the Coulomb scattering). By doing so, a priori we will introduce in the observables
a dependence on the renormalization procedure. We will say that the theory is
renormalizable when this dependence cancels out. Thinking to the regularization in
terms of a cut-o this means that considering the observable quantities in terms of
ephys , and removing the cut-o (that is by taking the limit for the cut-o going to
the innity), the result should be nite. Of course, this cancellation is not obvious
at all, and in fact in most of the theories this does not happen. However there is
a restrict class of renormalizable theories, as for instance QED. We will not discuss
the renormalization at all order and neither we will prove which criteria a theory
should satisfy in order to be renormalizable. We will give these criteria without
a proof but we will try only to justify them On a physical basis. As far QED is
concerned we will study in detail the renormalization at one-loop.
(2.20)
The sum gives a result very similar the to one obtained from M(1) alone, but with
the photon propagator modied in the following way
;ig ! ;ig + ;ig (ie2 (q2)) ;ig = ;ig + ;ie2 (2.21)
q2 q2 q2 q2 q2 q4
39
As discussed in the previous Section is a divergent quantity. In fact, at high
values of the momentum it behaves as
Z d4 p
p2 (2.22)
and therefore it diverges in a quadratic way. This follows by evaluating the integral
by cutting the upper limit by a cut-o . As we shall see later on, the real divergence
is weaker due to the gauge invariance. We will see that the correct behaviour is given
by Z d4 p
p4 (2.23)
The corresponding divergence is only logarithmic, but in any case the integral is
divergent. By evaluating it with a cut-o we get
(q2) = ;g q2I (q2) + (2.24)
The terms omitted are proportional to q q , and since the photon is always attached
to a conserved current, they do not contribute to the nal result. The functions I (q2)
can be evaluated by various tricks (we will evaluate it explicitly in the following)
and the result is
1 2 1 Z1 q2z(1 ; z)
I (q ) = 12
2 log m2 ; 2
2
2 dz z(1 ; z) log 1 ; m2 (2.25)
0
For small values of q2 (;q2 << m2 ) one can expand the logarithm obtaining
2 + 1 q2
I (q2) 121
2 log m (2.26)
2 60
2 m2
40
in the limit q ! 0 the result looks exactly as at the lowest order, except that we
need to introduce a renormalized charge eR given by
1=2
eR = e 1 ; 12e
2 log m
2 2
2 (2.29)
In term of eR and taking into account that we are working at the order e4 we can
write
; i
e2 q2
M + Mc = u!f (ieR 0)ui q2 1 ; 60R
2 m2 (;iZeR )
(1) (2.30)
Now we compare this result with the experiment where we measure d=d' in the
limit q ! 0. We can extract again from the data the value of the electric charge, but
this time we will measure eR . Notice that in this expression there are no more diver-
gent quantities, since they have been eliminated by the denition of the renormalized
charge. It must be stressed that the quantity that is xed by the experiments is
not the "parameter" e appearing in the original lagrangian, but rather eR. This
means that the quantity e is not really dened unless we specify how to relate it
to measured quantities. This relation is usually referred to as the renormalization
condition. As we have noticed the nal expression we got does not contain any
explicit divergent quantity. Furthermore, also eR , which is obtained from the exper-
imental data, is a nite quantity. It follows that the parameter e, must diverge for
! 1. In other words, the divergence which we have obtained in the amplitude, is
compensated by the divergence implicit in e. Therefore the procedure outlined here
has meaning only if we start with an innite charge. Said that, the renormalization
procedure is a way of reorganizing the terms of the perturbative expansion in such
a way that the parameter controlling it is the renormalized charge eR . If this is
possible, the various terms in the expansion turn out to be nite and the theory is
said to be renormalizable. As already stressed this is not automatically satised.
In fact renormalizability is not a generic feature of the relativistic quantum eld
theories. Rather the class of renormalizable theories (that is the theories for which
the previous procedure is meaningful) is quite restricted.
We have seen that the measured electric charge is dierent from the quantity
appearing in the expression of the vertex. It will be convenient in the following to call
this quantity eB (tha bare charge). On the contrary, the renormalized charge will be
called e, rather than eR as done previously. For the moment being we have included
only the vacuum polarization corrections, however if we restrict our problem to the
charge renormalization, the divergent part coming from the self-energy and vertex
corrections cancel out (see later). Let us consider now a process like e; ; ! e; ;.
Neglecting other corrections the total amplitude is given by Fig. 2.2.2.
We will dene the charge by choosing an arbitrary value of the square of the
momentum in transfer q , such that Q2 = ;q2 = 2. In this way the renormalized
charge depends on the scale . In the previous example we were using q ! 0. The
graphs in Fig. 2.2.2 sum up to give (omitting the contribution of the fermionic
41
.
e−
eB
e−
e− eB eB
eB
eB eB
q + + eB +
eB eB
µ− eB eB
µ− eB
µ−
Fig. 2.2.2 - The vacuum polarization contributions to the e;; ! e;; scattering.
lines,)
h ;ig ;ig 2 ;ig ;ig 2 ;ig 2 ;ig i
e2B q2 +q2 (ie )
B + (ie )
q2 (ie )
q2 + B q2 B q2 Q2 =2
(2.31)
By considering only the g contribution to , we get
e2B ;ig
q 2 1 ; e2B I (q2) + e4B I 2(q2) + Q2=2 (2.32)
This expression looks as the lowest order contribution to the propagator be dening
the renormalized electric charge as
e2 = e2B 1 ; e2B I (2) + e4B I 2(2) + ] (2.33)
Since the fermionic contribution is the same for all the diagrams, by calling it F (Q2),
we get the amplitude in the form
M(eB ) = e2B F (Q2)1 ; e2B I (Q2 ) + e4B I 2(Q2 ) ] (2.34)
where e2B F (Q2) is the amplitude at the lowest order in e2B . As we know I (Q2) is a
divergent quantity and therefore the amplitude is not dened. However, following
the discussion of the previous Section we can try to re-express everything in terms
of the renormalized charge (2.33). We can easily invert by series the eq. (2.33)
obtaining at the order e4
e2B = e21 + e2 I (2) + ] (2.35)
42
By substituting this expression in M(e0) we get
M(eB ) = e2 1 + e2I (2) + ]F (Q2 )1 ; e2 I (Q2 ) + ] =
= e2 F (Q2)1 ; e2 (I (Q2) ; I (2)) + ] MR (e) (2.36)
From the expression (2.25) for I (Q2) we get
1 log 2 ; 1 Z 1 dz z(1 ; z) log 1 + Q2 z(1 ; z)
I (Q2) = 12
2 m2 2
2 0 m2 (2.37)
Since the divergent part is momentum independent it cancels out in the expression
for MR(e). Furthermore, the renormalized charge e will be measured through the
cross-section, and therefore, by denition, it will be nite. Therefore, the charge
renormalization makes the amplitude nite. Evaluating I (Q2) ; I (2) per large Q2
(and 2) we get
Z1
(1 ; z) log m 2 + Q2 z(1 ; z) !
2 2 2
e2 (I (Q2) ; I (2)) = ;
0 dz z m + z(1 ; z)
Z 1
! ; 2
dz z(1 ; z) log Q2 = ; 3
log Q2
2 2
(2.38)
0
and in this limit
1 ; 3
log Q2 +
2
MR (e) = e2F (Q2 ) (2.39)
At rst sight MR(e) depends on , but actually this is not the case. In fact, e is
dened through the eq. (2.33) and therefore it depends also on . What is going
on is that the implicit dependecnce of e on cancels out the explicit dependence
of MR (e). This follows from MR(e) = M(eB ) and on the observation that M(eB )
does not depend on . This can be formalized in a way that amounts to introduce
the concept of renormalization group that we will discuss in much more detail later
on. In fact, let us be more explicit by writing
M(eB ) = MR (e() ) (2.40)
By dierentiating this expression with respect to we get
dM(eB ) = @ MR + @ MR @e = 0 (2.41)
d @ @e @
This equation say formally that the amplitude expressed as a function of the renor-
malized charge is indeed independent on . This equation is the prototype of the
renormalization group equations, and tells us how we have to change the coupling,
when we change the denition scale .
Going back to the original expression for M(e0), we see that this is given by
the tree amplitude e2B F (Q2) times a geometric series arising from the iteration of
43
the vacuum polarization diagram. Therefore, it comes natural to dene a coupling
running with the momentum of the photon.
e2 (Q2 ) = e2B 1 ; e2B I (Q2 ) + e4B I 2(Q2 ) + ] = 1 + ee2BI (Q2)
2
(2.42)
B
Also this expression is cooked up in terms of the divergent quantities eB and I (Q2),
but again e2(Q2 ) is nite. This can be shown explicitly by evaluating the renormal-
ized charge, e(2), in terms of the bare one
we get
e2(Q2 ) = 1 + e2 (2)eI((Q2)) ; I (2)]
2 2
(2.46)
By using this result we can write MR(e) as
MR(e) = e2 (Q2 )F (Q2) (2.47)
It follows that the true expansion parameter in the perturbative series is the running
coupling e(Q2 ). By using eq. (2.38) we obtain
1 ; ( ) log Q2 = (2)
2 2
(2.49)
3
or 1
Q2 = e3
(2) ; 1 (2.50)
2
44
For (2) 1=137 we get
Q2 e1281 10556 (2.51)
2
Actually (Q2) is divergent for
3
45
where IF and IB are the number of internal fermionic and bosonic lines. Going
through the loop one has to have a number of vertices, V equal to the number of
internal lines
V = IF + IB (2.54)
Also, if at each vertex there are Ni lines of the particle of type i, then we have
NiV = 2Ii + Ei (2.55)
from which
2V = 2IF + EF V = 2IB + EB (2.56)
From these equations we can get V , IF and IB in terms of EF and EB
IF = 21 EF + EB IB = 21 EF V = EF + EB (2.57)
from which
D = 4 ; 32 EF ; EB (2.58)
It follows that the only one-loop supercially divergent diagrams in spinor QED are
the ones in Fig. 2.3.1. In fact, all the diagrams with an odd number of external
photons vanish. This is trivial at one-loop, since the trace of an odd number of
matrices is zero. In general (Furry's theorem) it follows from the conservation of
charge conjugation, since the photon is an eigenstate of C with eigenvalue equal to
-1.
Furthermore, the eective degree of divergence can be less than the supercial
degree. In fact, gauge invariance often lowers the divergence. For instance the
diagram of Fig. 2.3.1 with four external photons (light-light scattering) has D = 0
(logarithmic divergence), but gauge invariance makes it nite. Also the vacuum
polarization diagram has an eective degree of divergence equal to 2. Therefore,
there are only three divergent one-loop diagrams and all the divergences can be
brought back to the three functions (p), (q) e (p0 p). This does not mean
that an arbitrary diagram is not divergence, but it can be made nite if the previous
functions are such. In such a case one has only to show that eliminating these three
divergences (primitive divergences) the theory is automatically nite. In particular
we will show that the divergent part of (p) can be absorbed into the denition
of the mass of the electron and a redenition of the electron eld (wave function
renormalization). The divergence in , the photon self-energy, can be absorbed
in the wave function renormalization of the photon (the mass of the photon is not
renormalized due to the gauge invariance). And nally the divergence of (p0 p)
goes into the denition of the parameter e. To realize this program we divide up
the lagrangian density in two parts, one written in terms of the physical parameters,
the other will contain the counterterms. We will call also the original parameters
and elds of the theory the bare parameters and the bare elds and we will use an
index B in order to distinguish them from the physical quantities. Therefore the
46
.
EF EB D
0 2 2
0 4 0
2 0 1
2 1 0
49
which is dimensionless. As a further example consider a single scalar eld. The
most general renormalizable lagrangian density is characterized by two parameters
L = 21 @ @ ; 21 m2 2 ; 3 ; 4 (2.74)
Here has dimension 1 and is dimensionless. We see that the linear -models are
renormalizable theories.
Giving these facts let us try to understand what makes renormalizable and non
renormalizable theories dierent. In the renormalizable case, if we have written
the most general lagrangian, the only divergent diagrams which appear are the
ones corresponding to the processes described by the operators appearing in the
lagrangian. Therefore adding to L the counter term
X
Lc:t: = giOi (2.75)
i
we can choose the gi in such a way to cancel, order by order, the divergences. The
theory depends on a nite number of arbitrary parameters equal to the number of
parameters gi. Therefore the theory is a predictive one. In the non renormalizable
case, the number of divergent diagrams increase with the perturbative order. At
each order we have to introduce new counter terms having an operator structure
dierent from the original one. At the end the theory will depend on an innite
number of arbitrary parameters. As an example consider a fermionic theory with an
! )2. Since this term has dimension 6, the relative coupling
interaction of the type (
has dimension -2
Lint = ;g2(! )2 (2.76)
At one loop the theory gives rise to the divergent diagrams of Fig. 2.3.2. The
divergence of the rst diagram can be absorbed into a counter term of the original
type
! )2
;g2 ( (2.77)
The other two need counter terms of the type
! )3 + g4(
g3 ( ! )4 (2.78)
These counter terms originate new one-loop divergent diagrams, as for instance the
ones in Fig. 2.3.3. The rst diagram modies the already introduced counter term
! )4 , but the second one needs a new counter term
(
! )5
g5( (2.79)
This process never ends.
The renormalization requirement restricts in a fantastic way the possible eld
theories. However one could think that this requirement is too technical and one
could imagine other ways of giving a meaning to lagrangians which do not satisfy this
50
.
a) b)
c)
! )2.
Fig. 2.3.2 - Divergent diagrams coming from the interaction (
condition. But suppose we try to give a meaning to a non renormalizable lagrangian,
simply requiring that it gives rise to a consistent theory at any energy. We will show
that this does not happen. Consider again a theory with a four-fermion interaction.
Since dim g2 = ;2, if we consider the scattering + ! + in the high energy
limit (where we can neglect all the masses), on dimensional ground we get that the
total cross-section behaves like
g22E 2 (2.80)
Analogously, in any non renormalizable theory, being there couplings with negative
dimensions, the cross-section will increase with the energy. But the cross-section has
to do with the S matrix which is unitary. Since a unitary matrix has eigenvalues of
.
a) b)
! )2 and (
Fig. 2.3.3 - Divergent diagrams coming from the interactions ( ! )4.
51
modulus 1, it follows that its matrix elements must be bounded. Translating this
argument in the cross-section one gets the bound
Ec 2
2
(2.81)
where c is some constant. For the previous example we get
g2E 2 c (2.82)
This implies a violation of the S matrix unitarity at energies such that
rc
E g (2.83)
2
It follows that we can give a meaning also to non renormalizable theories, but only
for a limited range of values of the energy. This range is xed by the value of the
non renormalizable coupling. It is not diculty to realize that non renormalizability
and bad behaviour of the amplitudes at high energies are strictly connected.
52
instance, if F (p k) p;4, the integral is convergent in 2 and in 3 dimensions.
Therefore, we would like to introduce a quantity
Z
I (! k) = d2! p F (p k) (2.85)
to be regarded as a function of the complex variable !. Then, if we can dene
a complex function I 0(! k) on the entire complex plane, with denite singularity,
and as such that it coincides with I on some common domain, then by analytic
continuation I and I 0 dene the same analytic function. A simple example of this
procedure is given by the Euler's ;. This complex function is dened for Re z > 0
by the integral representation
Z1
;(z) = dt e;t tz;1 (2.86)
0
If Re z 0, the integral diverges as
dt (2.87)
t1+jRe zj
in the limit t ! 0.However it is easy to get a representation valid also for Re z 0.
Let us divide the integration region in two parts dened by a parameter
Z Z1
;(z) = ; t
dt e t +z ;1 dt e;t tz;1 (2.88)
0
Expanding the exponential in the rst integral and integrating term by term we get
X1
(; 1) nZ Z1
;(z) = n ! dt t n+ z ; 1 + dt e;t tz;1
n=0 0
X (;1)n n+z 1 ;t z;1
1 Z
= + dt e t (2.89)
n=0 n! n + z
The second integral converges for any z since > 0. This expression coincides with
the representation for the ; function for Re z > 0, but it is dened also for Re z < 0
where it has simple poles located at z = ;n. Therefore it is a meaningful expression
on all the complex plane z. Notice that in order to isolate the divergences we need
to introduce an arbitrary parameter . However the result does not depend on the
particular value of this parameter. This the Weierstrass representation of the Euler
;(z). From this example we see that we need the following three steps
Find a domain where I (! k) is convergent. Typically this will be for Re ! < 2.
Construct an analytic function identical to I (! k) in the domain of conver-
gence, but dened on a larger domain including the point ! = 2.
At the end of the calculation take the limit ! ! 2.
53
2.5 Integration in arbitrary dimensions
Let us consider the integral Z
IN = dN pF (p2) (2.90)
with N an integer number and p a vector in an Euclidean N -dimensional space.
Since the integrand is invariant under rotations of the N -dimensional vector p, we
can perform the angular integration by means of
dN p = d'N pN ;1dp (2.91)
R
where d'N is the solid angle element in N -dimensions. Therefore d'N = SN , with
SN the surface of the unit sphere in N -dimensions. Then
Z1
IN = SN pN ;1 F (p2)dp (2.92)
0
The value of the sphere surface can be evaluated by the following trick. Consider
Z +1 p
e;x dx =
2
I= (2.93)
;1
By taking N of these factors we get
Z
dx1 dxN e;(x1 + + xN ) =
N=2
2 2
IN = (2.94)
The same integral can be evaluated in polar coordinates
Z1
N ;1e; d
2
N=2 = SN (2.95)
0
By putting x = 2 we have
1 Z1 1
N
N= 2
= 2 SN x N= 2; 1 ; x
e dx = 2 SN ; 2 (2.96)
0
where we have used the representation of the Euler ; function given in the previous
Section. Therefore
SN = 2
; N
N=2
(2.97)
; 2
N=2 Z 1
and
54
The integrals we will be interested in are of the type
Z
IN = (p2 ; da2 p+ i)A
N
(M )
(2.99)
with p a vector in a N dimensional Minkowski space. We can perform an anti-
clockwise rotation of 900 (Wick's rotation) in the complex plane of p0 without hitting
P. Then we do a change of variables p0 ! ip0, and we use the denition
any singularity
p2 ! ;p2 = Ni=1 p2i , obtaining
Z
IN = i (;p2d;pa2 )A = i(;1)AIN
N
(M )
(2.100)
where IN is an integral of the kind discussed at the beginning of this Section with
F (x) given by
F (x) = (x + a2 );A (2.101)
N=2 Z 1 xN=2;1
It follows
IN = ; N dx (2.102)
; 2 0 (x + a2 )A
By putting x = a2y we get
N=2 Z 1
2
IN = ( a ) N=2 ; A ; yN=2;1(1 + y);Adx
; N2 0
(2.103)
and recalling the integral representation for the Euler B (x y) function (valid for
Rex y > 0) Z1
;( x );(
B (x y) = ;(x + y) = y ) tx;1(1 + t);(x+y) dt (2.104)
0
it follows
IN =
N=2 ;(A;(;AN= 2) 1
) (a2)A;N=2
(2.105)
We have obtained this representation for N=2 > 0 and Re(A ; N=2) > 0. But we
know how to extend the Euler gamma-function to the entire complex plane, and
therefore we can extend this formula to complex dimensions N = 2!
I2! =
! ;(;(A ; !) 1 (2.106)
A) (a2 )A;!
This shows that I2! has simple poles located at
! = A A + 1 (2.107)
Therefore our integral will be perfectly dened at all ! such that ! 6= A A + 1 .
At the end we will have to consider the limit ! ! 2. The original integral in
Minkowski space is then
Z d2! p
= i
! (;1)A ;(A ; ! ) 1 (2.108)
(p2 ; a2 )A ;(A) (a2)A;!
55
For the following it will be useful to derive another formula. Let us put in the
previous equation p = p0 + k and b2 = ;a2 + k2, then
Z d2! p0 = i
! (;1)A ;(A ; ! ) 1 (2.109)
(p + 2p k + k ; a )
0 2 0 2 2 A ;(A) (a )A;! 2
from which
Z d2! p = i
! (;1)A ;(A ; ! ) 1 (2.110)
(p2 + 2p k + b2 )A ;(A) (k2 ; b2 )A;!
Dierentiating with respect to k we get various useful relations as
Z A ; !) ;k
d2! p (p2 + 2ppk + b2 )A = i
! (;1)A ;(;( A) (k2 ; b2 )A;! (2.111)
and
Z
d2! p (p2 + 2pppk + b2 )A = i ;(A)(
k(2;;1)b2 )A;!
! A
1
;(A ; !)kk ; 2 g (k ; b );(A ; ! ; 1)
2 2 (2.112)
Since at the end of our calculation we will have to take the limit ! ! 2, it will be
useful to recall the expansion of the Gamma function around its poles
;() = 1 ; + O() (2.113)
where
= 0:5772::: (2.114)
is the Euler-Mascheroni constant, and for (n 1):
( ; 1) n 1
;(;n + ) = n! + (n + 1) + O() (2.115)
where
(n + 1) = 1 + 21 + + n1 ; (2.116)
57
It follows (we put k0 = k)
Z 1 Z d2! k ^
(p) = i4;2! dz (2
)2! k2 ;p^(1m;2zz+) ;p2kz(1+ ;mz)]2 (2.127)
0
The linear term in k has vanishing integral, therefore
Z 1 Z d2! k p^(1 ; z) + m
(p) = i 4 ; 2 ! dz (2
)2! k2 ; m (2.128)
0 2 z + p z(1 ; z)]
2 2
we obtain
(p) = 1 2 ;(=2)
Z 1 16
m2z ; p2z(1 ; z) ;=2
dz2^p(1 ; z) ; 4m ; (^p(1 ; z) ; m)] 4
2 (2.132)
0
Dening
A = 2^p(1 ; z) ; 4m B = ;p^(1 ; z) + m C = m z ;4p
z2(1 ; z)
2 2
(2.133)
and expanding for ! 0
1 Z 1 dz 2A + 2B ; A h1 ; log C i
(p) = 16
2 0 2
1 Z 1 2 A
= 16
2 0 dz ; A log C + 2B ; A
= 1 (^p ; 4m) ; 1 ^p ; 2m + (^p ; 4m)]
8
2Z 16
2
; 1 1
dz p
^ (1 ; z ) ; 2 m ] log m2 z ; p2z(1 ; z)
8
2 0 4
2
= 1 (^p ; 4m) + nite terms (2.134)
8
2
58
Consider now the vacuum polarization (see eq. (2.8))
Z d2! k 1 1
(q) = i 4 ; 2 ! Tr ^
(2
)2! k + q^ ; m k^ ; m
Z d2! k Tr(k^ + m) (k^ + q^ + m)]
= i 4 ; 2 ! (2.135)
(2
)2! (k2 ; m2)((k + q)2 ; m2 )
Using again the Feynman representation for the denominators
Z 1 Z d2! k (k^ + m) (k^ + q^ + m)]
(q) = i 4 ; 2! dz (2
)2! (k2 ;Trm2 )(1 ; z) + ((k + q)2 ; m2 )z]2 (2.136)
0
We write the denominator as
:::] = k2 + q2z ; m2 + 2k qz (2.137)
through the change of variable k = k0 ; qz we cancel the mixed term obtaining
:::] = (k0 ; qz)2 + 2(k0 ; qz) qz + q2z ; m2 = k0 2 + q2 z(1 ; z) ; m2 (2.138)
and therefore (we put again k0 = k)
Z 1 Z d2! k Tr(k^ ; q^z + m) (k^ + q^(1 ; z) + m)]
(q) = i 4;2 ! dz (2
)2!
0 k2 + q2z(1 ; z) ; m2]2
(2.139)
Since the integral of the odd terms in k is zero, it is enough to evaluate the contri-
bution of the even term to the trace
Tr:::]even = Tr(k^ ; q^z + m) (k^ + q^(1 ; z)]pari + m2 Tr ]
= Trk^ k^] ; Trq^ q^]z(1 ; z) + m2 Tr ] (2.140)
If we dene the as matrices of dimension 2! 2! we can repeat the standard
calculation by obtaining a factor 2! instead of 4. Therefore
Tr:::]even = 2! 2k k ; g k2 ; (2qq ; g q2)z(1 ; z) + m2 g ]
= 2! 2k k ; 2z(1 ; z)(q q ; g q2 ) ; g (k2 ; m2 + q2z(1 ; z)](2.141)
and we nd
Z 1 Z d2! k h
(q) = i 2 4 ; 2 ! ! dz (2
)2! k2 + q2z2(1k;kz) ; m2 ]2
0
2 z (1 ; z )( q q ; g q 2 ) g
i
; k2 + q2z(1 ; z) ; m2 ]2 ; k2 + q2z(1 ; z) ; m2 ] (2.142)
From the relations of the previous Section we get
Z ; !)
d2! p p22p;pa2 ]2 = ;ig
! ;(1 (a2 )1;! (2.143)
59
whereas Z ; !)
d2! p p2 ;1 a2 ] = ;i
! ;(1
(a )1;!
2 (2.144)
Therefore the rst and the third contribution to the vacuum polarization cancel out
and we are left with
Z1 Z d2! k
(q) = ;i 2 (q q ; g q ) dz 2z(1 ; z) (2
)2! k2 + q2 z(1 1; z) ; m2 ]2
4 ; 2 ! ! 2
0
(2.145)
Notice that the original integral was quadratically divergent, but due to the previous
cancellation the divergence is only logarithmic. The reason is again gauge invari-
ance. In fact it is possible to show that this implies q (q) = 0. Performing the
momentum integration we have
Z1 ; !)
(q) = ;i2 2 (q q ; g q ) dz z(1 ; z) (2i
= 2
1 2 (qq ; g q2)
1 Z m2 ; q2z(1 ; z)
3 ; 6 ; dz z(1 ; z) log 2
2 (2.148)
or, in abbreviated way
(q) = 6
1 2 (q q ; g q2 ) 1 + nite terms (2.149)
We have now to evaluate (p0 p). From eq. (2.11) we have
Z d2! k p^ 0 ; k^ + m ^
0
(p p) = ;i
4 ; 2 ! p^ ; k + m 1
(2
)2! (p0 ; k)2 ; m2 (p ; k)2 ; m2 k2 (2.150)
60
the general formula to reduce n denominators to a single one is
Yn 1 Z 1 Yn (1 ; Pn i)
a = (n ; 1)! di Pn i=1a ]n (2.151)
i=1 i 0 i=1 i=1 i i
To show this equation notice that
X
n
Yn 1 Z 1 Yn ; iai
= die i=1 (2.152)
i=1 ai 0 i=1
Introducing the identity Z1 X
n
1= d( ; i) (2.153)
0 i=1
and changing variables i = i
X
n
Yn 1 Z 1 Yn X
n ; iai
a = did( ; i)e i=1
i=1 i 0 i=1 i=1
X
n
Z 1 Yn ; iai X
n
= din d e
i=1 (1 ; i) (2.154)
0 i=1 i=1
The integration over i can be restricted to the interval 0 1] due to the delta
function, and furthermore
Z1
dn;1e; = (n ;n 1)! (2.155)
0
In our case we get
Z d2! k Z 1 Z 1;x
(p p) = ;2i
0 4 ; 2! dx dy
(2
)2! 0 0
0 ; k^ + m) (^ ^
k2 (1 ; x ; y) + (p ; k)2x ; mp2x;+k (+p0m
p
(^
; k)2y ; m2 y]3 (2.156)
The denominator is
:::] = k2 ; m2(x + y) + p2x + p02 y ; 2k (px + p0y) (2.157)
Changing variable, k = k0 + px + py
:::] = (k0 + px + p0 y)2 ; m2 (x + y) + p2 x + p0 2y ; 2(k0 + px + p0y) (px + p0 y)
= k0 2 ; m2 (x + y) + p2x(1 ; x) + p02y(1 ; y) ; 2p p0xy (2.158)
61
Letting again k0 ! k
Z 1 Z 1;x Z d2! k
(p0 p) = ;2i4;2! dx dy (2
)2!
0 0
^ p(1 ; x) ; p^0 y ; k^ + m)
k(^2p;(1m;2(xy)+;yp^)x+;p2kx+(1m;)x) (^
0
(2.159)
+ p y(1 ; y) ; 2p p xy]
0 2 0 3
The odd term in k is zero after integration, the term in k2 is logarithmically di-
vergent, whereas the remaining part is convergent. Separating the divergent piece,
(1)
, from the convergent one, ,
(3)
= (1) +
(2) (2.160)
we get for the rst term
Z 1 Z 1;x Z d2! k
(p p) = ;2i
(1) 0 4 ; 2 ! dx dy (2
)2!
0 0
2 2 k k
Z 1k ;Zm1;(xx +i
y)! (+;p1)x3 (1 ;1x) + p y(1 ; y) ; 2p p xy]
2 02 0 3
(2.161)
m2 (x + y) ; p2x(1 ; x) ; p0 2y(1 ; y) + 2p p0xy]2;!
Using the relation
= (2 ; d)2 (2.162)
we obtain ( = 4 ; 2!)
1 1 2;=2 ;(=2)( ; 2)2 Z 1 dx Z 1;x dy
(1) 0
(p p) =2 4
0 0
1
m (x + y) ; p x(1 ; x) ; p0 2y(1 ; y) + 2p p0xy]=2
2 2
1
2 Z 1 Z 1;x
= 32
2 ; 4 ; 4] dx dy
0 0
m2(x + y) ; p2x(1 ; x) ; p02y(1 ; y) + 2p p0xy ;=2
4
2
1 1 1 Z 1 Z 1;x
= 8
2 ; 16
2 ( + 2) ; 8
2 dx dy
0 0
62
m2(x + y) ; p2x(1 ; x) ; p02y(1 ; y) + 2p p0xy
log 4
2 (2.163)
and nally
(1) 0 1
(p p) = 8
2 + nite terms (2.164)
In the convergent part we can put directly ! = 2
i Z 1 Z 1;x i
2(;1)3
(p p) = ; 8
4 dx
(2) 0 dy ;(3)
0 0
(^p0 (1 ; y) ; p^x + m) (^p(1 ; x) ; p^0y + m)
m2(x + y) ; p2x(1 ; x) ; p02 y(1 ; y) + 2p p0xy
1 Z 1 Z 1;x
= ; 16
2 dx dy
0 0
(^p0 (1 ; y) ; p^x + m) (^p(1 ; x) ; p^0y + m) (2.165)
m2(x + y) ; p2x(1 ; x) ; p02 y(1 ; y) + 2p p0xy
2.7 One loop renormalization
We summarize here the results of the previous Section
(p) = 12 (^p ; 4m) + f (p) (2.166)
8
1
(q) = (q q ; g q ) 6
2 + (q) (q q ; g q2)(q2 )
2 f (2.167)
63
Therefore the eect of the divergent terms is to modify the coecients of p^ and m:
e 2 e 2
iS ;1(p) = p^ ; m + e2 (p) = p^
F 1 + 8
2 ; m 1 + 2
2 + nite terms (2.171)
This allows us to dene the counter terms to be added to the lagrangian expressed
in terms of the physical parameters in such a way to cancel these divergences
(L1)ct = iB !@^ ; A
! (2.172)
(L1)ct modies the Feynman rules adding two particles interacting terms. These
can be easily evaluated noticing that the expression of the propagator, taking into
account (L1)ct, is
i 1 ; B p^ ; A
i
(1 + B )^p ; (m + A) p^ ; m p^ ; m
p^ ;i m + p^ ;i m (iB p^ ; iA) p^ ;i m (2.173)
where, consistently with our expansion we have taken only the rst order terms in
A and B . We can associate to these two terms the diagrams of Fig. 2.7.2, with
contributions ;iA to the mass term, and iB p^ to p^.
.
-iA iBp/
Fig. 2.7.2 - The counter terms for the self-energy (/p in the gure should be read as
p^).
The propagator at the second order in the coupling constant is then given by adding
the diagrams of Fig. 2.7.3.
At this order we get
;
SF (p) = p^ ;i m + p^ ;i m ie2 (p) + iB p^ ; iA p^ ;i m (2.174)
and the correction to the free propagator is given by
e2 e2
e2(p) + B p^ ; A = 8
2 + B p^ ; 2
2 m + A + nite terms (2.175)
We can now x the counter terms by choosing
B = ; 8e
2 1 + F2 m
2
(2.176)
64
.
65
which gives
e2 @
f (p) e2 F = 0
;
@ p^ p^=m 8
2 2 (2.183)
One should be careful because these particular conditions of renormalization gives
some problems related to the zero mass of the photon. In fact one nds some ill-
dened integral in the infrared region. However these are harmless divergences,
because giving a small to the photon and letting it to zero at the end of the calcula-
tions gives rise to nite results. Notice that these conditions of renormalization have
the advantage of being expressed directly in terms of the measured parameters, as
the electron mass. However, one could renormalize at an arbitrary mass scale, M . In
this case the parameters comparing in Lp are not the directly measured parameters,
but they can be correlated to the actual parameters by evaluating some observable
quantity. From this point of view one could avoid the problems mentioned above by
choosing a dierent point of renormalization.
As far as the vacuum polarization is concerned, gives rise to the following
correction of the photon propagator (illustrated in Fig. 2.7.4)
0 (q ) = ;ig + ;ig ie2 (q ) ;ig +
D (2.184)
q2 q2 q2
.
66
the two counterterms
C E
1 1
E ;C
(L2 )ct = ; 4 F F ; 2 (@ A ) = ;C 4 F F + 2 (@ A ) ; 2 (@ A )2
2 2
(2.187)
As for the electron propagator, we can look at these two contributions as pertur-
bations to the free lagrangian, and evaluate the corresponding Feynman rules, or
evaluate the eect on the propagator, and then expand in the counter terms. The
eect of these two terms to the equation which denes the propagator in momentum
space is
(1 + C )q2g ; (C ; E )q q ]D(q) = ;ig (2.188)
We solve this equation by putting
D (q) = (q2)g + (q2)q q (2.189)
Substituting in the previous equation we determine e . The result is
= ; q2 (1 i+ C ) = ; qi4 (1 +CC ; E
)(1 + E )
(2.190)
The free propagator, including the corrections at the rst order in C and E is
D (q) = ;ig q2
(1 ; C ) ; i q q (C ; E )
q4 (2.191)
and the total propagator
0 (q ) = ;ig 1 ; e2 (q 2 ) ; C ] ; i q q e2 (q 2 ) + C ; E ]
D (2.192)
q2 q4
We can now choose E = 0 and cancel the divergence by the choice
e2 m
C = ; 6
2 + F3 (2.193)
In fact we are free to choose the nite term of the gauge xing, since this choice does
not change the physics. This is because the terms proportional to qq , as it follows
from the gauge invariance, and the conservation of the electromagnetic current. For
instance, if we have a vertex with a virtual photon (that is the vertex is connected
to an internal photon line) and two external electrons, the term proportional to q q
is saturated with
u!(p0)u(p) q = p0 ; p (2.194)
The result is zero, bay taking into account the Dirac equation. Let us see what the
full propagator says about the mass of the photon. We have
0 (q ) = ;ig 1 ; F ; e2 f
; i q q F + e2 f
;ig 1 ;
D ~ ] ; i q q4 ~
3 3
q 2 q 4 q 2 q
(2.195)
67
where
~ = e2 f + F3 (2.196)
At the second order in the electric charge we can write the propagator in the form
; i
q
0 q ~
D (q) = 2 g + (q) (2.197)
q (1 + ~ (q)) q2
and we see that the propagator has a pole at q2 = 0, since ~ (q2) is nite for q2 ! 0.
Therefore the photon remains massless after renormalization. This is part of a rather
general aspect of renormalization which says that if the regularization procedure
respects the symmetries of the original lagrangian, the symmetries are preserved at
any perturbative order. An exception is the case of the anomalous symmetries, which
are symmetries at the classical level, but are broken by the quantum corrections.
All the anomalous symmetries can be easily identied in a given theory.
Also in this case we will require that at the physical pole, q2 ! 0, the propagator
has the free form, that is
~ (0) = 0 (2.198)
from which
F3 = ;e2 f (0) (2.199)
For small momenta we can write
f
~(q) e2q2 d (2q) (2.200)
dq q2=0
since F3 is a constant. Using the expression for f from the previous Section, we
get
1 + 1 log m2
Z1
dz z2 (1 ; z)2 mq 2 + (2.201)
1 2
f (q) ; 2
2 6 6 2
2 + 2
2
0
and
~ (q) 60e
2qm2
2 2
(2.202)
from which
g
e
2q2
= ;i q 2 1 ; 60
2 m2 + gauge terms
D0 (2.203)
The rst term, 1=q2, gives rise to the Coulomb potential, e2 =4
r. Therefore this is
modied by a constant term in momentum space, or by a term proportional to the
delta function in the real space
Z Z d4q 1 e2 e2 ; e4 3(~r)
2
12 = e dt e ;iq ( x 1 ; x 2 ) ; = ;
(2
)4 q2 60
2m2 4
r 60
2m2
(2.204)
68
This modication of the Coulomb potential modies the energy levels of the hydro-
gen atom, and it is one of the contributions to the Lamb shift, which produces a
splitting of the levels 2S1=2 and 2P1=2 . The total Lamb shift is the sum of all the
self-energy and vertex corrections, and turns out to be about 1057:9 MHz. The
contribution we have just calculated is only ;27:1 MHz, but it is important since
the agreement between experiment and theory is of the order of 0:1 MHz.
We have now to discuss the vertex corrections. We have seen that the divergent
contribution is (1)
(p0 p), and this is proportional to . The counter term to add
to interacting part of Lp
Lint !
p = ;e A
(2.205)
is
(L3)ct = ;eD! A (2.206)
The complete vertex is given by (see Fig. 2.7.5)
;ie + e2 + D
(2.207)
.
(counter-term)
with F2 the same as in eq. (2.7). The reason is that with this choice we get the
equality of the wave function renormalization factors Z1 = Z2. This equality follows
from the conservation of the current, and therefore we can use the arbitrariness in
the nite part of the vertex counter term to guarantee it. The one-loop vertex is
then F
2
( ) = + e ( ; 8
2 )
0 2 f (2.209)
One can see that this choice of F2 is such that for spinors on shell the vertex is the
free one
u!(p)()0u(p)jp^=m = u!(p) u(p) (2.210)
69
We will evaluate now the radiative corrections to the g ; 2 of the electron. Here g
is the gyromagnetic ratio, which the Dirac equation predicts to be equal to be two.
To this end we rst need to prove the Gordon identity for the current of a Dirac
particle p + p0 i
0 0
u!(p )u(p) = u!(p ) 2m + 2m q u(p) (2.211)
con q = p0 ; p. For the proof we start from
p^u(p) = (;m + 2p )u(p) (2.212)
and
p^u(p) = m (2.213)
Subtracting these two expressions we obtain
p i
u(p) = m ; m p u(p)
(2.214)
An analogous operation on the barred spinor leads to the result. We observe also
that the Gordon identity shows immediately that g = 2, because it implies that the
coupling with the electromagnetic eld is just
e F (q) (2.215)
2m
To evaluate the correction to this term from the one loop diagrams, it is enough to
evaluate the matrix element
e2 u!(p0)(2) 0
(p p)u(p) (2.216)
in the limit p0 ! p and for on-shell momenta. In fact (1) contributes only to
the terms in , and in the previous limit they have to build up the free vertex,
as implied by the renormalization condition. Therefore we will ignore all the terms
proportional to and we will take the rst order in the momentum q. For momenta
on shell, the denominator of (2)
is given by
:::] = m2 (x + y) ; m2 x(1 ; x) ; m2 y(1 ; y) + 2m2 xy = m2(x + y)2 (2.217)
In order to evaluate the numerator, let us dene
V = u!(p0) ^p0(1 ; y) ; p^x + m] ^p(1 ; x) ; p^0y + m] u(p) (2.218)
Using p^ = ; p^ + 2p, and an analogous equation for p^0 , we can bring p^ to act on
the spinor at the right of the expression, and p^0 on the spinor at the left, obtaining
V = u!(p0) my + 2(1 ; y)p0 ; p^x mx + 2(1 ; x)p ; p^0 y] u(p)
(2.219)
70
Making use of
= ;2 (2.220)
= 4g (2.221)
p^ p^0 = ;2^p0 p^ (2.222)
we get
h
V = u!(p0) ; 2m2 xy + 2my(1 ; x)(;m + 2p)
; 4my2p0 + 2mx(1 ; y)(;m + 2p0 ) + 4(1 ; x)(1 ; y)im2
; 2y(1 ; y)m2 ; 4mx2 p ; 2m2x(1 ; x) ; 2xym2 u(p) (2.223)
and for the piece which does not contain
71
Therefore the correction is
e ! e 1 + (2.230)
2m 2m 2
This correction was evaluated by Schwinger in 1948. Actually we know the rst
three terms of the expansion
2
ath = 12 (g ; 2) = 12
; 0:32848
+ 1:49(
)3 + = (1159652:4 0:4) 10;9
(2.232)
to be compared with the experimental value
aexp = (1159652:4 0:2) 10;9 (2.233)
72
Chapter 3
Vacuum expectation values and
the S matrix
3.1 In- and Out-states
For the future we will need a formulation of eld theory showing that any S -matrix
element can be reduced to the evaluation of the vacuum expectation value of a T -
product of eld operators. Such a formulation is called LSZ (from the authors l
(Lehaman, Symanzik and Zimmermann). This formalism is based on a series of
very general properties as displacement and Lorentz invariance. It is interesting
to see how far one can go in determining the features of a eld theory by using
only invariance arguments. In the following we will work in the Heisenberg picture,
that is the operators will be time-dependent and evolving with the full hamiltonian.
Formally this representation can be obtained from eq. (1.217) by sending the free
hamiltonian into the full hamiltonian. It should be also kept in mind that since
no exact solution of an interacting eld theory is known, we are not sure that the
assumptions we are going to make are consistent. Said that, our assumptions are:
1. The eigenvalues of the four-momentum lie within the forward light cone
p2 = pp 0 p0 0 (3.1)
2. There exists a nondegenerate Lorentz invariant states of minimum energy.
This is called the vacuum state
#0 j0i (3.2)
By convention, we assume that the corresponding energy is zero
P0j0i = 0 (3.3)
From eq. (3.1) we get also
P~ j0i = 0 ! Pj0i = 0 (3.4)
73
Since p = 0 is a Lorentz invariant condition, it follows that #0 appears as the
vacuum states in all the Lorentz frames.
3. For each stable particle of mass m, there exists a stable stae of single particle
#1 jpi (3.5)
where #1 is a momentum eigenstate with eigenvalue p such that p2 = m2 .
4. Neglecting the complications from the zero mass states we can add a further
requirement: the vacuum and the single particle states give a discrete spectrum
in p. For instance, the case of the
mesons is given in Fig. 3.1.
.
E
xxx
xxx Continuum
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ar
2m
ep
gl
sin
xx
xx
m
xx
p
xx
Vacuum
76
recalling that if 1(x) and 2(x) are both solutions of the Klein-Gordon equation,
then the four-vector
@2 ; @1
j = 1 @x (3.16)
@x 2
is a conserved current, and therefore the charge
Z
Q= d3~xj0 (3.17)
is a constant of motion. Using this, it follows
Z @ @in(x) @ @ (x)
P0 ain(~k)] = d ~x f~k (x) @x0 @x0 ; @x0 f~k (x) @x
3 in
0
Z " @f~(x) @
@ @f~(x) ! #
= ; d3~x k 0 in (x) ;
k
@x @x0 @x @x0 in(x)
0
79
1. Since the vacuum is stable and not degenerate, it follows jS00 j = 1, and there-
fore
h0injS = h0outj = eih0inj (3.43)
By choosing the phase equal to zero we get
j0 outi = j0 ini j0i (3.44)
2. In an analogous way the stability of the one particle state requires
jp ini = jp outi (3.45)
3. The operator S maps the in- to the out-elds
in(x) = Sout (x)S ;1 (3.46)
In fact, let us consider the following matrix element
h outjoutj ini = h injSoutj ini (3.47)
But h outjout is an out-state and therefore
h outjout = h injinS (3.48)
Then
h outjout (x)j ini = h injSout (x)j ini = h injin(x)S j ini (3.49)
which shows the relation (3.46).
4. The S is unitary. This follows from the very denition (3.41) implying
S yj ini = j outi (3.50)
from which
h injSS yj ini = h outj outi = (3.51)
showing that
SS y = 1 (3.52)
From eq. (3.50) and the unitarity of S we get
j ini = S y;1j outi = S j outi (3.53)
5. S is Lorentz invariant, as it follows from the fact that transform in- into out-
elds having the same Lorentz properties. For the same reason the S matrix
is invariant under any symmetry of the theory.
80
3.3 The reduction formalism
In this Section we will describe a systematic way of evaluating the S matrix elements
in terms of the vacuum expectation values of T -products of eld operators. Let us
start considering the following S matrix element
Sp = h outj p ini (3.54)
where j p ini is the state of a set of particles plus an additional incoming particle
of momentum p . Here we will consider the case of scalar particles, but the formalism
can be easily extended to other cases. We want to show that, by using the asymptotic
condition, it is possible to extract the particle of momentum p from the state by
introducing the corresponding eld operator. Let us consider the following identities
h outj p ini = h outjayin(p)j ini
= h outjayout (p)j ini + h outjayin(p) ; ayout (p)j ini
= hZ ; p outj in i @
h
; i d ~x fp~(x) @x0 h outjin(x) ; out(x)j ini
3
@ i
; @x0 fp~(x) h outjin(x) ; out (x)j ini (3.55)
where we have used the adjoint of eq. (3.14). We have denoted j ; p outi the out-
state obtained by removing the particle with momentum p, if present in the state,
otherwise it must be taken as the null vector. As we know the integral appearing
in the previous expression is time-independent since fp~(x), in(x) and out(x) are
solutions of the Klein-Gordon equation. Therefore we are allowed to make the
following substitutions (in the weak sense, since we are taking matrix elements)
1
lim in(x) = 0lim p (x)
x !;1
0 x !;1 Z
lim ( x) = lim p1 (x) (3.56)
out
x0 !+1 x0 !+1 Z
obtaining
h outj p ini = h ;p outj ini Z
i h @
+ p x0lim ; lim d ~x fp~(x) @x0 h outj(x)j ini
3
@Z !+1 x0 !;1
i
; @x0 fp~(x) h outj(x)j ini (3.57)
By using the identity
Z +1 @ @ @
d x @x0 g1(x) @x0 g2(x) ; @x0 g1(x) g2(x) =
4
;1
81
Z @ @
= lim ; lim
x0 !+1 x0 !;1
d3~x g1(x) @x0 g2 (x) ; @x0 g1(x) g2 (x)
Z +1
= d4 x g1(x)g2(x) ; g1 (x)g2(x)] (3.58)
;1
we can write
h outj p ini = h ;Zp outj ini
i h i
+ p d xh outj fp~(x)(x) ; fp~(x)(x) j ini (3.59)
4
Z
By using the Klein-Gordon equation for fp~(x) we get
h out
Z j p ini = h ; p outj ini
h ; i
+ pi d4xh outj fp~(x)(x) ; (r2 ; m2)fp~(x) (x) j ini (3.60)
Z
Integrating by parts
h outj p ini = h ;Zp outj ini
+ pi d4xfp~ (x)( + m2 )h outj(x)j ini (3.61)
Z
We can iterate this procedure in order to extract all the in- and out-particles from
the states. Let us see also the case in which we want to extract from the previous
matrix element an out-particle. This exercise is interesting because it shows how the
T -product comes about. Let us suppose that the out state is of the type = ( p0),
with p0 the momentum of a single particle. We want to extract this particle from
the state
h outj(x)j ini = h p0 outj(x)j ini = h outjaout (p0)(x)j ini
= h outjaout (p0)(x) ; (x)ain(p0)]j ini + h outj(x)ain(p0 )j ini
= hZ outj(x)j ;p0 ini
h @
@y0 h outj(out (y)(x) ; (x)in(y))j ini
3
+ i d ~y fp~ (y) 0
@ i
; @y0 fp~ (y) h outj(out (y)(x) ; (x)in(y))j ini
0 (3.62)
Using again the time independence of the integral we have
h out
jout(y)(x) ;(x)in(y)]j ini
= p1 y lim ; lim h outjT ((y)(x))j ini (3.63)
Z !+1 y !;1
0 0
82
and eq. (3.58)
h out
j(x)j ini = h Zoutj(x)j ;p0 ini
i h @
+ p y lim ; lim d ~y fp~ (y) @y0 h outjT ((y)(x))j ini
3
Z@ 0 0
!+1 y !;1
0
i
; @y0 fp~ (y) h outjT ((y)(x))j ini
0
0
= h out
Z j(x)j ; p0 ini
+ pi d4 yfp~ (y)( + m2 )y h outjT ((y)(x))j ini (3.64)
Z
0
More generally if we want to remove all the particles in (q1 qm) and in (p1 pn)
with the condition pi 6= qj we get
hp1 pm outjq1 qn ini
i m+n Z Y mn
= p d4xid4yj f~qi (xi)fp~j (yj )( + m2 )xi ( + m2 )yj
Z ij =1
h0jT ((y1) (yn)(x1 ) (xm ))j0i (3.66)
If some of the qi's are equal to some of the pj 's, we can reduce further the matrix
elements of the type h outj ; p ini. Therefore we have shown that it is possible to
evaluate all the S matrix elements once one knows the vacuum expectation values of
the T -products (called also the n-point Green's function). The result obtained here
can be easily extended to generic elds simply by substituting to the wave functions
fp~(x) the corresponding solutions of the wave equation (for instance, for spinor elds,
spinors times plane waves) and to the Klein-Gordon operator the corresponding wave
operators (for the spinor
p case the p Dirac operator (i@/ ; m)). pIn the Dirac case one
halso to change i= Z to ;i= Z2 for fermions and to +i= Z2 for antifermions,
where Z2 is the wave function renormalization for the spinor eld.
83
We will show in the following that a simple technique to evaluate perturbatively
the vacuum expectation value of n elds, a n-point Green's function, can be obtained
in the context of the path-integral formulation of quantum mechanics.
84
Chapter 4
Path integral formulation of
quantum mechanics
4.1 Feynman's formulation of quantum mechan-
ics
In 1948 Feynman gave a formulation of quantum mechanics quite dierent from the
standard one. This formulation did not make use of operators and of Schrodinger
equation, but rather it was giving an explicit expression for the quantum-mechanical
amplitude, although using a mathematical formalism which was far from being well
dened, which was obtained directly from the physical idea that the probability
amplitude to go from one state to another can be obtained by summing together
all the possible ways with an appropriate weight. This was as apply the ordinary
composition laws in probability theory, to the probability amplitudes (remember
that the probability is the square of the amplitude). The key observation to get the
appropriate weight was taken by the Dirac's book where it was shown that, for one
degree of freedom, the probability amplitude
hq0 t + tjq ti (4.1)
for t innitesimal, is given by the eiS where S is the classical action to go from q at
the time t to q0 at the tome t + t. In fact we will show that the Feynman's formu-
lation can be derived from the usual formulation of quantum mechanics. Although
the path integral formulation (as the Feynman's approach is usually called) is just
a dierent way of formulating quantum mechanics, at the beginning of the 70's it
turned out to be a crucial tool for the quantization of gauge theories. Also it is one
the few methods which can be used for studying situations outside the perturba-
tive approach. In order to derive the Feynman's formulation we will start studying
a quantum system described by one degree of freedom, and we will see later how
this can be extended also to innite degrees of freedom as needed in quantum eld
theory. First of all we notice that the quantum mechanical problem is to evaluate
85
the time evolution, which is given by the propagator. This can be evaluated in any
basis, for instance in conguration space, its matrix elements are given by
hq0 t0jq ti t0 t (4.2)
It will be convenient to work in the Heisenberg representation, that is using time-
dependent operators q(t). The states of the previous equation are dened as eigen-
states of the operator q(t) at the time t, that is
q(t)jq ti = jq tiq (4.3)
It follows immediately that the relation between these states at dierent times is
given by
jq ti = eiHtjq 0i (4.4)
for a time independent hamiltonian. The matrix element (4.2) can be evaluated
by slicing the time interval t0 ; t in innitesimal pieces and using the completeness
relation. we get
Z
hq0 t0jq ti = nlim
!1
dq1 dqn;1hq0 t0jqn;1 tn;1ihqn;1 tn;1jqn;2 tn;2i
hq1 t1jq ti (4.5)
where
tk = t + k t0 t tn t0 (4.6)
Therefore Z
nY
;1 !
nY
;1 !
hq0 t0jq ti = nlim
!1
dqk hqk+1 tk+1jqk tk i (4.7)
k=1 k=0
We have still to evaluate the matrix element (4.2), but now for an innitesimal time
interval . let us use again the completeness in momentum space with states taken
at a time t~ in between tk e tk+1:
Z
hqk+1 tk + jqk tk i = dphqk+1 tk + jp t~ihp t~jqk tk i (4.8)
The mixed matrix elements can be written as
hqk+1 tk + jp t~i = hqk+1 0je;iH (p q)(tk + ; t~)jp 0i (4.9)
(remember /h = 1). making use of the canonical commutation relations for p and
q, the hamiltonian can be written in such a way that all the operators q are at the
left of all the operators p. The result will be denoted by the symbol H+(q p). By
doing so we get
;
hqk+1 tk + jp t~i ' hqk+1 0jp 0i 1 ; iH+(qk+1 p)(tk + ; t~)
' hqk+1 0jp 0ie;iH+ (qk+1 p)(tk + ; t~) (4.10)
86
The function H+(q p) is obtained by substituting in H+(q p) the operators q and
p with their eigenvalues. Notice that although H (q p) and H+(q p) are the same
operator, H (q p) e H+(q p) are, in general, dierent functions. In this way we get
hqk+1 tk + jp t~i ' p1 ei(pqk+1 ; H+(qk+1 p)(tk+1 ; t~)) (4.11)
2
and
hp t~jqk tk i ' p1 ei(;pqk ; H;(qk p)(t~ ; tk )) (4.12)
2
where H; is the eigenvalue of the operator H;(p q) dened by putting the operators
q to the right of p by using the canonical commutation relations. By choosing
t~ = (tk + tk+1)=2 and the previous two equations, we get
Z dp
hqk+1 tk + jqk ti ' 2
ei(p(qk+1 ; qk )= ; Hc(qk+1 qk p)) (4.13)
where
Hc(qk+1 qk p) = 21 (H+(qk+1 p) + H;(qk p)) (4.14)
Since in the limit ! 0 we have
hqk+1 tk + jqk tk i ! (qk+1 ; qk ) (4.15)
it is reasonable to dene a variable velocity as
q_ = qk+1 ; qk
k
(4.16)
and write
Hc(qk+1 qk p) H (qk p) (4.17)
In the same limit H (qk p) is nothing but the hamiltonian of the system evaluated
in the phase space. Therefore
Z dp
hqk+1 tk + jqk tk i ' 2
eiL(qk p) (4.18)
where
L(qk p) = pq_k ; H (qk p) (4.19)
is the lagrangian in phase space. Coming back to (4.7) and using (4.18) we obtain
! i X L(qk pk)
n;1
Z
nY
;1 !
nY
;1
dpk e k=0
hq0 t0 jq ti = nlim
!1
dqk
2
(4.20)
k=1 k=0
87
In the limit, the argument of the exponential gives the integral between t and t0 of
the lagrangian in the phase space, therefore we get the canonical action
Zt 0
S= dt L(q p) (4.21)
t
In the limit n ! 1, the multiple integral in eq. (4.20) is called the functional
integral and we will denote it symbolically as
Zt
Z q t
0
0 0
i dtL(q p)
hq0 t0jq ti = d(q(t))d(p(t))e t (4.22)
qt
where Y Y dp(t00)
d(q(t)) = dq(t00) d(p(t)) = 2
(4.23)
t<t <t
00 0
tt t
00 0
The asymmetry between the integration in q(t) and p(t) implies that the integral is
not invariant under a generic canonical transformation. Notice that the integration
is made over all the functions q(t00) such that q(t) = q e q(t0 ) = q0. On the contrary
there are no limitations on p(t00 ), as it required by the uncertainty principle.
lim
n!1 2
; k+1
k
= dtL(q q_)
2
(4.28)
k=0 t
where L(q q_) is the lagrangian in conguration space. Therefore we will write
Zt
Z q t
0
0 0
i dtL(q q_)
hq0 t0jq ti = D(q(t))e t (4.29)
qt
with the functional measure given by
r m n nY;1
D(q(t)) = nlim
!1 2i
dqk (4.30)
k=1
It is the expression (4.29) (really dened by (4.27)) which was originally formulated
by Feynman. In fact it has a simple physical. But before discussing the interpre-
tation let us notice that for N degrees of freedom and with hamiltonians of the
type
X
N 2
pi
H (qi pi) =2m + V (qi) i = 1 : : : N (4.31)
i=1
the expression (4.29) can be easily generalized. However for arbitrary system one
has to start with the formulation in the phase space of the previous Section, which
also can be easily generalized to an arbitrary number of degrees of freedom.
For discussing the interpretation of the expression (4.29), let us recall the bound-
ary conditions
q(t) = q q(t0) = q0 (4.32)
89
.
t'
q q'
Fig. 4.2.1 - The Feynman denition for the path integral.
The expression in the exponent of (4.29) is nothing but the action evaluated for a
continuous path starting from q at time t and ending at q0 at time t0 . This path is
approximated in eq. (4.27) by many innitesimal straight paths as shown in Fig.
4.2.1.
Therefore the interpretation is that in order to evaluate the amplitude to go from
(q t) to (q0 t0) is obtained by multiplying together the amplitudes corresponding to
the innitesimal p straight paths. Each of these amplitudes (neglecting the normal-
ization factor m=2i
) is given by the exponential of i times the action evaluated
along the path. Furthermore we need to sum (or integrate functionally) over all the
possible paths joining the two given end points. In a more concise way one says that
the amplitude to from one point to another is obtained by summing over all the
possible paths joining the two points with a weight proportional to the exponential
of iS , where S is the classical action evaluated along the path.
90
4.3 The physical interpretation of the path inte-
gral
Feynman arrived to the path integral formulation in conguration space on a more
physical basis. First of all he knew that the amplitude for innitesimal time dier-
ences is proportional to the exponential of iS , with S the classical action evaluated
along the innitesimal path. From that one can derive directly the nal formula in
the following way. Let us consider the classical double slit experiment, as illustrated
in Fig. 4.3.1, where S is the electron source. The electrons come out of the slit A
and arrive to the screen C, where they are detected by D, going through one of the
two silts A or B. By counting the electrons with the detectpr D we can determine,
as a function of x, how many electrons arrive on C, and therefore the probability
distribution of the electrons on the screen C. Under the conditions of Fig. 4.3.1,
that is with both slits 1 and 2 open, one gets the distribution given in Fig. 4.3.2.
In order to explain this distribution it would seem reasonable to make the following
assumptions:
.
D
1
x
A B C
x
Fig. 4.3.2 - The experimental probability distribution, P , with both slits open.
Therefore the probability rules are strictly related to the experimental setting. There
are situations in which one may have both type of alternatives. For instance, if we
want to know the total probability of having an electron in C within the interval
(a b), having a detector in C and not looking at the slit crossed by the electrons. In
this case the total probability will be given by
Zb
P= dxjA1(x) + A2 (x)j2 (4.37)
a
Since the alternatives of getting the electron at dierent points in C are exclusive
ones.
From this point of view it is well conceivable to speak about trajectories of the
electron, but we have to associate to each possible path an amplitude and then sum
all over the possible paths. For instance, suppose that we want to evaluate the
amplitude to go from S to the screen C when the screen B is eliminated. This can
be done by increasing the number of holes in the screen B. Then, if we denote by
A(x y) the amplitude for the electron to reach x going through the hole placed at
a distance y from the center of B, the total amplitude will be given by
Z
A(x) = dyA(x y) (4.38)
We can continue by using more and more screen of type B with more and more
holes. That is we can construct a lattice of points between A and C and construct
93
all the possible paths from A to the point x on C joining the sites of the lattice,
as shown in Fig. 4.3.4. By denoting with C the generic path we get that the total
amplitude is given by X
A(x) = A(x C ) (4.39)
C
.
D
C1
x
S
C2
A C
Fig. 4.3.4 - The lattice for the evaluation of equation (4.39).
From this point it is easy to get the path integral expression for the total am-
plitude, since each path is obtained by joining together many innitesimal paths,
and for each of these paths the amplitude is proportional to exp(iS ) where S is the
action for the innitesimal path. Therefore, for the single path C the amplitude will
be given by exp(iS (C ). This is the nal result, except for a proportionality factor.
This is easy to get if one starts from the phase space formulation. This is important
because in many cases the simple result outlined above is not the correct one. For
instance, consider the following lagrangian
L = m2 q_2f (q) ; V (q) (4.40)
where f (q) is an arbitrary function of q. The canonical momentum is given by
p = mqf
_ (q) (4.41)
and the corresponding hamiltonian is
H = 2mf1 (q) p2 + V (q) (4.42)
94
Notice that for qk qk+1 we have f (!qk ) (f (qk ) + f (qk+1))=2, where q!k = (qk +
qk+1)=2. Therefore, form eq. (4.20) we get
Z
nY;1 !
hq0 t0jq ti = nlim
!1
dqk
k=1
Y dpk ipk (qk+1 ; qk ) ; p2k =(2mf (!qk )) ; (V (qk+1) + V (qk ))=2]
n;1
e2
(4.43)
k=0
This expression is formally the same as the one in eq. (4.26) after sending m !
mf (!qk ). Therefore we get
Z
r mf (!qk ) !n
nY
;1 !
hq0 t0 jq ti = lim
n!1 2i
dqk
k=1
n;1 X
i mf (!qk )((qk+1 ; qk )=)2=2 ; (V (qk+1) + V (qk ))=2]
e k=0 (4.44)
We can rewrite this expression in a way similar to the one used in eq. (4.29)
Zt
Z q t
0
0 0
i dtL(q q_)
hq0 t0jq ti = D(q(t))e t (4.45)
qt
with L(q q_) given in (4.40), but the functional measure is now
r !n nY;1
D(q(t)) = nlim mf (!qk ) dqk (4.46)
!1 2i
k=1
The formal expression for the path integral is always the same, but the integration
measure must be determined by using the original phase space formulation. In the
continuum limit we have
1Xn;1
nY
;1 p 2 k=0 log f (!qk )
lim
n!1
f (!qk ) = nlim
!1
e =
k=0
1X 1 (0) Z t dt log f (q)
n;1
2 k=0 log f (!qk )
0
= nlim
!1
e = e2 t (4.47)
where we have used
X
n ;1 Zt 0
hk = (t ; t )
lim
n!1
= dt lim
n!1 h k (4.48)
k=0 t
95
Therefore the result can be also interpreted by saying that the classical lagrangian
gets modied by quantum eects as follows
L ! L ; 2i (0) log f (q) (4.49)
The reason why we say that this is a quantum modication is because the second
term must be proportional to /h, as it follows from dimensional arguments.
An interesting question is how one gets the classical limit from this formulation.
Let us recall that the amplitude for a single path is exp(iS (C )=/h) (where we have
put back the factor h/ ). To nd the total amplitude we must sum over all the possible
paths C . Since the amplitudes are phase factors the will cancel except for the paths
which are very close to a stationary points of S . Around this point the phases
will add coherently, whereas they will cancel going away from this point due to the
fast variation of the phase. Roughly we can expect that the coherence eect will
take place for those paths such that their phase diers from the stationary value,
S (Cclass)=/h, of the order of one. For a macroscopical particle (m 1 gr and times of
about 1 sec) the typical action is about 1027 /h, and the amplitude gets contribution
only from the classical path. For instance, take a free particle starting from the
origin at t = 0 and arriving at x0 at the time t0 . The classical path (the one making
S stationary) is
xclass(t) = x0 tt (4.50)
0
The corresponding value for S is
1 Z t0 1 x2
S (xclass) = 2 m q_2 = 2 m t 0 (4.51)
0 0
Let us now consider another path joining the origin with x0 as, for instance,
t2
x(t) = x0 t2 (4.52)
0
The corresponding action is
S (x) = 32 m xt 0
2
(4.53)
0
and we get
1 x 2
S = S (x) ; S (xclass) = 6 m t 0 (4.54)
0
Let us take t0 = 1 sec and x0 = 1 cm. We get S = m=6. For a macroscopic particle
(say m = 1 gr) and recalling that h/ 10;27 ergsec, we get S = 1:6 1026/h and this
non-classical path can be safely ignored. However, for an electron m 10;27 gr,
and S = /h=6. It follows that in the microscopic world, many paths may contribute
to the amplitude.
96
4.4 The free particle
We shall now consider the case of the one-dimensional free motion. In this case we
can easily make the integrations going back to the original denition (eq. (4.27).
The expression we wish to evaluate is
X n;1
Z r m n
nY
;1 ! i m((qk+1 ; qk )=)2=2
hq0 t0jq ti = lim
n!1 2i
dqk e k=0 (4.55)
k=1
since the lagrangian is
L = 21 mq_2 (4.56)
The integrations can be done immediately starting from the gaussian integral
Z1 r
2
= ; a e;b =4a Re a 0
ax 2 + bx
dxe (4.57)
;1
which allows us to evaluate the expression
Z r
2
ik=1 n m 1
eim(qn ; q0 ) =(2(n))
2 2 2
= m 2
i(n) (4.61)
97
The rst factor in the right hand side of this equation cancels out an analogous
factor in the integration measure (see eq. (4.55))
m
1
hq0 t0jq ti =
2
e im(q0 ; q)2=(2(t0 ; t)) (4.62)
2
i(t0 ; t)
This expression can be generalized to a free system with N degrees of freedom
X
N
N im (qi0 ; qi )2=(2(t0 ; t))
hqi0 t0jqi ti = 2
i(m
2
t0 ; t) e i=1 i = 1 N (4.63)
Notice also that
lim hq0 t0jq ti = (q0 ; q)
t !t
0
(4.64)
The classical path connecting (q t) to (q0 t0) for the free particle is given by
qcl( ) = q + t0 ;
;t
t (q0 ; q) (4.65)
The corresponding classical action is
Ztm 0
m ( q 0 ; q )2 Z t m (q0 ; q)20
Scl = q 2
_cld = d = (4.66)
2t 2 (t0 ; t)2 2 (t0 ; t)
t
Therefore our result can be written as
1
hq0 t0 jq ti = 2
i(m iScl
2
t0 ; t) e (4.67)
We shall see that for all the lagrangians quadratic in the coordinates an in the
momenta this result, that is that the amplitude is proportional to the exponential
of iS with S the action evaluated along the classical path, is generally true.
Of course, one could formulate quantum mechanics directly in terms of the path
integral. It is not dicult to show that it is possible to recover all the results of the
ordinary formulation and prove that one has complete equivalence. However we will
not do it here, but we will limit ourselves to notice that the formulations agree in
the free case. we take a xed initial point of propagation, for instance (q t) = (0 0).
Then we dene the wave function as
Z q t
D(q(t))eiS
0 0
98
This is indeed the wave function for a free particle in conguration space, as it can
be checked by going in the momentum space
h m i 12 Z ;ipq i mq2 h m i 12 2
it 12 ;i p2 t ;iEt
(p t) = 2
it dq e e 2t = 2
it m e
2m = e (4.70)
where E = p2 =2m.
0 0t i ( m
_
hq0 t0jq ti = eiScl(q q )
0
0
i
G(t0 t) D(( ))e t
m n Z
nY;1 ! iT
0t
= lim
n!1 2
i
2
dk e (4.87)
k=1
Since is a symmetric matrix, it can be diagonalized by an orthogonal transforma-
tion
= U T D U (4.88)
The eigenvectors of , = U, are real and the Jacobian of the transformation is
one, since detjU j = 1. We get
Z
nY ;1 ! T Z
nY;1 ! T nY;1 r
n 1
i i p
;
2
dk e = dk e D = =
k=1 k=1 k=1 (;ik ) det(;i)
(4.89)
We get
m n
n;1 12 m1 1
12
0
G(t t) = nlim = nlim (4.90)
!1 2
i det(;i ) !1 2
i ( 2mi )n;1 det(;i )
Let us dene " n;1 #
f (t0 t) = nlim m2 i det(;i) (4.91)
!1
then
m r
G(t0 t) =2
if (t0 t)
(4.92)
In order to evaluate f (t0 t), let us dene (for j = 1 n ; 1)
2 2 ;1 0 0 0 0 3 2 c~ 0 0 0 0
3
66 ;1 2 ;1 0 0 0 77 66 01 c~2 0 0 0 77
6
Pj = 66 0 ;1 2 0 0 0 77 ; m
7 2 66 0 0 c~3 0 0 77
64 0 0 0 ;1 2 ;1 75 664 0 0 0
c~j;1 05
77
0 0 0 0 ;1 2 0 0 0 0 c~j
(4.93)
101
and
pj = detjPj j (4.94)
Clearly 2i n;1
m det(;i) = pn;1 (4.95)
For the rst values of j , pj is given by
p1 = 2 ; m 2 c~
1
2
p2 = 2 ; m c~2 p1 ; 1
2
p3 = 2 ; m c~3 p2 ; p1 (4.96)
Therefore we nd the recurrency relation
2
pj+1 = 2 ; m c~j+1 pj ; pj;1 j = 1 n ; 1 (4.97)
where we dene p0 = 1. It is convenient to put this expression in the form
pj+1 ; 2pj + pj;1 = ; c~j+1 pj (4.98)
2 m
It is also convenient to introduce the nite dierence operator
pj = pj+1; pj (4.99)
a time = t + j, and a function ( ) such that
lim p = ( )
!0 j
(4.100)
in the limit in which we keep xed. It follows
lim p = d( ) (4.101)
j
!0 d
The equation (4.98) can be written as
2 pj;1 = ; c~j+1pj (4.102)
m
therefore we get the following dierential equation for ( )
d2( ) = ; c~( ) ( ) (4.103)
d 2 m
102
Furthermore, ( ) satises the following boundary conditions
(t) = lim p = 0
!0 0
d( ) j = lim p1 ; p0 = lim 2 ; 2 c~ ; 1 = 1 (4.104)
d =t !0 !0 m1
Recalling eq. (4.91) we have
f (t0 t) = lim p = (t0)
!0 n;1
(4.105)
Therefore, for quadratic lagrangian we get the general result
r m
hq t jq ti = 2
if (t0 t) eiScl
0 0 (4.106)
103
To evaluate the classical action we need to solve the classical equations of motion
mq + m!2q = 0 (4.113)
with boundary conditions
q(t) = q q(t0) = q0 (4.114)
The general solution is given by
q( ) = A sin !( ; t) + B cos !( ; t) (4.115)
From the boundary conditions
A = q ;sinq cos
0 !T B = q
!T (4.116)
and substituting inside the lagrangian
L = 12 mq_2 ; 21 m!2 q2 = 12 m!2 (A2 ; B 2 ) cos 2!( ; t) ; 2AB sin 2!( ; t)
(4.117)
Recalling the following integrals
Zt Zt
d cos 2!( ; t) = sin22!!T d sin 2!( ; t) = 1 ; cos 2!T
0 0
2! (4.118)
t t
we get
Scl = 21 sinm!
(q2 + q02) cos !T ; 2qq0
(4.119)
!T
and
r m! i m! (q2 + q02) cos !T ; 2qq0
hq0 t0jq ti = 2
i sin !T e
2 sin !T (4.120)
In the limit ! ! 0 we get back correctly the free case.
104
functional associate a real number to a real function. If we denote the space of
functions by L, a real functional is the mapping
F: L ! R1 (4.121)
We will make use of the notation
F ] F F ] 2L (4.122)
to denote the functional of dened in eq. (4.121). Examples of functionals are
L=L1;1 +1]= the space of the integrable functions in R1 with respect to
the measure w(x)dx: Z +1
F1] = dxw(x)(x) (4.123)
;1
L=L2;1 +1]= space of the square integrable functions in R1:
Z
; 12 dx2 (x)
F2 ] = e (4.124)
L=C = space of the continuous functions:
F3] = (x0 ) (4.125)
F3 is the functional that associates to each continuous function its value at x0.
The next step is to dene the derivative of a functional. We need to understand
how a functional varies when we vary the function. A simple way of understand
this point is to consider some path on the denition manifold of the functions. For
instance consider functions from R1 to R1 , and take an interval (t t0) of R1 made
of many innitesimal pieces, as we did for dening the path integral. Then we can
approximate a function (t) with a convenient limit of its discrete approximation
(1 2 n) obtained by evaluating the functions at the discrete points in which
the interval has been divided. In this approximation we can think of the functional
F as an application from Rn ! R1 . That is
F ] ! F (1 n) F (i) i = 1 n (4.126)
Then we can consider the variation of F (i) when we vary the quantities i
X
n
@F (i)
F (i + i) ; F (i) = @j j (4.127)
j =1
Let us put
@F
Ki = 1 @ (4.128)
i
105
where is the innitesimal interval where we evaluate the discrete apoproximation
to the function. Then, for ! 0
X
n Z
F (i + i ) ; F (i) = Kj j ! Kdx (4.129)
j =1
that is Z
F ] = K (x)(x)dx (4.130)
Since (x) is the variation of the function evaluated at x, we will dene the func-
tional derivative as Z F
F ] = (x) (x)dx (4.131)
In other words. to evaluate the functional derivative of a functional we rst eval-
uate its innitesimal variation and then we can get the functional derivative by
comparison with the previous formula. Looking at the eq. (4.128) we get
F ] = lim 1 @F (i )
(x) !0 @i
i = (xi) xi = x1 + (i ; 1) = xnn ;
;1
x1 i = 1 n (4.132)
All these denitions are easily generalized to the case of a function from Rm ! Rn,
or from a manifold M to a manifold N .
107
Invariance of the functional measure under translations - It follows
immediately from the denition that
q( ) ! q( ) + ( ) (t) = (t0) = 0
p( ) ! p( ) +
( ) for any
(t)
(t0 ) (4.146)
Factorization of the path integral. From the very denition of the path it
follows that in order to evaluate the amplitude for going from q at time t to q0
at time t0 we can rst go to q" to a time t t" t0, sum up over all the paths
fromq a q" and from q" to q0, and eventually integrating over all the possible
intermediate points q" (see Fig. 4.7.1)).
.
t'
t"
q q" q'
0 0
i Ld + i Ld
hq0 t0jq ti = d(q( ))d(p( ))e t t"
qt
Z t"
Z Z q"t" i Ld
= dq" d(q( ))d(p( ))e t
qt
Zt
Z q t
0
0 0
i Ld
d(q( ))d(p( ))e t"
Z q"t"
= dq"hq0 t0jq" t"ihq" t"jq ti (4.147)
as it follows from the factorization properties of the measure
Y Y Y
d(q( )) = dq( ) = dq" dq( ) dq( )
t<<t 0 t<<t" t"<<t 0
108
Y Y Y
d(p( )) = dp( ) = dp( ) dp( ) (4.148)
t t" t t" t" t0
(4.149)
qt
where F is an arbitrary functional of q, p and of their time derivatives. Let us start
with Z q t
d(q( ))d(p( ))eiS q(t") t t" t0
0 0
(4.150)
qt
We begin by the observation that
Z q t Z q t
d(q( ))d(p( ))eiS q(t0) = q0
d(q( ))d(p( ))eiS = q0hq0 t0jq ti
0 0 0 0
qt qt
(4.151)
since q(t) satises the boundary conditions q(t) = q, q(t0 ) = q0 . By using the
factorization we get
Z q t Z Z q"t"
d(q( ))d(p( ))eiS q(t") = d(q( ))d(p( ))eiS q(t")
0 0
dq"
qt qt
Z q t
d(q( ))d(p( ))eiS
0 0
Z q"t"
= dq"hq0 t0jq" t"iq"hq" t"jq ti (4.152)
Since jq ti is an eigenstate of q(t) it follows
Z q t Z
d(q( ))d(p( ))eiS q(t") =
0 0
109
t2 t1. In terms of the T -product we get
Z q t
d(q( ))d(p( ))eiS q(t1 )q(t2) = hq0 t0jT (q(t1)q(t2 )jq ti
0 0
(4.154)
qt
Analogously
Z q t
d(q( ))d(p( ))eiS q(t1 ) q(tn) = hq0 t0jT (q(t1) q(tn))jq ti
0 0
(4.155)
qt
Let us now consider a functional of q(t)such to admit an expansion in a Volterra's
series
Z q t
d(q( ))d(p( ))F q]eiS
0 0
1 Z X
1
qt
k F q]
dt 1 dtk
=
k=0 k! q(t1 ) q(tk ) q=0
Z q t
d(q( ))d(p( ))eiS q(t1 ) q(tk )
0 0
X
1
1Z
qt
k F q] hq0 t0jT (q(t ) q(t ))jq ti
= dt 1 dt k
q(t1 ) q(tk ) q=0 1 k
k=0 k!
hq0 t0jT (F q])jq ti (4.156)
where
X
1 Z k
T (F q]) 1 dt1 dtk q(t ) F qq] (t ) T (q(t1 ) q(tk )) (4.157)
k=0 k! 1 k q=0
If the functional depends also on the time derivatives a certain caution is necessary.
For instance, let us study the average value of q(t1)q_(t2) (t t1 t2 t0):
Z q t
d(q( ))d(p( ))eiS q(t1)q_(t2 )
0 0
qt
Z q t
d(q( ))d(p( ))eiS q(t1) q(t2 + ) ; q(t2)
0 0
= lim
!0
1
qt
= lim
!0
hq t jT q(t1 )q(t2 + ) ; T q(t1)q(t2 ) jq ti
0 0
d
dt2 hq t jT q(t1)q(t2 ) jq ti
= 0 0 (4.158)
Let us dene an ordered T? -product (or covariant T-product) as
T ? q(t1 )q_ (t2 ) = dtd T q(t1 )q(t2 ) (4.159)
2
110
Then it is not dicult to show that for an arbitrary functional of q(t) e q_(t) one has
Z q t
d(q( ))d(p( ))F q q_]eiS = hq0 t0 jT ?(F q q_ ])jq ti
0 0
(4.160)
qt
The proof can be done by expanding F q q_] in a Volterra's series of q and q_, inte-
grating by parts and using (4.156). At the end one has to integrate again by parts.
The T? product is obtained as in (4.158),
The power of this formulation of quantum mechanics comes about when we want
to get the fundamental properties of quantum mechanics as the equations of motion
for the operators, the commutation relations and so on so forth. The fundamental
relation follows from the following property of the path integral
Z q t h i
d(q( ))d(p( )) q( ) F q( ) p( )]eiS = 0
0 0
(4.161)
qt
This is a simple consequence of the denition of the path integral and of the func-
tional derivative
2 X
n;1
3
Z
nY;1 !
nY;1 dpk ! 1 @ 66 i L(qk pk )77
lim dqk 6
6 F (q1 qn;1)e k=0 77 = 0 (4.162)
n!1
k=1 k=0 2
@qk4 5
(of course we are assuming that the integrand goes to zero for large values of the qi 's.
To this end one has to dene the integral in an appropriate way as it will be shown
later on). On the other hand the previous equation follows from the invariance
under translation of the functional measure. In fact, let us introduce the following
notation
dqp = d(q( ))d(p( )) (4.163)
It follows for an innitesimal function such that (t) = (t0) = 0
Z q t Z q t Z q t Z q t Z
(t) A q] dt
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
112
4.8 The generating functional of the Green's func-
tions
In eld theory the relevant amplitudes are the ones evaluated between t = ;1 and
t = +1. We have seen that using the reduction formulas we are lead to evaluate
the vacuum expectation value of T -products of local operators. Therefore we will
consider matrix elements of the type (limiting ourselves, for the moment being, to
a single degree of freedom)
h0jT (q(t1) q(tn))j0i (4.176)
Here j0i is the ground state of system. Notice that more generally one can consider
the matrix element
Z q t
d(q( ))d(p( ))eiS q(t1 ) q(tn)
0 0
Now we want to see how it is possible to bring back the evaluation of the matrix
element in (4.176) to the knowledge of the generating functional. Let us introduce
the wave function of the ground state
#0 (q t) = e;iE0 thqj0i = hqje;iHtj0i = hq tj0i (4.181)
then
Z
h0jT (q(t1) q(tn ))j0i = dq0dqh0jq0 t0ihq0 t0jT (q(t1) q(tn ))jq tihq tj0i
Z
= dq0dq#?0 (q0 t0)hq0 t0jT (q(t1) q(tn))jq ti#0(q t) (4.182)
113
Next we dene the functional Z J ], the generating functional of the vacuum ampli-
tudes, that is
Z
Z J ] = dq0dq#?0(q0 t0)hq0 t0jq tiJ #0 (q t) = h0j0iJ (4.183)
It follows
1 n n
h0jT (q(t1) q(tn))j0i = i J (t1) J (tn) Z J ]
J =0
(4.184)
We want to show that it is possible evaluate Z J ] as a path integral with arbitrary
boundary conditions on q and q0. That is we want to prove the following relation
e iE0 (t0 ; t) 0 0
Z J ] = t!+i1lim
t !;i1 #?0 (q )#0 (q 0 )
0
hq t jq tiJ (4.185)
wit q and q0 arbitrary and with the ground state wave functions taken at t = 0. To
this end let us consider an external source J (t) vanishing outside the interval (t00 t000 )
with t0 > t000 > t00 > t. Then, we can write
Z
hq0 t0jq ti
J = dq00dq000hq0 t0jq000 t000ihq000 t000jq00 t00 iJ hq00 t00 jq ti (4.186)
with
X
hq0 t0jq000 t000 i = hq0je;iH (t ; t )jq000i = #n (q0)#?n(q000)e;iEn (t ; t ) (4.187)
0 000 0 000
n
Since E0 is the lowest eigenvalue we get
0 X 0 ? 000 iEnt000 ;i(En ; E0)t0
lim eiE0 t hq0 t0jq000 t000i = lim
t !;i1
0
#n (q )#n(q )e
t !;i1
0
e =
n
000
= #0 (q0)#?0 (q000)eiE0 t = #?0(q000 t000)#0 (q0) (4.188)
Analogously X
#n (q00)#?n(q)e;iEn (t ; t)
00
hq00 t00jq ti = (4.189)
n
and
X
lim e;iE0 t hq00 t00jq ti = t!lim #n(q00 )#?n(q)e;iEn t ei(En ; E0 )t =
00
t!+i1 +i1
n
(q00)#? (q)e;iE0 t
00
= #0 0 = #0(q00 t00)#?0 (q) (4.190)
And nally we get the result
im e iE0 (t0 ; t)hq0 t0 jq tiJ
Z t !+ i 1t !;10
0 0
i (L + Jq)d
Z J ] = t!+i1lim
t !;i1
N D(q( ))e t (4.193)
0
qt
where N is a J -independent normalization factor. This expression suggests the de-
nition of an euclidean generating functional ZE J ]. This is obtained by introducing
an euclidean time = it (Wick's rotation)
Z
Z q (L(q i dq ) + Jq)d
0
0 0
SE = LE d (4.198)
Notice that the euclidean lagrangian coincides formally with the hamiltonian. More
generally
dq )
LE = ;L(q i d (4.199)
Therefore
Z
Z q
0
0 0
;SE + Jqd
ZE J ] = !+1lim !;1 N D(q( ))e (4.200)
0
q
115
Since e;SE is a positive denite functional, the path integral turns out to be well
dened and convergent if SE is positive denite.the vacuum expectation values of
the operators q(t) can be evaluated by using ZE and continuing the result for real
times
1 nZ J ] = (i)n 1 nZE J ]
Z 0] J (t1 ) J (tn ) J =0 ZE 0] J (1 ) J (n) J =0i=iti (4.201)
Since the values of q and q0 are arbitrary a standard choice is to set them at zero.
0 0
m! 41 ; 1 m!q02 i !t0
?
#0(q t ) = 2 e2
e (4.204)
and Z t 1
0
1 m!2q2 + Jq d
SJ = mq_2 ; (4.205)
t 2 2
In this calculation we are not interested in the normalization factors but only on
the J dependence. Then, let us consider the argument of the exponential in eq.
(4.9 and, for the moment being, let us neglect the time dependent terms from the
oscillator wave functions
1 2
Z t 1
0
1
2 0
arg = ; 2 m!(q + q ) + i mq_ ; 2 m! q + Jq d
2 2 2 (4.206)
t 2
let us perform the change of variable
q( ) = x( ) + x0 ( ) (4.207)
where we will try to arrange x0 ( ) in such a way to extract all the dependence from
the source J out of the integral. We have
arg = ; 1 m!x(t)2 + x2 (t0 )] ; 1 m!x0 (t)2 + x20 (t0 )] ; m!x(t)x0 (t) + x(t0 )x0 (t0)]
2 2
116
Z t 1
0
1 m!2x2 d + i Z t 1 mx_ 2 ; 1 m!2x2 + Jx d
0
+ i mx_ 2 ; 0 2 0 0
Zt t 2
0
2 t 2
imxx_ 0 ]tt 0
;i mx0 + m!2x0 ; J ]xd (4.209)
t
and choosing x0 as a solution of the wave equation in presence of the source J
x0 + !2x0 = m1 J (4.210)
we get
imx(t0 )x_ 0 (t0 ) ; x(t)x_ 0 (t)] (4.211)
Let us take the following boundary conditions on x0 :
ix_ 0 (t0 ) = !x0(t0 ) ix_ 0 (t) = ;!x0(t) (4.212)
In this way, the term (4.211) cancels the mixed terms
arg = ; 12 m!x2 (t) + x2 (t0)] ; 12 m!x20(t) + x20 (t0 )]
Zt 1
+ i 2 mx_ 2 ; 21 m!2x2 ]d
0
Zt t
1 mx_ 20 ; 1 m!2x20 + Jx0 ]d
0
+ i (4.213)
t 2 2
Integrating by parts the last term we get
Zt
1 mx_ 20 ; 1 m!2x20 + Jx0 ]d =
0
i
Z tt 21 2
; 2 mx0 (x0 + !2x0 ; m1 J ) + 12 Jx0 ]d + 2i mx0 x_ 0 ]tt =
0
= 0
1
t
i Zt 0
2 0 2
= m!x0 (t ) + x0(t)] + Jx0 d (4.214)
2 2 t
Keeping in mind the boundary conditions (4.212), the term coming from the inte-
gration by parts cancels the second term in eq. (4.213), and therefore
1 Zt 1 1 i Zt 0 0
2 0
arg = ; 2 m!x (t) + x (t )] + i 2 mx_ ; 2 m! x ]d + 2 Jx0 d (4.215)
2 2 2 2
t t
117
The J dependence is now in the last term, and we can extract it from the integral.
The rst two term give rise to the functional at J = 0. We obtain
i Z t J ( )x ( )d
0
0
Z J ] = e 2 t Z 0] (4.216)
with x0( ) solution of the equations of motion (4.210) with boundary conditions
(4.212). For t < < t0 this solution can be written as
Zt 0
that is
q ; !2q = ; m1 J (4.230)
Let us now dene the euclidean Green's function
d2 1
d 2 ; ! 2 DE ( ) = ; ( )
m (4.231)
with the boundary condition
lim D ( ) = 0
!1 E
(4.232)
then, the solution of the eq. (4.230) is
Z +1
q ( ) = DE ( ; s)J (s)ds (4.233)
;1
We can evaluate DE ( ) starting from the Fourier transform
Z
DE ( ) = de;i DE ( ) (4.234)
Substituting inside (4.231) we get
Z
; de;i 2 + !2]DE ( ) = ; m1 ( ) (4.235)
from which
1
DE ( ) = 2
m 1 (4.236)
+ !2
2
119
and Z
1 +1 d 1 e;i
DE ( ) = 2
m 2 + !2 (4.237)
;1
To evaluate this integral we close the integral with the circle at the 1 in the lower
-plane for > 0 or in the upper -plane for < 0. The result is
1 e;! (;2
i) = 1 e;!
DE ( ) = 2
m (4.238)
(;2i!) 2m!
By doing the same calculation for < 0 we nally get
1 e;!j j
DE ( ) = 2m! (4.239)
The classical action is given by
Z +1 Z +1 +1 Z
SE ; Jqd = ; 21 m q ; !2q + m1 J q ; 21 Jq d = ; 12 Jqd
;1 ;1 ;1
(4.240)
and therefore
Z
1 +1 Jqd
Z
1 +1 J (s)D (s ; s0)J (s0)dsds0
E
ZE J ] = e 2 ;1 Z 0] = e 2 ;1 Z 0] (4.241)
It follows
1 2ZE J ] = D (s ; s0 )
ZE 0] J (s)J (s0 ) J =0 E (4.242)
and using the eq. (4.201)
1 2 Z J ] = ; 1 2ZE J ]
Z 0] J (t1)J (t2 ) J =0 ZE 0] J (1 )J (2 ) J =0i=iti (4.243)
we get
(t) = DE (it) (4.244)
To compare these two expressions let us introduce the Fourier transform of (t).
Since it satises eq. (4.218) we obtain
Z
(t) = de;it ( ) (4.245)
with
(; 2 + !2)( ) = ; i (4.246)
2
m
that is
i
( ) = 2
m 1 (4.247)
; !2
2
120
Whereas eq. (4.237) does not present any problem ( 2 + !2 > 0), in eq. (4.246) we
need to dene the singularities present in the denominator. In fact, this expression
has two poles at = !, and therefore we need to specify how the integral is
dened. In order to reproduce the euclidean result, it is necessary to specify the
integration path as in Fig. 4.9.1. For instance, for t > 0 by closing the integral in
the lower plane we get
i (;2
i) 1 e;i!t = 1 e;i!t (4.248)
2
m 2! 2m!
.
Im ν
−ω +ω Re ν
Therefore we have shown how it works the analytic continuation implicit in eq.
(4.244). By doing so we have also seen that the Feynman prescription (the +i term)
is equivalent to the euclidean formulation. One could arrive to this connection also
121
.
Im ν
− ω + iε
ω − iε Re ν
122
Chapter 5
The path integral in eld theory
5.1 The path integral for a free scalar eld
We will extend now the previous approach to the case of a scalar eld theory. We
will show later how to extend the formulation to the case of Fermi elds. Let us start
with a free scalar eld. We have denoted the quantum operator by (x). Here we
will denote the classical eld by '(x). For a neutral particle this is a real function,
and its dynamics is described by the lagrangian
Z 1
Z t Z 1
0
(5.1)
S = d x 2 @ '@ ' ; m ' dt d3~x 2 @ '@ ' ; m2 '2
4 2 2
V t
A free eld theory can be seen as a continuous collection of non-interacting harmonic
oscillators. As it is well known this can be seen by looking for the normal modes.
To this end, let us consider the Fourier transform of the eld
Z
'(~x t) = (2
)3 d3~kei~k ~x q(~k t)
1 (5.2)
By substituting inside eq. (5.1) we get
1 Z Z d3~k d3~k0
S = 2 d4x (2
)3 (2
)3 q_(~k t)q_(~k0 t)
V
+ (~k ~k0 ; m2)q(~k t)q(~k0 t)]ei~k ~x + i~k ~x
0
1 Z t Z d3~k
0
=
2 t
dt (2
)3 q_(~k t)q_(;~k t) ; (j~kj2 + m2 )q(~k t)q(;~k t)] (5.3)
Since '(~x t) is a real eld
q(~k t) = q(;~k t) (5.4)
and Z t Z d3~k 1 h
0
i 2 ~2 2
~ 2 2 ~
S = dt (2
)3 2 jq_(k t)j ; !~k jq(k t)j !~k = jkj + m
2 (5.5)
t
123
Therefore the system is equivalent to a continuous set of complex oscillators q(~k t)
(or a pair of real oscillators)). The equations of motion are
q(~k t) + !~k2q(~k t) = 0 (5.6)
We are now in the position of evaluating the generating functional Z J ] by adding
an external source term to the action
Z 1
S = d x 2 @ '@ ' ; m ' + J'
4 2 2 (5.7)
V
From the Fourier decomposition we get
Z t Z d3~k 1 h
0
i
S = dt (2
)3 2 jq_(~k t)j ; !~k jq(~k t)j + J (;~k t)q(~k t)
2 2 2 (5.8)
t
where we have also expanded J (x) in terms of its Fourier components. Let us
separate q(~k t) and J (~k t) into their real and imaginary parts
q(~k t) = x(~k t) + iy(~k t)
J (~k t) = l(~k t) + im(~k t) (5.9)
It follows from the reality conditions that the real parts are even functions of ~k
whereas the imaginary parts are odd functions
x(~k t) = x(;~k t) l(~k t) = l(;~k t)
y(~k t) = ;y(;~k t) m(~k t) = ;m(;~k t) (5.10)
Now we can use the result found in the previous Section for a single oscillator. it will
be enough to take the mass equal to one and sum over all the degrees of freedom.
In particular we get for the exponent in eq. (4.226)
1 Zt
0
i Z
; 2 d4 xd4yJ (x)F (x ; y m2)J (y) (5.12)
124
where we have dened x = (~x s), y = (~y s0) and
Z d3~k ~ Z d4k i
2
iF (x m ) = (2
)3 (s !~k )e i k ~
x ;ikx (5.13)
= lim
!0 + (2
) k ; m2 + i e
4 2
We could repeat the exercise in the euclidean formulation, with the result
1 Z d4xd4yJ (x)G (x ; y m2)J (y)
0
ZE J ] = e 2 ZE 0] (5.16)
where Z d4k 1
G0(x m ) = (2
)4 k2 + m2 e;ikx
2 (5.17)
We go from Minkowskian to the Euclidean description through the substitution
;iF ! G0 (5.18)
For the future it will be convenient to use the following notation for the N -points
Green's functions
G(N ) (x1 xN ) = h0jT ((x1h)0j0i(xN ))j0i (5.19)
In the free case we can get evaluate easily the generic G(N ) In fact G(0N ) (the in-
dex recalls that we are in the free case) is obtained by developing the generating
functional
1 Z
Z J ] = X d 4 x d4 x J (x ) J (x ) (i) h0jT ((x1 ) (xn ))j0i
n
1 n 1 n
Z 0] n=0 n! h0j0i
X1 Z
d4x1 d4xnJ (x1 ) J (xn) (ni)! G(0n) (x1 xn )
n
(5.20)
n=0
By comparison with the expansion of eq. (5.14)
Z J ] = 1 ; i Z d4x d4x J (x )J (x ) (x ; x )
1 2 1 2 F 1 2
Z 0] Z 2
; 18 d4x1 d4x2 J (x1 )J (x2 )F (x1 ; x2 )
Z
d4x3 d4x4 J (x3 )J (x4 )F (x3 ; x4 ) + (5.21)
125
Since Z J ] is even in J we have
G(20 k+1) (x1 x2k+1) = 0 (5.22)
For G(2) (4)
0 we get back eq. (5.13). To evaluate G0 we have rst to notice that
all the G(0N ) 's are symmetric in their arguments. therefore in order to extract the
coecients we need to symmetrize. Therefore we write
Z
d4x1 d4x4 J (x1 ) J (x4 )F (x1 ; x2 )F (x3 ; x4)
1 Z h
= d 4 x d4 x J (x ) J (x ) (x ; x ) (x ; x )
1 4 1 4 F 1 2 F 3 4
3 i
+ F (x1 ; x3 )F (x2 ; x4 ) + F (x1 ; x4 )F (x2 ; x3 ) (5.23)
It follows
h
G(4)
0 ( x1 x4 ) = ; F (x1 ; x2 )F (x3 ; x4 ) + F (x1 ; x3 )F (x2 ; x4 )
i
+ F (x1 ; x4 )F (x2 ; x3 ) (5.24)
If we represent G(2) (4)
0 (x y ) by a line as in Fig. 5.1.1, G0 will be given by Fig.
5.1.2 since it is obtained in terms of products of G(2) (2n)
0 . Therefore G0 is given by
a combination of products of n two point functions. We will call disconnected a
diagram in which we can isolate two subdiagrams with no connecting lines. We
see that in the free case all the non vanishing Green's functions are disconnected
except for the two point function. Therefore it is natural to introduce a functional
generating only the connected Green's functions. In the free case we can put
.
x y
Fig. 5.1.1 - The two point Green's function G(2)
0 (x y ).
.
x1 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2
+ +
x3 x4
x3 x4 x3 x4
Fig. 5.5.2 - The expansion of the four point Green's function G(4)
0 (x1 x2 x3 x4 ).
Z J ] = eiW J ] (5.25)
126
with
1 Z
W J ] = ; 2 d4x1 d4x2 J (x1 )J (x2)F (x1 ; x2 ) + W 0] (5.26)
and we have
1 2Z J ] = i 2 W J ] = ;i (x ; x )
Z 0] J (x1 )J (x2 ) J =0 J (x1 )J (x2 ) J =0 F 1 2 (5.27)
Therefore the derivatives of W J ] give the connected diagrams with the proper
normalization(that is divided by 1=Z 0]). In the next Section we will see that this
property generalizes to the interacting case. That is W J ] is dened through eq.
(5.25), and its Volterra expansion gives rise to the connected Green's functions
X
1
(i)n
Z
iW J ] = n! d4x1 d4xn J (x1 ) J (xn)G(cn) (x1 xn) (5.28)
n=0
where
G(cn) (x1 xn) = h01j0i h0jT ((x1) (xn))j0iconn (5.29)
The index "conn" denotes the connected Green's functions. Notice that once we nd
the connected Green's functions the theory is completely solved, since the generating
functional is recovered by exponentiation of W J ].
xxxxx
xxxxx
c
xxxxx
xxxxx = c +
xxxxx c
c
xxxxx c
xxxxx
xxxxx c
xxxxx
xxxxx
= c + 3 +
c c
xxxxxx c c
xxxxxx
xxxxxx
xxxxxx
xxxxxx
= c + 3 + 4 +
c c
c
c c
+ 6 c +
c c
c
128
h
i2 G(2) + G(1) 2 i
= 1 + iJG(1)
c + 2! c c
h
i J 3 G(3) + 3G(1) G(2) + G(1) 3
3 i
+ 3! c c c c
h
i4 J 4 G(4) + 3G(2) 2 + 4G(1) G(3) + 6G(1) 2G(2) + G(1) 4 i
+ 4! c c c c c c c + (5.32)
we see that we can expand W J ] in a series of . Notice also that the expansion is
in term of the interaction lagrangian. At the second order in we get
1
W J ] = W0 J ] ; i ; 2 2 + (5.42)
Let us now consider the case of '4 . the functional J ] can be in turn expanded in
a series of the dimensionless coupling
= 1 + 22 + (5.43)
It follows
W J ] = W0 J ] ; i1 ; i2 2 ; 21 12 + (5.44)
130
Then, from eq. (5.43) we get
i
1
4
1 = ; 4! e ;iW 0 J ] h i J ieiW0 J ]
1
1 4 1 4
2 = ; 2(4!)2 e ; iW 0 J ] h i J ih i J ieiW0 J ] (5.45)
By using the following list of functional derivatives
eiW0 J ] = ;i(x 1)J (1)eiW0 J ]
J (x)
2 eiW0 J ] = (;i(x x) ; (x 1)(x 2)J (1)J (2)) eiW0 J ]
J (x)2
3 eiW0 J ] = ; 3(x x)(x 1)J (1)
J (x)3
+ i(x 1)(x 2)(x 3)J (1)J (2)J (3) eiW0 J ]
4 eiW0 J ] = (;3(x x)2 + 6i(x x)(x 1)(x 2)J (1)J (2)
J (x)4
+(x 1)(x 2)(x 3)(x 4)J (1)J (2)J (3)J (4))eiW0J ] (5.46)
where the integration on the variables 1 2 3 4 is understood, we obtain
i h
1 = ; 4! h(y 1)(y 2)(y 3)(y 4)J (1)J (2)J (3)J (4)i
i
+ 6ih(y y)(y 1)(y 2)J (1)J (2)i ; 3h2(y y)i (5.47)
The quantity 2 can be made in terms of 1 by writing
1 e;iW0 J ] h 1 4i eiW0 J ] e;iW0 J ] h 1 4ieiW0 J ]
!
2 = ; 2(4!) 2 i J i J
i
1 4
= ; 2(4!) e ; iW0 J ] h i J i e iW 0 J ] 1 (5.48)
Then we have
1 4 4 eiW0 J ] 3eiW0 J ] 1 i
h i J i eiW0 J ] 1 = h J (x)4 1 i + 4 h J (x)3 J (x)
2 eiW0 J ] 2 eiW0J ] 3 1 i
+ 6h J (x)2 J (x)2
1
i + 4 h J (x) J (x)3
+ eiW0 J ]h J (x1)4 i
4
(5.49)
131
and therefore
h 3eiW0J ] 1
2 = 12 12 ; 2 i 4! e;iW0 J ] 4h J (x)3 J (x) i
2 iW0 J ] 2 iW0J ] 31
+ 6h e 2 1 2 i + 4h e
J (x) J (x) J (x) J (x)3 i
i
+ eiW0 J ]h J (x1)4 i
4
(5.50)
The 12 gives a disconnected contribution since there are no propagators connecting
the two terms. In fact the previous expression shows that 2 contains a term which
cancels precisely the term 12 in eq. (5.44). By using the expression for 1 and eqs.
(5.46) we get
2 ; 21 12 =
i i
= ; 2 4! ; 4! h4 ; 3(x x)(x 1)J (1)
+ i(x 1)(x 2)(x 3)J (1)J (2)J (3)
4(y x)(y 4)(y 5)(y 6)J (4)J (5)J (6) + 12i(y y)(y x)(y 4)J (4)
+ 6 ; i(x x) ; (x 1)(x 2)J (1)J (2) 122(y x)(y 3)(y 4)J (3)J (4)
+ 12i(y y)2(y x)
3
+ 4 ; i(x 1)J (1) 24 (y x)(y 2)J (2) + 24 (y x)i
4 (5.51)
By omitting the terms independent on the external source we have
2 ; 21 12 =
i 1 3 1
= hJ (1)(1 x) (x y) + (x x)(x y)(y y) (y 2)J (2)i
2 6 4
i
+ 8 hJ (1)(1 x)2(x y)(y y)(x 2)J (2)i
+ 12 1 hJ (1)(1 x)(x x)(x y)(y 2)(y 3)(y 4)J (2)J (3)J (4)i
+ 16 1 hJ (1)J (2)(1 x)(2 x)2 (x y)(y 3)(y 4)J (3)J (4)i
132
Now, by dierentiating functionally eq. (5.44) and putting J = 0 we can evaluate
the connected Green's functions. For instance, recalling that
2 W J ]
iGc (x1 x2) = J (x )J (x ) J =0
(2) (5.53)
1 2
we get
Z
Gc (x1 x2 ) = iF (x1 ; x2 ) ; 2 d4xF (x1 ; x)F (x ; x)F (x ; x2)
(2)
Z h1 3
; i d xd yF (x1 ; x) 6 F (x ; y)
2 4 4
i
+ 14 F (x ; y)F (x ; x)F (y ; y) F (y ; x2 )
2Z
; i 4 d4xd4 yF (x1 ; x)2F (x ; y)F (y ; y)F (x ; x2 ) (5.54)
.
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xx xxxxxxxx
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+
xx
x1
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x2 = xx 1
xx
xx 2 xx 1 xx
x x2 +
xx
xx
xx y
x
xxx xx
y
+ x xx xx xxxx + xx
xx x
x xx
xx xx x xx xx
x2 +
xx x xx xx
x1 x2 x1 x x1 x y x2
Fig.
(2)
5.3.1 - The graphical expansion for the two point connected Green's function
Gc (x y).
In Fig. 5.3.1) we give a graphical form to this expression. as we see the result
has an easy interpretation. The diagrams of Fig. 5.3.1) are given in terms of
two elements, the propagator F (x ; y), corresponding to the lines and the vertex
'4 corresponding to a point joining four lines. In order to get G(cn) we have to
draw all the possible connected diagrams containing a number of interaction vertices
corresponding to the xed perturbative order. The analytic expression is obtained
associating a factor iF (x ; y) to each line connecting the point x with the point y,
and a factor (;i=4!) for each interaction vertex. The numerical factors appearing
in eq. (5.54) can be obtained by counting the possible ways to draw a given diagram.
For instance let us consider the diagram of Fig. 5.3.2. This diagram contains the
two external propagators, the internal one, and the vertex at x. To get the numerical
factor we count the number of ways to attach the external propagators to the vertex,
after that we have only a possibility to attach the vertex at the internal propagator.
There are four ways to attach the the vertex at the rst propagator and three for
the second. Therefore 1 1
4! 4 3 = 2 (5.55)
133
.
xx
xx
x
xx xx xx xx xx xx xx
x2 = x1
xx xx xx xx xx xx
x1 x x x x2
Fig.
(2)
5.3.2 - How to get the numerical factor for the rst order contributions to
Gc (x1 x2 ).
where the factor 1=4! comes from the vertex. We proceed in the same way for the
diagram of Fig. 5.3.3.
.
x y x x y y
xx
xx xx xx
xx xx x x xx xx
x1 xx xx
x2= xx 1 x xx xx
x2
Fig. 5.3.3 - How to get the numerical factor for one of the second order contribu-
tions to G(2)
c (x1 x2 ).
.
xx
xx x 4
x1 xx
xxxxxxx x1 xx
xx xx
xxx 4 x1 xx
xxxx xx
xx x4
xxxxxxx
xxxxxxx
xxxxxxx
x
xxxxxxx
x xx
xx yxx xx
xx +
xxxxxxx
xxxxxxx
= x
+
x 2xx xx x 2xx x
xx xx x xx xx x x 2xx xx
xxx 3
3 3
x1 xx
xx xx
xxx 4 x1 xx xx
xx x 4 x1 xx xx x
4
xx x x
+ xxxx y + xx
xx + xx
xx xxy +
x y xx xx xx
x 2xx
xx xx
xx x 3 x 2 xx xxx
3
x 2xx
xx xxx 3
x1xx
xx xx
xx x 4
y
x1 xx
xx xx
xxx 4 xx
xx
xx y +
+ x xx xx +
xx
x 2xx
xx x x3 xx
xx
xx
x 2xx x xxx 3
x1 xx xxx
4
+ x xx
xx xx
xx y
x 2xx xx x3
There are four ways to attach the rst vertex to the rst propagator and four for
attaching the second vertex to the second propagator. Three ways for attaching the
second leg of the rst vertex to the second vertex and two ways of attaching the the
third leg of the rst vertex to the second one. Therefore we get
1 1
4! 4 4 3 2 = 6 (5.56)
134
The four point function can be evaluated in analogous way and the result is given
in Fig. 5.3.4. Of course we can get it by functional dierentiation of W J ]. The
rst order contribution is Z
c (x1 x2 x3 x4 ) = ;i d xF (x1 ; x)F (x2 ; x)F (x3 ; x)F (x4 ; x) (5.57)
G(4) 4
where the numerical coecient is one, since there are 4 3 2 of attaching the vertex
to the four external lines.
p2 ; mi 2 + i q2 ; mi 2 + i k2 ; mi 2 + i (5.60)
The product of the 4 functions may be rewritten in such a way to pull out the
overall four-momentum conservation
(2
)44(p1 + p2 )(2
)44(p1 ; p)(2
)44(p ; k) (5.61)
By integrating over p and k we get
i 2 Z d4 q i
Gc (p1 p2) = ;i 2 (2
) (p1 +p2 ) p2 ; m2 + i
(2)(1) 4 4
(2
) q ; m2 + i (5.62)
4 2
1
Also in momentum space we can make use of a diagrammatic expansion with the
following rules:
135
For each propagator draw a line with associated momentum p (see Fig. 5.4.1).
.
: i
___________
p 2 _ m2 + iε
Fig. 5.4.1 - The propagator in momentum space.
For each factor (;i=4!) draw a vertex with the convention that the momentum
&ux is zero (see Fig. 5.4.2).
.
p1 p
4
λ , p +p +p + p = 0
: _ i __
4! 1 2 3 4
p p
2 3
136
.
q1
q2
p1 p
2
q3
Fig. 5.4.3 - One of the second order contributions to G(2)
c .
We get
i 2 Z
Y3 !
4432 ; i d4 qi i
4! p22 ; m2 + i i=1 (2
) qi ; m + i
4 2 2
(2
)44(p1 ; q1 ; q2 ; q3 )(2
)44(q1 + q2 + q3 ; p2 ) p2 ; mi 2 + i
1
2 1
= 6 (p2 ; m2 + i)2 (2
)44(p1 + p2)
Z
Y31 d4qi i
!
(2
) 4 q ; m2 + i (2
) (p1 ; q1 ; q2 ; q3 )
2
4 4 (5.66)
i=1 i
137
To each vertex associate a factor
; 4! (5.69)
This rule follows because the weight in the euclidean path-integral is given by
e;SE instead of eiS .
The other rules of the previous Section are unchanged. The reason to use the
euclidean version is because in this way the divergences of the integrals become
manifest by simply going in polar coordinates.
We will now in the position to make a general analysis of the divergences. For
simplicity we will consider only scalar particles. First of all consider the number
of independent momenta in a given diagram, or the number of "loops", L. This
is given, by denition, by the number of momenta upon which we are performing
the integration, since they are not xed by the four-momentum conservation at the
vertices. Since one of this conservation gives rise to the overall four-momentum
conservation we see that the number of loops is given by
L = I ; (V ; 1) = I ; V + 1 (5.70)
where I is the number of internal lines and V the number of vertices. As in Section
2.3 we will be interested in evaluating the supercial degree of divergence of a
diagram. To this end notice that
The L independent integrations give a factor QLk=1 ddpk where d is the number
of space-time dimensions.
Each internal line gives rise to a propagator containing two inverse powers in
momenta
YI 1
(5.71)
i=1 pi + m
2 2
1 2
D1 D2
n
Fig. 5.5.1 - Two diagrams connected by n-lines.
D = D1 + D2 + 4(n ; 1) ; 2n = D1 + D2 + 2n ; 4 (5.79)
Therefore we may have D < 0 with D1 and D2 positive, that is both divergent.
However for n > 1 we have
D D1 + D2 (5.80)
139
and therefore in order to have D < 0 with 1 or 2 being divergent diagrams, we need
D1 or D2 to be negative enough to overcome the other. To exclude the case n = 1
means to consider only the one-particle irreducible (1PI) Feynman's diagrams. In
Fig. 5.5.2 we give an example of a one-particle reducible diagram.
.
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N
Fig. 5.5.3 - Three-particle reducible Feynman's diagram.
In this case we have D1 = 0 and D2 = 1 ; N , therefore
D = D1 + D2 + 2 = 3 ; N (5.81)
In order the supercial degree of divergence is negative, we must have N > 4. In
this diagram we have a primitively divergent four point function and a diagram with
D < 0 which can be again analyzed in the same way. In analogous way we look
for two-particle reducible diagrams with D < 0 and we extract contributions of the
forms given in Fig 5.5.4.
140
.
1
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1
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N
Fig. 5.5.4 - Two-particle reducible Feynman's diagram.
In the rst case we have D1 = 2 and D2 = 2 ; N , therefore
D = D1 + D2 = 4 ; N (5.82)
Again this requires N > 4. The second diagram has again D2 < 0 and we can iterate
the procedure. In the second case we have D1 = 0 and D2 = 2 ; N , therefore
D = D1 + D2 = 2 ; N (5.83)
requiring N > 2. By proceeding in this way we see that truly convergent diagrams
do not contain hidden two and four point divergent functions. What we have shown
is that for the '4 theory in 4 dimensions a 1PI Feynman diagram is convergent
if D < 0 and it cannot be split up into 3- or 2-particle reducible parts containing
two-and four-point divergent functions. This turns out to be a general theorem
due to Weinberg, valid in any eld theory and it says that a Feynman diagram is
convergent if its supercial degree of divergence and that of all its subgraphs are
negative.
In the case of the 4 theory the Weinberg's theorem tells us that all the diver-
gences rely in the two and four point functions. If it happens that all the divergent
diagrams (in the primitive sense specied above) correspond to terms which are
present in the original lagrangian, we say that the theory is renormalizable. In
general we can look at this question by studying the equation for the supercial
divergence that we got before
1
N ; 2
D = d ; 2 (d ; 2)E + 2 d ; N VN (5.84)
141
For d = 4 we recall
D = 4 ; E + (N ; 4)VN (5.85)
We see that D increases with VN for N > 4. Therefore we have innite divergent
diagrams and the theory is not renormalizable. We can have a renormalizable scalar
theory only for N 4, meaning that the dimension N of the vertex operator, 'N ,
must be less or equal to 4. An interesting case is the one of the theory '3 in 6
dimensions. For d = 6 we get
D = 6 ; 2E + (2N ; 6)VN (5.86)
and for N = 3
D = 6 ; 2E (5.87)
and the only divergent functions are the one- two- and three-point ones. In d = 6
we have dim'] = 2 and again in order to have renormalizability we must have that
the dimensions of the vertex operator must be less or equal to 6.
p p
1 2
Fig. 5.6.1 - The one-loop contribution to the two-point function in the '4 theory.
with
1 Z d2! p 1 (2)2;!
! ;(1 ; !) 1
T2 = 2 (;)( ) 2 2 ; !
(2
)2! p2 + m2
= ; 2 (2
)2! (m2)1;!
m 2 4
2 2;!
= ; 2 (4
)2 m2 ;(1 ; !) (5.96)
For ! ! 2 we get
m 2 4
2 1
T2 ; 2 (4
)2 1 + (2 ; !) log m2 + (;1) 2 ; ! + (2) +
1 4
2
= 32
2 m 2 ; ! + (2) + log m2 +
2 (5.97)
143
.
p p-k p4
1
p k p
2 3
Fig. 5.6.2 - The one-loop contribution to the four-point function in the '4 theory.
This expression has a simple pole at ! = 2 and a nite part depending explicitly on
2 .
Let us consider now the one-loop contribution to the four-point function. The
corresponding diagram is given in Fig. 5.6.2, with an amplitude
Y4 1
(2
)2! (2!) (p1 + p2 + p3 + p4 ) 2 T4 (5.98)
k=1 pk + m
2
with
1 Z d2! k 1 1
T4 = 2 (;) ( )
2 2 4; 2 !
(2
)2! k2 + m2 (k ; p)2 + m2 p = p1 + p2 (5.99)
We reduce the two denominator to a single one, through the equation (see Section
2.6)
1 1
Z1 1
k + m (k ; p)2 + m2 = dx
2 2 x(k2 + m2 ) + (1 ; x) ((k ; p)2 + m2 )]2
Z0 1 1
= dx
x(k2 + m2 ) + (1 ; x) (k2 + m2 ; 2k p + p2)]2
Z0 1 1
= dx (5.100)
0 (k2 + m2 ) + (1 ; x)(p2 ; 2k p)]2
the denominator can be written as
(k2 + m2 ) + (1 ; x)(p2 ; 2k p) = k ; (1 ; x)p]2 + m2 + p2(1 ; x) ; p2(1 ; x)2
= k ; (1 ; x)p]2 + m2 + p2x(1 ; x) (5.101)
Since our integral is a convergent one, it is possible to translate k into k ; p(1 ; x)
obtaining
2 Z 1 Z d2! k
2
T4 = 2 ( ) 4 ; 2! dx (2
)2! 2 2 1 2 (5.102)
0 k + m + p x(1 ; x)]2
144
By performing the momentum integration we get
2 Z 1 dx 1
2
T4 = 2 ( )4 ; 2! ;(2 ; ! ) (5.103)
0 (4
)
! m + p x(1 ; x)]2;!
2 2
In the limit ! ! 2
2
Z 1 dx 1
T4 2 ( ) 1 + (2 ; !) log
2 2 ; ! 2
(4
) 2 2 ; ! + (1)
m 2 + p2 x(1 ; x)
0
1 ; (2 ; !) log 4
2 1 Z1 m 2 + p2 x(1 ; x)
( ) 32
2 2 ; ! + (1) ; dx log
2 2 ; !
4
2
(5.104)
0
Also the x integration can be done by using the formula
Z1 p p
dx log 1 + a4 x(1 ; x) = ;2 + 1 + a log p1 + a + 1 a > 0 (5.105)
0 1+a;1
The nal result is
2 h
T4 (2)2;! 32
2 2 ;1 ! + (1) + 2 + log 4m
2
2
s q
4 m2 1 + 4pm22 + 1 i
; 1 + p2 log q 4m2 + (5.106)
1 + p2 ; 1
145
gives back the original lagrangian, if we redene couplings and elds as follows
'B = (1 + Z )1=2' Z'1=2 ' (5.110)
m 2 + m2
= 1 + Z = (m2 + m2 )Z';1
m2B (5.111)
B = 4;2! (1++Z
= 4;2! ( + )Z ;2
)2 ' (5.112)
In fact
L = 21 @ 'B @ 'B + 21 m2B '2B + 4!0 '4B (5.113)
The counter-terms are then evaluated by the requirement of removing the di-
vergences arising in the limit ! ! 2, except for a nite part which is xed by the
renormalization conditions. From the results of the previous Section, by summing up
.
xxxxxxxx
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xx xxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxx xx xx xx xx xx xx
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xxxxxxxx
= + +
xxxxxxxx
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xx xx xx xx xxxx
xxxx
xx
+ xx xx xx xx + xx
147
. xx xx
xx xx xx xx xx
xx xxxxxxx
xxxxxxx xx xx
xxxxxxx
xxxxxxx
xx xx
xxxxxxx
xx + xx x +
xxxxxxx =
xx xxxxxxx
xx xxxxxxx xx xx xx
xx
xx xx
xx
xx xx xx
xx
xx xx
xx xx
xx
+ +
xx xx
xx
xx xx xx
xx
xx xx xx
xx
Fig. 5.7.3 - The one-loop expansion for the four-point Green's function.
with q 4m
Xr 1+ z 2
+1
1 + 4m
2
A(s t u) = z log q (5.123)
z=stu 1+ z ;1 4m 2
148
In any case G1 is completely xed by this condition.
Without entering into the calculation we want now show how the renormalization
program works at two loops. We will examine only the two-point function. Its
complete expansion up to two loops, including also the counterterm contributions is
given in Fig. 5.7.5. By omitting the external propagators and the delta-function of
.
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xx xxxxxxxx xx xx xx + xx xx xx
xx xxxxxxxx
xxxxxxxx xx = xx xx xx xx xx +
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xx
xx
+ xx xx + xx xx xx xx + xx
xx xx
xx x
x +
a) b)
+ xx xx + xx x x
c) d)
Fig. 5.7.5 - The two-loop expansion for the two-point Green's function.
conservation of the four-momentum, the various two-loop contributions are (notice
that a counterterm inside a loop gives a second order contribution as a pure two-
loops diagram):
Contribution from the diagram a) of Fig 5.7.5
; 6(16
2)2 21 p2 + 6m2 + 6m 32 + (1) ; log 4m
2 2 2 2
2 (5.127)
149
Adding together these terms we nd
; 12(162 p2 + m2 22 1 + m2 2 1 F + 3G ; 1] (5.131)
2 )2 (16
2)2 2 2(16
2)2 1 1
where we have used (2) ; (1) = 1. This expression is still divergent but at the
order 2 . Therefore we can make nite the diagram by modifying at the second
order the m2 counterterm
1 ;m2 + m2 '2 (5.132)
2 1 2
with m21 given in eq. (5.115) and
2 4 1 m2
m2 = m 2(16
2)2 2 + (F1 + 3G1 ; 1) + F2 ! 2
2 2 (5.133)
151
Chapter 6
The renormalization group
6.1 The renormalization group equations
For the following considerations it will be convenient to introduce the one-particle
irreducible truncated n-point functions ;(n) (p1 p2 pn) dened by removing the
propagators on the external legs and omitting the delta-function expressing the
conservation of the four-momentum
X
n Yn
(2
)2! (2!) ( pi);(n) (p1 p2 pn) = G(1nPI) (p1 p2 pn) DF (pi);1 (6.1)
i=1 i=1
where Z
DF (p) = d2! xeipx h0jT ('(x)'(0))j0i (6.2)
is the exact euclidean propagator. We have two ways of evaluating these functions,
we can start from the original lagrangian and evaluate them in terms of the bare
couplings constants (in the case of '4, B and mB ). On the other hand we can
express the bare parameters in terms of the renormalized ones, and, at the same
time, renormalizing the operators through the wave function renormalization ('B =
Z'1=2 '), obtaining the relation
;(Bn) (p1 p2 pn B mB !) = Z';n=2;(n) (p1 p2 pn m !) (6.3)
The factor Z';n=2 originates from a factor Z'n=2 coming from the renormalization
factors in G(cn) and from n factors Z';1 from the inverse propagators. Of course, in a
renormalizable theory the ;(n) 's are nite by construction. In the previous relation
we must regard the renormalized parameters as function of the bare ones. In the
'4 case, this means and m depending on B and mB . However the right hand
side of the previous equation does not depend on the choice of the parameter .
This implies that also the functions ;(n) do not depend on except for the eld
rescaling factor Z';n=2 . These considerations can be condensed into a dierential
152
equation obtained by requiring that the total derivative with respect to of the
right hand side of eq. (6.3) vanishes
@ @ @ @m @ n @ log Z
@ + @ @ + @ @m ; 2 @ ' ;(n)(p1 p2 pn m !) = 0
(6.4)
The content of this relation is that a change of the scale can be compensated by a
convenient change of the couplings and of the eld normalization. Notice that since
;(n) is nite in the limit ! ! 2, it follows that also the derivative of log Z' is nite.
It is convenient to dene the following dimensionless coecients
@
m
@ = !
1 @ log Z' = m !
2 @ d
@m = m ! (6.5)
m @ m
obtaining
@ @ @
@ + @ + mm @m ; nd ;(n) (p1 p2 pn m !) = 0 (6.6)
We can try to eliminate from this equation the term @=@. To this end let us consider
the dimensions of ;(n) . In dimensions d = 2! the delta function has dimensions ;2!
and dim'] = ! ; 1, therefore
Z Yn
G(cn) (p1 pn) = d2! xi ei(p1 x1 + + pnxn)h0jT ('(x1) '(xn )j0iconn:
i=1
(6.7)
has dimensions n(! ; 1) ; 2n! = ;n(! + 1). The propagator DF (p) has dimensions
2(! ; 1) ; 2! = ;2, and we get
153
Since everything is nite for ! 0 we can take the limit and eliminate @=@ between
this equation and eq. (6.6)
@ @ @
;s @s + @ + (m ; 1)m @m ; nd + 4 ; n ;(n)(spi m ) = 0 (6.11)
This equation tells us how the ;(n) scale with the momenta, and allows us to evaluate
them at momenta spi once we know them at momenta pi. To this end one needs
to know the coecients , m and d. For this purpose one needs to specify the
renormalization conditions since these coecients depend on the arbitrary functions
F1 G1 .
In order to use the renormalization group equations we need to know more about
the structure of the functions , d and m. We have seen that the counterterms are
singular expressions in ,therefore it will be possible to express them as a Laurent
series in the renormalized parameters
" X
1 #
B = a0 + ak (6.12)
k=1 k
" 1 #
X
m2B = m2 b0 + bk (6.13)
k=1
k
" 1 #
X
Z' = c0 + ck (6.14)
k=1 k
with the coecients functions of the dimensionless parameters and m=. Notice
that a0 , b0 and c0 may depend on but only in an analytical way. Recalling from
the previous Section the expressions for the counterterms at the second order in
3 2 2
= 32
2 + G1 (6.15)
= 32
2 m2 2 + F1 + 2(16
2)2 m2 42 + 1 (F1 + 3G1 ; 1) + F2
2
m2 (6.16)
2 2
Z = ; 24(16
2)2 + H2 (6.17)
we get for the bare parameters
32 2
B = + 32
2 + G1 + O(3 )
(6.18)
154
h
m2B = m2 1 + 32
2 2 + F1
2 4 1
+ + (F + 3G1 ; 1) + F2
2(16
2)2 2 1
2
+ 24(16 2 + H i + O(3 ) (6.19)
2
2 )2
2
2 + H + O(3)
Z' = 1 ; 24(16
)
2 2 2 (6.20)
Therefore the coecients are given by
a0 = + 3232 G + O(3 ) (6.21)
2 1
32 + O(3)
a1 = 16 (6.22)
2
b0 = 1 + 32
2 F1 + 2(16
2)2 (F2 + 12
2 1 H ) + O(3)
2 (6.23)
b1 = 16
2 + 2(16
2)2 (F1 + 3G1 ; 1) + 12(16
2 + O(3 )
2
2)2 (6.24)
b2 = (162
2)2 + O(3 )
2
(6.25)
2 H + O(3)
c0 = 1 ; 24(16 (6.26)
2)2 2
2 + O(3 )
c1 = ; 12(16 (6.27)
2 )2
Notice that the dependence on m= comes only from the arbitrary functions dening
the nite parts of the counterterms. This is easily understood since the divergent
terms originate from the large momentum dependence where the masses can be
neglected. This is an essential feature, since it is very dicult to solve the group
renormalization equations when the coecients , m e d depend on both variables
and m=. On the other hand since these coecients depend on the renormalization
conditions, it is possible to dene a scheme where they do not depend on m=.
Another option would be to try to solve the equations in the large momentum limit
where the mass dependence can be neglected.
Callan and Szymanzik have considered a dierent version of the renormalization
group equations. They have considered the dependence of ;(n) on the physical
mass. In that case one can show that and d depend only on . Furthermore
in their equation the terms m and =@ do not appear. In their place there is a
inhomogeneous term in the large momentum limit.
155
6.2 Renormalization conditions
Let us consider again the renormalization conditions. The renormalization procedure
introduces in the theory a certain amount of arbitrariness in terms of the scale and
of the arbitrary functions F1 F2 . Recall that the lagrangian has been decomposed
as
L = Lp + Lct (6.28)
therefore, the nite part of Lct can be absorbed into a redenition of the parameters
appearing in L since both have the same operatorial structure. This is another way
of saying that the nite terms in Lct are xed once we assign and m. In turn these
are xed by relating them to some observable quantity as a scattering cross-section.
Furthermore we have to x a scale at which we dene the parameters and m.
The renormalization group equations then tell us how to change the couplings when
we change , in order to leave invariant the physical quantities. As we have said
the procedure for xing m and is largely arbitrary and we will exhibit various
possibilities. To do that it is convenient to write explicitly the expression for the
two- and four-point truncated amplitudes
2
; (p) = 1 ; 24(16
2)2 H2 p2
(2)
m 2
+ m 1 + 32
2 F1 ; (2) + log 4
2
2
+ 2 F + (6.29)
2(16
2)2 2
3 m 2 1
; (p1 p2 p3 p4) = ; 1 ; 2 (1) + 2 ; log 2 ; A(s t u) ; G1
(4)
32
4
3
(6.30)
In the two point function we have omitted the nite terms coming from the second
order contributions for which we have given only the divergent part. let us now
discuss various possibilities of renormalization conditions (sometimes one speaks of
subtraction conditions)
A rst possibility is to renormalize at zero momenta, that is requiring
;(2) (p) 2 = p2 + m2A (6.31)
p 0
;(4) (p1 p2 p3 p4) = ; A (6.32)
pi =0
where m2A and A are quantities to be xed by comparing some theoretical
cross-section with the experimental data. Then, comparing with eqs. (6.29)
and (6.30) and using A(s t u) = 6 for pi = 0, we get
H2A = 0 F1A = (2) ; log 4m
A2 GA1 = (1) ; log 4m
A2
2 2
(6.33)
156
Another possibility would be to x the momenta at some physical value in the
Minkowski space. For instance we could require ;(;p2 = m! 2 ) = 0 where m! is
the physical mass and then x ;(4) with all the momenta on shell.
To choose the subtraction point at zero momenta is generally dangerous for
massless particles (in this way one would introduce spurious infrared diver-
gences). As a consequence a popular choice is to subtract at an arbitrary
value of the momenta. For instance one requires
;(2) (p) = p2 + m2B p2 = M 2 (6.34)
;(4) (p1 p2 p3 p4) = ;B s = t = u = M 2 (6.35)
Notice that the point chosen for the four-point function is a non-physical one.
In this case we get
H2B = 0 F1B = (2);log 4m
B2 GB1 = (1)+2;log 4m
B2 ; 13 A(M 2 M 2 M 2 )
2 2
(6.36)
This way of renormalize has however the problem of leaving an explicit depen-
dence on the mass in the coecients of the renormalization group equations.
The last way of renormalizing we will consider is due to Weinberg and 't
Hooft and the idea is simply to put equal to zero all the arbitrary functions
F1 F2 at each order in the expansion. In this way the coecients ai, bi
and ci appearing in the Laurent series dening the bare couplings turn out to
be mass independent.
The Weinberg and 't Hooft prescription allows to evaluate the renormalization
group equations coecients in a very simple way. For instance, let us start with the
bare coupling " X 1 #
B = + a k ( ) (6.37)
k=1 k
Dierentiating with respect to and recalling that B does not depend on this
variable, we get
" X 1 # " X 1 0 #
0= + a k ( ) @
+ @ 1 + ak ( ) (6.38)
k=1 k
k=1 k
where
a0k () = dad
k ()
(6.39)
Since = @=@ is analytic for ! 0, for small we can write = A + B,
obtaining " X 1 # " X 1 0 #
0= + a k ( ) + (A + B) 1 + a k ( ) (6.40)
k=1 k
k=1k
157
and identifying the coecients of the various powers in
B+=0 (6.41)
a1 + A + Ba01 = 0 (6.42)
ak+1 + Aa0k + Ba0k+1 = 0 (6.43)
from which
B = ; (6.44)
d
A = ; 1 ; d a1 (6.45)
We then get
d a ;
() = ; 1 ; d 1 (6.46)
and for ! 0 d a
() = ; 1 ; d 1 (6.47)
and
d a = dak 1 ; d a
1 ; d k+1
d d 1 (6.48)
From the expression of the previous Section for a1 at the second order in , we get
@ = () = 32
@ (6.49)
16
2
This equation can be integrated in order to know how we have to change when we
change the value of the scale . The function () is known as the running coupling
constant. Its knowledge, together with the knowledge of m() allows us to integrate
easily the renormalization group equations. In fact, let us dene
t = log s (6.50)
and let us consider the following partial dierential equation (we shall see that the
renormalization group equations can be brought back to this form)
@ F (x t) = (x ) @ F (x t) (6.51)
@t i i i
@xi i
The general solution to this equation is obtained by using the method of the "char-
acteristics". That is one considers the integral curves (the characteristic curves)
dened by the ordinary dierential equations
dxi(t) = (x (t)) (6.52)
i i
dt
158
with given boundary conditions xi(0) = x!i . Then, the general solution is
F (xi t) = (xi (t)) (6.53)
where
(!xi) = F (!xi 0) (6.54)
is an arbitrary function to be determined by the condition at t = 0 required for F .
In fact we can check that satises the dierential equation
@ (x (t)) = dxi(t) @ = @ (6.55)
@t i dt @xi i @xi
In our case the equation contains a non-derivative term
@ G(x t) = (x ) @ G(x t) + (x )G(x t) (6.56)
@t i i i
@xi i i i
159
6.3 Application to QED
In this Section we will apply the previous results to QED. In particular, we want to
check that the running coupling obtained via the renormalization group equations
is the same that we have dened in Section 2.2. First of all let us start with the
QED lagrangian in d = 2! dimensions (neglecting the gauge xing terms)
Z 1
S2! = d x !(i@^ ; m) ; e!A
2 ! ^ ; F F
4
(6.62)
Since 1
dim!A
^ ] = ! ; 1 + 2 ! ; = 3! ; 2
2 (6.63)
it follows
dime] = 2 ; ! (6.64)
Therefore we dene
enew = eold ()!;2 = eold ;=2 (6.65)
As before we write the lagrangian as Lp + Lct, with (we ignore here the gauge xing
term)
Lp = !(i@^ ; m) ; e=2!A ^ ; 1 F F (6.66)
4
and
Lct = iZ2!@^ ; m ! ; eZ1=2!A^ ; Z3 F F (6.67)
4
giving
L = i(1 + Z2)!@^ ; (m + m) ! ; e(1 + Z1 )=2!A ^ ; 1 + Z3 F F (6.68)
4
After re-scaling of the elds one gets back the original lagrangian via, in particular,
the identication
eB = =2e (1 + Z(1 + Z1) = =2 e(1 ; Z =2) (6.69)
3
2 )(1 + Z3 =2)
where we have used Z1 = Z2. From Section 2.7 we recall that
Z3 = C = ; 6
e 2
2
(6.70)
and therefore e2
=2
eB = e 1 + 12
2 (6.71)
We proceed as in the previous Section by dening
X !
eB = =2 e+ ak (6.72)
k k
160
with
a1 = 12e
2
3
(6.73)
Requiring that eB is -independent, and in the limit ! 0 we get
@e 1
d
(e) = @ = ; 2 1 ; e de a1 (6.74)
from which
(e) = 12e
2
3
(6.75)
The dierential equation dening the running coupling constant is
@e@
() = (e) = e3
12
2
(6.76)
Integrating this equation we obtain
1 = ; 1 log 2 + K (6.77)
e (2)
2 12
2
where K is an integration constant which can be eliminated by evaluating e at
another momentum scale Q2. We get
1 ; 1 = ; 1 log Q2 (6.78)
(Q2) (2) 3
2
or
(Q2 ) = ( 2 ) (6.79)
1 ; (32 ) log Q22
which agrees with the result obtained in Section 2.2.
161
From this expression we see that starting from = s, increases with . Suppose
that we start with a small in such a way that the perturbative expansion is sensible.
However increasing we will need to add more and more terms to the expansion
due to the increasing of . Therefore the '4 theory allows a perturbative expansion
only at small mass scales, or equivalently at large distances. In this theory we can
give a denite sense to the asymptotic states. The increasing of is related to the
sign of the () function. For the '4 theory and for QED the function is positive,
however if it would be negative the theory would become perturbative at large mass
scales or at small distances. In this case one could solve the renormalization group
equations at large momenta by using the perturbative expansion at a lower order
to evaluate the and the other coecients. However in this case the coupling is
increasing at large distances and this would be a problem for our approach based on
th in- and out- states. As we shall see this is the situation in QCD. here the elds
that are useful to describe the dynamics at short distances (the quark elds) cannot
describe the asymptotic states, which can be rather described by bound states of
quarks as mesons and baryons.
Going back to the eq. (6.82) we see that, assuming the validity of the expression
for the function up to large momenta, the coupling constant becomes innite at
the value of given by
16
2
= se 3s (6.83)
which is a very big scale if s is small. The pole in eq. (6.82) is called the Landau
pole (see Section 2.2 in the case of QED). Of course there are no motivations why
eq. (6.82) should be valid for large values of .
Let us now discuss several possible scenarios starting from a theory where = 0
for = 0.
If () > 0 for any , than the running coupling is always increasing, and it
will become innite at some value of . If this happens for a nite we say
that we have a Landau pole at that scale.
Suppose that () is positive at small and that it becomes negative going
through a zero at = F (see Fig. 6.4.1)).
The point F is called a xed point since if we start with the initial condition
= F than remains xed at that value. To study the behaviour of around
the xed point, let us expand the () around its zero
() ( ; F ) 0(F ) (6.84)
It follows
d = ( ; ) 0( ) +
d (6.85)
F F
162
.
β(λ)
λS λS λS
λF λ
Fig. 6.4.1 - The behaviour of () giving rise to an ultraviolet xed point.
from which
d = 0( ) d (6.86)
F
; F
Integrating this equation we get
; F = (F )
0
s ; F s (6.87)
Notice that the sign of 0(F ) plays here a very important role. In the present
case the sign is negative since () > 0 for < F and () < 0 for > F .
For large values of we have that ! F independently on the initial value
s. For this reason F is referred to as a ultraviolet (UV) xed point (see
Fig. 6.4.2)). The large scale (or small distance) behaviour of a eld theory of
.
λ
λF
µS µ
s ; F s (6.90)
and we see that ! F ! 0 in a way independent on s, whereas it goes
away from s for increasing . Therefore F is an IR xed point (see Fig.
6.4.3)).
Let us now derive the perturbative expressions for m and d using the same
method followed for (). *e possibile ricavare. We dierentiate the eq. (6.13) with
respect to (notice that in this renormalization scheme b0 = 1)
" X1 # X1 0
0 = 2m @m 1+ b k
+m 2 @ bk (6.91)
@ k=1
k @ k=1 k
from which " X
1 # X
1 0
0 = 2m 1 + bk + () bk (6.92)
k=1 k=1
k k
164
.
λ
λF
µS µ
Let us now consider Z' (recall that although this quantity is innite in the limit
! 0, d is nite). By dierentiating eq. (6.14) we nd (c0 = 1)
X1 0 X1 0
Z'd = 2 @ = 2 d k = 2 () ckk
1 @Z ' 1 d ck 1 (6.97)
k=1 k=1
or
X
1 ! X
1 0
1+ ck d = 12 (A + B) ckk (6.98)
k=1
k
k=1
Using again the expression for () (see eq. (6.46)
d = ; 12 dc
d
1
(6.99)
165
dcd
k+1
= ck dc1 dck
;
d d 1 ; d a
d 1 (6.100)
At the lowest order, using eq. (6.27) we get
1
2
d = 12 16
2 + O ( 3 ) (6.101)
To conclude this Section, let us study the behaviour of ;(n) when the theory has
a UV xed point at = F . Since for large scales ! F we may suppose that m
and d go to m(F ) e d(F ) respectively. Then, integrating the following equation
(see eq. (6.61))
s dm
ds = m(m (F ) ; 1) (6.102)
we have
m(s) = m(1)sm (F );1 (6.103)
Analogously Z s ds0
1 s0 d(F ) = d(F ) log s (6.104)
Then, for large values of s (see eq. (6.59)
;(n)(spi m ) ! s(4;n;nd (F )) ;(n) (pi msm (F );1 F ) (6.105)
Therefore, if 1 ; m(F ) > 0 we can safely neglect the mass on the right hand side
of this equation. From this equation we understand also the reason why d is called
the anomalous dimension.
In non abelian gauge theories there is a UV xed point at = 0 where m = 0
and therefore one can neglect the masses at large momenta.
To justify why we have assumed that in the evaluation of m and d the only
important contribution comes from = F we notice that the integral
Z s ds0
0
m ((s )) (6.106)
1 s
0
166
6.5 The coecients of the renormalization group
equations and the renormalization conditions
We have already noticed that the coecients of the renormalization group equations
depend on the subtraction procedure. In particular, using the rst two renormal-
ization conditions considered in Section 6.2 a mass dependence of the coecients is
introduced. To study better this problem, let us consider, for generic renormaliza-
tion conditions, the expression (6.12) for the bare coupling
X
1 !
B = a0 + ak (6.108)
k=1 k
Dierentiating with respect to we nd
X
1 !
X1 0 ! X1
!
a0 + ak @ 0 ak @ (
+ @ a0 + k + @ m=) a_ 0 + a_ kk = 0 (6.109)
k=1 k k=1 k=1
where the dot stands for the derivative with respect to m=. Notice also that (see
eq. (6.5) m m
@
@ = (m ; 1) (6.110)
With a familiar procedure, we put = A + B, obtaining
a0 + Ba00 = 0 (6.111)
a1 + Aa00 + Ba01 + m
(m ; 1)_a0 = 0 (6.112)
At the second order in
3 3 ;1 3
B = ; 1 + 32
2 G1 1 + 16
2 G1 ; 1 ; 32
2 G1 (6.113)
and
3 2 3 3 m 32 G_
Aa0 = ; 16
2 + 1 ; 32
2 G1 8
2 ; (m ; 1) 32
0
2 1 (6.114)
Since the right hand side is at least of the second order in , neglecting higher order
terms we get
A = 1632 + m 32 G_ (6.115)
2 32
2 1
and for ! 0
= 1632 + m 32 G_ (6.116)
2 32
2 1
We see directly how the function depends on the subtraction procedure. Similar
expression can be obtained for m e d. Therefore, when using subtraction procedure
167
such that the coecients of the renormalization group equations depend explicitly
on the masses, it is convenient to look for solutions in a region of momenta where
the masses can be neglected. Another possibility is to choose the arbitrary scale
such that m= can be neglected.
Of course, changing the renormalization procedure will induce a nite renormal-
ization in the couplings. For instance we get expressions of the type
m
0 = f = + O(2 ) (6.117)
Therefore we obtain
0
0 = @
@ = @ f 0 + @ (m=) f_ = f 0 + m ( ; 1)f_
@ @ m (6.118)
Working in a region where we can neglect the mass we have
0(0) = ()f 0() (6.119)
and we see that a xed point at = F implies a xed point in 0. Therefore
the presence of a xed point does not depend on the scheme used (at least in this
approximation). It is possible to show that also the sign of the function is scheme-
independent.
168
Chapter 7
The path integral for Fermi elds
7.1 Fermionic oscillators and Grassmann algebras
The Feynman's formulation of the path integral can be extended to eld theories
for fermions. However, since the path integral is strictly related to the classical
description of the theory, it could be nice to have such a "classical" description for
fermionic systems. In fact it turns out that it is possible to have a "classical" (called
pseudoclassical) description in a way such that its quantization leads naturally to
anticommutation relations. In this theory one introduces anticommuting variables
already at the classical level. This type of mathematical objects form the so called
Grassmann algebras. Before proceeding further let us introduce some concepts about
these algebras which will turn out useful in the following.
First of all we recall that an algebra V is nothing but a vector space where it
is dened a bilinear mapping V V ! V (the algebra product). A Grassmann
algebra Gn is a vector space of dimensions 2n and it can be described in terms of n
generators i (i = 1 n) satisfying the relations
i j + j i i j ]+ = 0 i j = 1 n (7.1)
Then, the elements constructed by all the possible products among the generators
form a basis of Gn :
1 i ij i j k 12 n (7.2)
Notice that there are no other possible elements since
i2 = 0 (7.3)
from eq. (7.1). The subset of elements of Gn generated by the product of an even
number of generators is called the even part of the algebra, Gn(0) , whereas the subset
generated by the product of an odd number of generators is the odd part, Gn(1) . It
follows
Gn = Gn(0) Gn(1) (7.4)
169
A decomposition of this kind is called a grading of the vector space, if it is possible
to assign a grade to each element of the subspaces. In this case the grading is as
follows
1. If x 2 Gn(0) , deg(x) = +1.
2. If x 2 Gn(1) , deg(x) = ;1.
Notice that this grading is also consistent with the algebra product, since if x y are
homogeneous elements of Gn (that is to say even or odd), then
deg(xy) = deg(x)deg(y) (7.5)
Since we have no time to enter into the details of the classical mechanics of
the Grassmann variables, we will formulate the path integral starting directly from
quantum mechanics. Let us recall that in the Feynman's formulation one introduces
states which are eigenstates of a complete set of observables describing the congu-
ration space of the system. In the case of eld theories one takes eigenstates of the
eld operators in the Heisenberg representation
(~x t)j'(~x) ti = '(~x)j'(~x) ti (7.6)
this is possible since the elds commute at equal times
(~x t) (~y t)]; = 0 (7.7)
and as a consequence it is possible to diagonalize simultaneously at xed time the
set of operators (~x t). For Fermi elds such a possibility does not arise since they
anticommute at equal times. Therefore it is not possible to dene simultaneous
eigenstates of Fermi elds. To gain a better understanding of this point let us stay
for the moment with free elds, and let us recall that this is nothing but a set of
harmonic oscillators. This is true also for Fermi elds, except for the fact that these
oscillators are of Fermi type, that is they are described by creation and annihilation
operators satisfying the anticommutation relations
h y yi h i
ai aj ]+ = ai aj
+
= 0 a ay
i j = ij
+
(7.8)
For greater simplicity take the case of a single Fermi oscillator, and let us try to
diagonalize the corresponding annihilation operator
aji = ji (7.9)
Then, from a2 = 0, as it foillows from eqs. (7.8), we must have 2 = 0. Therefore
the eigenvalue cannot be an ordinary number. However it can be thought as an
odd element of a Grassmann algebra. If we have n Fermi oscillators and we require
aij1 ni = i j1 ni (7.10)
170
we get
ai (aj j1 ni) = j (ai j1 ni) = j i j1 ni (7.11)
But aiaj = ;aj ai and therefore
i j ]+ = 0 (7.12)
We see that the equations (7.10) are meaningful if we identify the eigenvalues i
with the generators of a Grassmann algebra Gn. In this case the equation (7.9) can
be solved easily
y
ji = ea j0i (7.13)
where j0i is the ground state of the oscillator. In fact
aji = a(1 + ay)j0i = aayj0i = (1 ; aya)j0i
= j0i = (1 + ayj0i = ji (7.14)
where we have used y
ea = 1 + ay (7.15)
since 2 = a2 = 0. We have also
ayji = ay(1 + ay)j0i = ayj0i = @ @ (1 + ay)j0i = @ ji (7.16)
@
Here we have used the left-derivative on the Gn dened by
@ = ;
@i i1 i2 ik i1 i i2 i3 ik i2 i i1 i3 ik
+ + (;1)k;1ik ii1 i3 ik 1
;
(7.17)
Suppose we want to dene a scalar product in the vector space of the eigenstates
of a (notice that these are vector spaces with coecients in a Grassmann algebra.
mathematically such an object is called a modulus over the algebra). Then it is
convenient to extend the algebra G1 generated by to a comples Grassmann algebra,
G2 , generated by and . The operation "?" is dened as the complex conjugation
on the ordinary numbers and it is an involution (automorphism of the algebra with
square one) with the property
(i1 i2 ik ) = ik i2 i1 (7.18)
In the algebra G2 we can dene normalized eigenstates
y
ji = ea j0iN ( ) (7.19)
where N ( ) 2 G2(0) and the phase is xed by the convention
N ( ) = N ( ) (7.20)
171
The corresponding bra will be
hj = N ( )h0je a (7.21)
the normalization factor N ( ) is determined by the condition
y
1 = hji = N 2 ( )h0je aea j0i
= N 2 ( )h0j(1 + a)(1 + ay)j0i
= N 2 ( )h0j(1 + aay)j0i
N 2 ( )(1 + ) = N 2 ( )e;
= (7.22)
It follows
N ( ) = e =2 (7.23)
Let us recall some simple properties of a Fermi oscillator. the occupation number
operator has eigenvalues 1 and 0. In fact
(aya)2 = ayaaya = ay(1 ; aya)a = aya (7.24)
from which
aya(aya ; 1) = 0 (7.25)
Starting from the state with zero eigenvalue2 for aya, we can build up only the
eigenstate with eigenvalue 1, ayj0i, since ay j0i = 0. Therefore the space of the
eigenstates of aya is a two-dimensional space. By dening the ground state as
0
j0i = 1 (7.26)
one sees easily that 0 0 0 1
a= 1 0 a = 0 0 y (7.27)
(one writes down
a as the most general 2 2 matrix and then requires aj0i = 0,
a2 = 0 and a ay + = 1). The state with occupation number equal to 1 is
1
j1i = 0 (7.28)
In this basis the state ji is given by
y
ji = e =2ea j0i = e =2(1 + a
y)j0i
=2 =2
= e (j0i + j1i) = e 1 (7.29)
whereas
hj = e =2 1 ] (7.30)
172
We see that in order to introduce eigenstates of the operator a has forced us to
generalize the ordinary notion of vector space on the real or on the complex numbers,
to a vector space on a Grassmann algebra (a modulus). In this space the linear
combinations of the vectors are taken with coecients in G2 (or more generally in
G2n ).
Let us now come to the denition of the integral over a Grassmann algebra.
To this end we recall that the crucial element in order to derive the path integral
formalism from quantum mechanics is the completeness relation for the eigenstates
of the position operator Z
dqjqihqj = 1 (7.31)
What we are trying to do here is to think to the operators a as generalized posi-
tion operators, and therefore we would like its eigenstates to satisfy a completeness
relation of the previous type. Therefore we will "dene" the integration over the
Grassmann algebra G2 by requiring that the states dened in eqs. (7.29) and (7.30)
satisfy Z 1 0
d djihj = 0 1 12
(7.32)
where the identity on the right hand side must be the identity on the two-dimensional
vector space. Using the explicit representation for the states
Z Z
d djihj = d de
1 ( 1)
Z
= d de
Z 1 1 0
= d d 1 + = 0 1 (7.33)
Therefore the integration must satisfy
Z
dd = 1 (7.34)
Z Z Z
dd = d d =d d 1 = 0 (7.35)
These relations determine the integration in a unique way, since they x the value
of the integral over all the basis elements of G2 . The integral over a generic element
of the algebra is then dened by linearity. the previous integration rules can be
rewritten as integration rules over the algebra G1 requiring
d d]+ = d]+ = d]+ = d]+ = d]+ = 0 (7.36)
Then, we can reproduce the rules (7.34) and (7.35) by requiring
Z Z
d = 1 d 1 = 0 (7.37)
173
For n Fermi oscillators we get
X
n X
n
=2
i i iayi
j1 ni = e i=1 e i=1 j0i (7.38)
with Z
Yn !
di di j1 nih1 nj = 1 (7.39)
i=1
and integration rules Z
di j = ij (7.40)
Assuming also
di j ]+ = di dj ]+ = 0 (7.41)
Notice that the measure d is translationally invariant. In fact if f () = a + b and
2 G1(1) Z Z
df () = df ( + ) (7.42)
since' Z
db = 0 (7.43)
in
(7.44)
Of course the coecients of the expansion are antisymmetric. If we integrate f
over the algebra Gn only the last element of the expansion gives a non vanishing
contribution. Noticing also that for the antisymmetry we have
X
fn(i1 in)i1 in = n!fn (1 n)1 n (7.45)
i1
in
it follows Z
dn d1 f (1 n) = n!fn(1 n) (7.46)
An interesting property of the integration rules for Grassmann variables is the inte-
gration by parts formula. This can be seen either by the observation that a derivative
destroys a factor i in each element of the basis and therefore
Z
dn d1 @@ f (1 n ) = 0 (7.47)
j
174
either by the property that the integral is invariant under translations (see the pre-
vious Section and Section 4.7). Let us now consider the transformation properties
of the measure under a change of variable. For simplicity consider a linear transfor-
mation X
i = aik k0 (7.48)
k
The eq. (7.40) must be required to hold in each basis, since it can be seen easily
that the previous transformation leaves invariant the multiplication rules. In fact,
i0 j0 = cik cjhk h = ;cik cjhhk == ;cjhcik hk = ;j0 i0 (7.49)
where cij is the inverse of the matrix aij . Therefore we require
Z Z
di j = di0 j0 = ij (7.50)
By putting X
di = dk0 bki (7.51)
k
we obtain
Z ZX X
dij = dk0 bkiajhh0 = bkiajhhk = (ab)ij = ij (7.52)
hk hk
from which
bij = (a;1)ij (7.53)
The transformation properties of the measure are
dn d1 = detja;1jdn0 d10 (7.54)
where we have used the anticommutation properties of di among themselves. We
see also that @
detjaj = det @0 (7.55)
and @0
dn d1 = det @ dn d1
0 0 ; 1 (7.56)
Therefore the rule for a linear change of variables is
Z Z 0
d0
n d0 f (0 ) =
1 i dn d1 det;1 @
@ f (i0 (i)) (7.57)
This rule should be compared with the one for commuting variables
Z Z @x0
dx1 dxnf (xi) = dx1 dxndet @x f (x0i (xi))
0 0 0 (7.58)
175
We see that the Grassmann measure transforms according to the inverse jacobian
rather than with the jacobian itself. As in the commuting case, the more important
integral to be evaluated for the path integral approach is the gaussian one
X
Z Aij ij =2 Z T
I = dn d1e ij dn d1e A=2 (7.59)
The matrix A is supposed to be real antisymmetric
AT = ;A (7.60)
As shown in the Appendix a real and antisymmetric matrix can be reduced to the
form 2 0 0 0 3
66 ;1 01 0 0 77
66 0 0 0 2 77
As = 66 0 0 ;2 0 77 (7.61)
66 77
4 5
by means of an orthogonal transformation S . Then, let us do the following change
of variables X
i = (S T )ij j0 (7.62)
j
we get
T A = (S T 0)AS T 0 = 0T SAS T 0 = 0T As0 (7.63)
and using detjS j = 1 Z 0T 0
I = dn0 d10 e As =2 (7.64)
The expression in the exponent is given by
1 0 T A 0 = 0 0 + + n 0 0 for n even
s 1 1 2 2 n;1 n
2
1 0 T A 0 = 0 0 + + n 1 0 0 for n odd (7.65)
s 1 1 2 n;2 n;1
2
;
2
From eq. (7.46) we get contribution nto the integral only from the term in the
expansion of the exponential (0T As0) 2 for n even. In the case of n odd we get
I = 0 since 0T As0 does not contain n0 . Therefore, for n even
Z 0 T A 0 =2 Z 0
I = dn d1 e s = dn d10 ( n1)! ( 12 0T As0 ) n2
0 0
Z 1 n
2
= dn0 d10 ( n )! ( 2 )!1 n2 10 n0
p2
= 1 n2 = detA (7.66)
176
where we have used detjAsj = detjAj. Then
Z T p
dn d1 e A=2 = detA (7.67)
This result is valid also for n odd since in this case detjAj = 0. A similar result
holds for commuting variables. In fact, let us dene
Z
dx1 dxne;x Ax=2
T
J= (7.68)
with A a real and symmetric matrix. A can be diagonalized by an orthogonal
transformation with the result
Z
J = dx01 dx0ne;x Ad x =2 = (2
) n2 p 1
0T 0
(7.69)
detA
Again, the result for fermionic variables is opposite to the result of the commuting
case. Another useful integral is
Z T T
I (A ) = dn d1 e A=2 + (7.70)
with i Grassmann variables. To evaluate this integral let us put
= 0 + A;1 (7.71)
We get
1 T A + T = 1 (0 T ; T A;1)A(0 + A;1) + T (0 + A;1 )
2 2
= 21 0 T A0 + 21 T A;1 (7.72)
where we have used the antisymmetry of A and T 0 = ;0 T . Since the measure
is invariant under translations we nd
Z 0T 0 T ;1 T ;1 p
I (A ) = dn0 d10 e A =2 + A =2 = e A =2 detA (7.73)
again to be compared with the result for commuting variables
Z n
I (A J ) = dx1 dxne;x Ax=2 + J x = eJ A J=2 p(2
)
T T T ;1 2
(7.74)
detA
The previous equations can be generalized to complex variables
Z y
d1 d1 dndn e A = detjAj (7.75)
177
and Z
d1 d1 dndn e A + + = e; A detjAj
y y y y ;1
(7.76)
The second of these equations follows from the rst one as in the real case. we will
prove the rst one for the case n = 1. Starting from
Z T
d2 d1e A=2 = A12 (7.77)
and putting
1 = p1 ( + ) 2 = ; pi ( ; ) (7.78)
2 2
we get
1 T A = ;i A (7.79)
12
2
and recalling that (remember that here one has to use the inverse of the jacobian)
d2 d1 = idd (7.80)
we get Z Z
d2d1 e A=2 = i dde;i A12
T
(7.81)
and Z
dde (;iA12 ) = ;iA12
(7.82)
178
where, for the Fermi oscillator H = . The expression is very similar to the
one obtained in the commuting case if we realize that the previous formula is the
analogue in the phase space using complex coordinates of the type q ip. It should
be noticed the particular boundary conditions for the variables originating from
the fact that the equations of motion are of the rst order. Correspondingly we
can assign only the coordinates at a particular time. In any case, since at the end
we are interested in eld theory where only the generating functional is relevant
and where the boundary conditions are arbitrary (for instance we can take the elds
vanishing at t = 1), and in any case do not aect the dependence of the generating
functional on the external source. The extension to the Fermi eld is done exactly
as we have done in the bosonic case, and correspondingly the generating functional
for the free Dirac theory will be
Z
Z i !(i@/ ; m) + ! +
!]
Z !] = D( !)e (7.86)
where and ! are the external sources (of Grassmann character). Using the inte-
gration formula (7.73) we get formally
;(i!) i@/ ;;i m (i) ;i! i@/ ;1 m
Z !] = Z 0]e = Z 0]e (7.87)
where the determinant of the Dirac operator has been included in the term at zero
source. In this expression we have to specify how to take the inverse operator. We
know that this is nothing but the Dirac propagator dened by
(i@/ ; m)SF (x ; y) = 4 (x ; y) (7.88)
It follows Z
;i d4xd4 y!(x)SF (x ; y)(y)
Z !] = Z 0]e (7.89)
with Z d4k Z d4k /k + m
SF (x) = lim 1 e ;ikx = lim e;ikx
!0+ (2
)4 /k ; m + i !0+ (2
)4 k2 ; m2 + i
(7.90)
The Green's functions are obtained by dierentiating the generating functional with
respect to the external sources (Grassmann dierentiation). In particular, the two
point function is given by
1 Z = 1 h0jT ((x)!(y))j0i = iSF (x ; y)
Z 0] !(x)(y) ==0 h0j0i (7.91)
The T -product in this expression is the one for the Fermi elds, as it follows from
the derivation made in the bosonic case, taking into account that the classical eld
of this case are anticommuting.
We will not insist here further on this discussion, but all we have done in the
bosonic case can be easily generalized for Fermi elds.
179
Chapter 8
The quantization of the gauge
elds
8.1 QED as a gauge theory
Many eld theories possess global symmetries. These are transformations leaving
invariant the action of the system and are characterized by a certain number of
parameters which are independent on the space-time point. As a prototype we can
consider the free Dirac lagrangian
L0 = !(x)i@/ ; m](x) (8.1)
which is invariant under the global phase transformation
(x) ! 0(x) = e;iQ (x) (8.2)
If one has more than one eld, Q is a diagonal matrix having as eigenvalues the
charges of the dierent elds measured in unit e. For instance, a term as !2 1 ,
with a scalar eld, is invariant by choosing Q(1 ) = Q() = 1, and Q(2 ) = 2.
This is a so called abelian symmetry since
e;iQ e;iQ = e;i( + )Q = e;iQ e;iQ (8.3)
It is also referred to as a U (1) symmetry. The physical meaning of this invariance
lies in the possibility of assigning the phase to the elds in an arbitrary way, without
changing the observable quantities. This way of thinking is in some sort of contradic-
tion with causality, since it requires to assign the phase of the elds simultaneously
at all space-time points. It looks more physical to require the possibility of assigning
the phase in an arbitrary way at each space-time point. This invariance, formulated
by Weyl in 1929, was called gauge invariance. The free lagrangian (8.1) cannot be
gauge invariant due to the derivative coming from the kinetic term. The idea is
180
simply to generalize the derivative @ to a so called covariant derivative D having
the property that D transforms as , that is
D (x) ! D (x)]0 = e;iQ(x) D (x) (8.4)
In this case the term
!
D (8.5)
will be invariant as the mass term under the local phase transformation. To con-
struct the covariant derivative, we need to enlarge the eld content of the theory,
by introducing a vector eld, the gauge
eld A , in the following way
D = @ + ieQA (8.6)
The transformation law of A is obtained from eq. (8.4)
(@ + ieQA )]0 = (@ + ieQA0 )0(x)
= (@ + ieQA0 )e;iQ(x)
1
= e ; iQ ( x ) @ + ieQ(A ; e @ )
0 (8.7)
from which
A0 = A + 1e @ (8.8)
The lagrangian density
L
= !iD/ ; m] = !i (@ + ieQA ) ; m) = L0 ; eQ ! A (8.9)
is then invariant under gauge transformations, or under the local group U (1). We see
also that by requiring local invariance we reproduce the electromagnetic interaction
as obtained through the minimal substitution we discussed before.
In order to determine the kinetic term for the vector eld A we notice that eq.
(8.4) implies that under a gauge transformation, the covariant derivative undergoes
a unitary transformation
D ! D0 = e;iQ(x) D eiQ(x) (8.10)
Then, also the commutator of two covariant derivatives
D D ] = @ + ieQA @ + ieQA ] = ieQF (8.11)
with
F = @ A ; @ A (8.12)
transforms in the same way
F ! e;iQ(x) F eiQ(x) = F (8.13)
181
The last equality follows from the commutativity of F with the phase factor. The
complete lagrangian density is then
L = L
+ LA = !i (@ + ieQA ) ; m] ; 41 F F (8.14)
The gauge principle has automatically generated an interaction between the gauge
eld and the charged eld. We notice also that gauge invariance prevents any
mass term, 21 M 2 A A . Therefore, the photon eld is massless. Also, since the
local invariance implies the global ones, by using the Noether's theorem we nd the
conserved current as
@ L =
j = @ ! (Q) (8.15)
from which, eliminating the innitesimal parameter ,
! Q
J = (8.16)
182
where fCAB are the structure constants of Lie(G). For instance, if G = SU (2), and
we take the fermions in the fundamental representation,
+ = 1 (8.21)
2
we have
T A = 2
A
A = 1 2 3 (8.22)
where A are the Pauli matrices. In the general case the T A's are N N hermitian
matrices that we will choose normalized in such a way that
Tr(T AT B ) = 21 AB (8.23)
To make local the transformation (8.19), means to promote the parameters A to
space-time functions
A ! A(x) (8.24)
Notice, that now the group does not need to be abelian, and therefore, in general
e;iA T e;iA T 6= e;iA T e;iA T
A A A A
(8.25)
Let us now proceed to the case of the local symmetry by dening again the concept
of covariant derivative
D +(x) ! D +(x)]0 = U (x)D (x)] (8.26)
We will put again
D = @ + igB (8.27)
where B is a N N matrix acting upon +(x). In components
Dab = ab @ + ig(B )ab (8.28)
The eq. (8.26) implies
D + ! (@ + igB0 )U (x)+
= U (x)@ + + U (x)U ;1 (x)igB0 U (x)]+ + (@ U (x))+
= U (x)@ + U ;1 (x)igB0 U (x) + U ;1 (x)@ U (x)]+ (8.29)
therefore
U ;1 (x)igB0 U (x) + U ;1 (x)@ U (x) = igB (8.30)
and
B0 (x) = U (x)B (x)U ;1 (x) + gi (@ U (x))U ;1 (x) (8.31)
183
For an innitesimal transformation
U (x) 1 ; iA(x)T A (8.32)
we get
B (x) = ;iA (x)T A B (x)] + g1 (@ A(x))T A (8.33)
Since B (x) acquires a term proportional to T A, the transformation law is consistent
with a B linear in the generators of the Lie algebra, that is
(B )ab AA(T A)ab (8.34)
The transformation law for A becomes
AC = fCAB AAB + g1 @ C (8.35)
The dierence with respect to the abelian case is that the eld undergoes also a
homogeneous transformation.
The kinetic term for the gauge elds is constructed as in the abelian case. In
fact the quantity
D D ]+ igF + (8.36)
in virtue of the eq. (8.26), transforms as + under gauge transformations, that is
(D D ]+)0 = igF0 +0 = igF0 U (x)+
= U (x)(D D ]+) = U (x) (igF ) + (8.37)
This time the tensor F is not invariant but transforms homogeneously, since it
does not commute with the gauge transformation as in the abelian case
F0 = U (x)F U ;1 (x) (8.38)
The invariant kinetic term will be assumed as
LA = ; 21 TrF F ] (8.39)
Let us now evaluate F
igF = D D ] = @ + igB @ + igB ]
= ig(@B ; @ B ) ; g2B B ] (8.40)
or
F = (@ B ; @ B) + igB B ] (8.41)
in components
F = FC T C (8.42)
184
with
FC = @ AC ; @ AC ; gfCAB AAAB (8.43)
The main feature of the non-abelian gauge theories is the bilinear term in the pre-
vious expression. Such a term comes because fCAB 6= 0, expressing the fact that G is
not abelian. The kinetic term for the gauge eld, expressed in components, is given
by X
LA = ; 41 FA FA (8.44)
A
Therefore, whereas in the abelian case LA is a free lagrangian (it contains only
quadratic terms), now it contains interaction terms cubic and quartic in the elds.
The physical motivation lies in the fact that the gauge elds couple to everything
which transforms in a non trivial way under the gauge group. Therefore they couple
also to themselves (remember the homogeneous piece of transformation).
To derive the equations of motion for the gauge elds, let us consider the total
action Z
! i@/ ; m)+ ; g+! B +
+ SA
d4x +( (8.45)
V
where
1 Z
SA = ; 2 d4x Tr(F F ) (8.46)
V
and the variation of SA
Z
SA = ; d4xTr(F F ) (8.47)
V
Using the denition (8.41) for the eld strength we get
F = @ B + ig(B)B + igB(B ) ; ( $ ) (8.48)
from which
Z
SA = ;2 d4xTrF (@ B + ig(B)B + igB (B ))] (8.49)
V
where we have taken into account the antisymmetry properties of F . Integrating
by parts we obtain
Z
SA = ;2 d4xTr;(@ F )B ; igBF B + igF B B ]
Z V
= 2 d4xTr (@ F + igB F ]) B ]
Z V
= d4 x (@ F + igB F ])A AA (8.50)
V
185
where we used the cyclic property of the trace. By taking into account also the free
term for the Dirac elds and the interaction we nd the equations of motion
@ F A + igB F ]A = g+! T A+
(i@/ ; m)+ = gB + (8.51)
From the rst equation we see that the currents +! T A+ are not conserved. In fact
the conserved currents turn out to be
JA = +! T A+ ; iB F ]A (8.52)
The reason is that under a global transformation of the symmetry group, the gauge
elds are not invariant, said in dierent words they are charged elds with respect
to the gauge elds. In fact we can verify immediately that the previous currents are
precisely the Noether's currents. Under a global variation we have
AC = fCAB AAB + = ;iA T A+ (8.53)
and we get
j = @@+L + + @A@ L AC (8.54)
C
from which
j = +! AT A+ ; FC fCAB AAB (8.55)
In the case of simple compact Lie groups one can dene f ABC = fCAB with the
property f ABC = f BCA. It follows
FC f ABC AB T A = iB F ] iB F ]AT A (8.56)
Therefore
j = +! AT A+ ; iB F ]A A (8.57)
After division by A we get the Noether's currents (8.52). The contribution of the
gauge elds to the currents is also crucial in order they are conserved quantities. In
fact, the divergence of the fermionic contribution is given by
@ (+! T A+) = ;ig+! T AB + + ig+! B T A+ = ;ig+! T A B ]+ (8.58)
which vanishes for abelian gauge elds, whereas it is compensated by the gauge
elds contribution in the non abelian case.
AΩ
µ
Aµ Ω
A'µ
A'µ
Fig. 8.3.1 - The orbits of the gauge group in the eld space.
Since the orbits dene equivalence classes (or cosets) we can imagine the eld space
as the set of all the orbits. Correspondingly we can divide our functional integral
in a part parallel and in one perpendicular to the orbits. Then, the reason why our
functional integral is not well dened depends from the fact that the integrand along
the space parallel to the orbits is innite (the integrand being gauge invariant does
not depend on the corresponding variables). However this observation suggests a
simple solution to our problem. We could dene the integral by dividing it by the
integral along the part parallel to the orbit (notice that is the same as the volume
of the gauge group). In order to gain a clear understanding of this problem let us
consider the following very simple example in two dimensions
Z +1 ; 21 a2(x ; y)2
Z= dxdye (8.65)
;1
This is as reducing the space-time two two points with x and y the possible values of
the eld in those points. At the same time the exponent can be seen as an euclidean
action with the (gauge) symmetry
x = x + ' y = y + ' (8.66)
The integral (8.65) is innite due to this invariance. In fact this implies that the
integrand depends only on x ; y, and therefore the integration over the remaining
variable gives rise to an innite result. In order to proceed along the lines we have
described above, let us partition the space of the eld, that is the two-dimensional
space (x y) in the gauge group orbits. Given a point (x0 y0), the group orbit is
given by the set of points (x = x + ' y = y + ') corresponding to the line
x ; y = x0 ; y0, as shown in Fig. 8.3.2 We can perform the integral by integrating
188
.
y
(x Ω, y Ω)
(x 0 , y 0)
f(x,y) = 0
x+y=c
Fig. 8.3.2 - The eld space (x y) partitioned in the orbits of the gauge group. We
show also the line x + y = c and the arbitrary line f (x y) = 0 (dashed).
along the perpendicular space, the line x + y = c (c is a constant), and then along
the parallel space. It is this last integral which gives a divergent result, since we are
adding up the same contribution an innite number of times. therefore the obvious
way to do is to introduce as integration variables x ; y and x + y, integrating only
on x ; y. Or, said in a dierent way, perform both integrals and dividing up by
the integral over x + y, which cancels the divergence at the numerator. This can be
done in a more systematic way by using the following identity
Z +1 1
1= d' 2 (x + y) + ' (8.67)
;1
Then we multiply Z per by this factor obtaining
Z 2Z 1 ; 1 a2(x ; y)2 3
Z= d' 4 dxdy 2 (x + y) + ' e 2 5 (8.68)
The integral inside the parenthesis is what we are looking for since it is evaluated
along the line x + y = constant. Of course the result should not depend on the choice
of this constant (it corresponds to translate the integration line in a way parallel to
the orbits). In fact, by doing the change of variables
x ! x + ' y !y+' (8.69)
189
we get 2Z
Z 1 ; 1 a2(x ; y)2 3
Z= d' 4 dxdy 2 (x + y) e 2 5 (8.70)
As promised the innite factor is now factorized out and we see also clearly that
this nothing but the volume of the gauge group (' parameterize the gauge group,
which in the present case is isomorphic to R1). Then, we dene our integral as
Z Z 1 ; 1 a2(x ; y)2
0
Z = V = dxdy 2 (x + y) e 2 (8.71)
G
with Z
VG = d' (8.72)
In this way the integral is dened by integrating over the particular surface x + y = 0.
Of course we would get the same result integrating over any other line (or surface
in the general case) having the property of intersecting each orbit only once. For
instance, let us choose the line (see Fig. 8.3.2)
f (x y) = 0 (8.73)
Then, proceeding as in eq. (8.67) we consider the following identity, which allows
us to dene a gauge invariant function f (x y)
Z
Z
1 = f (x y)
d' f (x y ) = f (x y) d' f (x + ' y + ')] (8.74)
In the previous case we had f (x y) = (x + y)=2 = 0 giving rise to f (x y) =
(x + y)=2 + ' = 0, from which f (x y) = 1. Multiplying Z by the expression (8.74)
we get
Z 2Z 1
; a (x ; y) 5
2 2
3
Z = d' 4 dxdyf (x y) f (x + ' y + ')] e 2 (8.75)
190
Comparison with eq. (8.74) gives
f (x y) = f (x + '0 y + '0) (8.78)
The integral inside the parenthesis in eq. (8.75) does not depend on ' (that is is
gauge invariant). This can be shown exactly as we did before in the case f (x y) =
(x + y)=2. Therefore we can again factorize the integration over ', being the sum
of innite gauge copies
Z 2Z 1
; a (x ; y ) 5
2 2
3
Z = d' 4 dxdyf (x y) f (x y)] e 2 (8.79)
and dene
Z = Z dxdy (x y) f (x y)] e; 2 a2 (x ; y)2
1
Z0 = VG f (8.80)
The function f (x y) (called the Faddeev-Popov determinant) can be calculated
directly from its denition. To this end notice that in (8.79), f (x y) appears
multiplied by f (x y)]. As a consequence, we need to know f only at points very
close at the surface f (x y) = 0. But in this case, the equation f (x y) = 0 has
the only solution ' = 0, since by hypothesis the surface f (x y) crosses the gauge
orbits only once. Therefore we can write
f (x y)] = @f 1 '] (8.81)
@ ' =0
giving rise to
f (x y) = @f
@ ' =0 (8.82)
where f = f (x y). Clearly f represents the answer of the gauge xing f = 0
to an innitesimal gauge transformation. As a last remark, notice that our original
integral can be written as
Z ; 1 xiAij xj
Z = d2 xe 2 (8.83)
with 1 ;1
A = a2 ;1 1 (8.84)
a singular matrix. As we have already noticed the singularity of A is related to the
gauge invariance, and the solution we have given here solves also the problem of the
singularity of A. In fact, integrating over x ; y only, means to integrate only on the
eigenvectors of A corresponding to non zero eigenvalues.
191
Since the solution we have found to our problem is of geometrical type, it is very
easy to generalize it to the case of a gauge eld theory, abelian or not. We start by
choosing a surface in the gauge eld space given by
fB (AB ) = 0 B = 1 n (8.85)
where n is the number of parameters of LieG. Also, this surface should intersect the
gauge orbits only once. To write down the analogue of equation (8.74) we need also
a measure on the gauge group. This can be obtained as follows. We have seen that
we are interested in the solutions of
fB (A ) = 0 (8.86)
around fB (A) = 0, therefore it is enough to know the measure around the identity
of the gauge group. In such a case the transformation ' can be written as
' 1 + iA (x)T A (8.87)
Since at the rst order in the group parameters
''0 1 + i(A + A0 )T A (8.88)
we see that the invariant measure of the group, around the identity, is given by
Y
d(') = dA(x) (8.89)
Ax
It follows that for innitesimal transformations
d(''0 ) = d('0') = d(') (8.90)
next we dene the Faddeev-Popov determinant as in (8.74)
Z
1 = f A ] d(')fA(A )] (8.91)
In this expression we have introduced a functional delta-function, dened by the
identity Z
1 = d(')'] (8.92)
having the usual properties extended to the functional case. We can see that f is
a gauge invariant functional, since
Z
;1 A
f
0;1
]= d(')fA(A(
0; 1 ) ] (8.93)
and changing variables '0 ' = '00 we get
Z Z
;1(a
f
0;1
)= d('00'0 )f
A (A
00
)] = d(')fA(A )] (8.94)
192
Consider now the naive path integral
Z
Z i LAd4x
Z= D(A )F A]e (8.95)
where F is a gauge invariant functional. Since in the following F will not play any
particular role we will discuss only the case F = 1, but all the following consider-
ations are valid for an arbitrary gauge invariant F . We multiply Z by the identity
(8.91) 2 Z 3
Z Z i LAd x 4
Z = d(') 64 D(A )e fA(A )]f A ]75 (8.96)
193
This expression gives the right measure to be used in the path integral quantization
of the gauge elds. In particular, the vacuum expectation value (v.e.v.) of a gauge
eld functional will be dened as
Z
h0jT (F A])j0if = D(A)f ]f eiS F A]
(8.103)
where the index f species the gauge in which we evaluate the v.e.v. of F . About
this point, we can prove an important result, that is: if F A] is a gauge invariant
functional
F A] = F A] (8.104)
than its v.e.v. does not depend on the gauge xing fA = 0. We will prove this
result by showing the relation between the v.e.v.'s of F A] in due dierent gauges.
Consider the identity
Z Z
h0jT (F A])j0i f1 = D(A)f1 ]f1 eiS F A] d(')f2]f2 (8.105)
where we have used eq. (8.91)and dened f2A] f2 A]. By change of variable
A ! A , we get
Z Z
h0jT (F A])j0i f1 = d(') D(A)f1 ; 1
]f1 eiS F A 1 ]f2]f2
;
Z Z
196
using @ A] and integrating over the Fermi elds we get
Z0 ! ] = e;ih!(x)SF (x ; y)(y)i
Z i hA (x)A (x)i
eih (x)A (x)i (8.127)
N D(A)@ A ]e 2
; i h 1 i
= e;ih!(x)SF (x ; y)(y)ie 2
Z ih@ C 1 i ; 2i h@ C 1 @ C i
D(C )e (8.130)
After integrating by parts, we can rewrite the integral over C (x) as
Z ;ihC 1 @ i + 2i hCC i
D(C )e (8.131)
and doing again this gaussian integral we nd
i @@
1 h ; i @ (+i) ; i @ i = e 2 h 2 i
e2 (8.132)
The nal result is
i h g ; @ @ i
;
Z0 ! ] = Z 0]e;ih!(x)SF (x ; y)(y)ie 2 2 (8.133)
197
Introducing the function
Z d4k g
G = lim ; + 2kk 2 e;ikx (8.134)
!0+ (2
)4 k + i (k + i)
2
we write
; ih
! ( x ) S (x ; y ) ( y ) ; 2i h(x)G (x ; y) (y)i
Z0 ! ] = Z 0]e F e (8.135)
The photon propagator in this gauge is given by
1 h0jT (A (x)A (x))j0i = iG (x ; y) (8.136)
h0j0i
Notice that this propagator is transverse, that is it satises the Lorentz condition
@ G (x) = 0 (8.137)
The Feynman's rules in this gauge are the same discussed in Section 1.5.3, except
for th photon propagator which is
g k
k
;i k2 + i ; (k2 + i)2 (8.138)
Of course, the additional term in the propagator proportional to kk does not aect
the physics since the photon is coupled to a conserved current.
We can perform an analogous calculation but using the gauge xing in the form
f ; B discussed at the end of the previous Section, that is using the generating
functional (8.114)
Z 1
Z i d x L ; 2 (@ A )
4 2
Z ! ] = N D( !)D(A)e
Z ! + A
d4x ! +
e (8.139)
In this case the only eect of the gauge xing is to change the lagrangian L to
L0 = L ; (@ A )2=(2 ). Of course, the addition of this term removes the problem
of the singular wave operator. In fact we can write
Z 1
Z 1
d xL = 2 d xA g ; (1 ; )@ @ A
4 0 4 (8.140)
Therefore we have to evaluate the functional integral
Z 1
Z 4
i d x 2 A K A + A
Z0 ! ] = Ne;ih!(x)SF (x ; y)(y)i D(A )e
(8.141)
198
with
K = g ; ; 1@ @
(8.142)
obtaining
L(2)
A + LA
I (8.153)
(I )
where L(2)
A and LA are the quadratic and the interacting part respectively. The
interaction terms can be extracted by the functional integration by the usual trick
(I ) 1
iSA i A
Z ] = e Z0 A ] (8.154)
R
with SA(I ) = d4xL(AI ) and
Z " #
1 X(@ A )2 Z 4 A
Z i d4 x L(2)
A ; 2 A A i d xA A
Z0 ] = N D(A)e e f A ]
(8.155)
Consider now f A ]. In the Lorentz gauge
fAA ] = @ AA (8.156)
200
Under an innitesimal gauge transformation (for later convenience we have changed
the denition of the gauge parameters, sending A ! gA)
AC = gfCAB A AB + @ C (8.157)
we have
fC A ] = @ AC + gfCAB @ (AAB ) + C (8.158)
Then
fC A (x)]
B (y) A =0 = BC x (x ; y) + gfC @ ( (x ; y)AA) = MCB (x ; y) (8.159)
2 4 BA 4
We see that f A] depends explicitly on the gauge elds. In order to get an ex-
pression for the generating functional which is convenient r deriving the Feynman
rules, it is useful to give to it an exponential form. This can be done, recalling from
eq. (7.76)) that a determinant can be written as a gaussian integral over Grassmann
variables. Z
Z
fAA (x)] i cA(x)MAB (x ; y)cB (y)d4xd4 y
f A ] = det
B (y) A =0 = N D(c c )e
(8.160)
The Grassmann elds cA(x) are called the ghost elds. It should be noticed that
the ghost carry zero spin and therefore in their particle interpretation lead to a
violation of the spin-statistics theorem. However this fact has no consequence, since
our generating functional do not generate amplitudes with external ghosts. The
action for the ghost elds can be read from the previous equation and we get
Z
e (8.164)
201
The integration over AA like in the abelian case. For the ghost eld we use eq.
(7.76) with the result
i
Z ;h ( i A
) ; ( i A )i
; ih A 1 Ai
D(c c)eihcAcA + cA + cAi = e
A A =e
(8.165)
Dening Z d4k e;ikx
AB (x) = ;AB lim
!0+ (2
)4 k2 + i
(8.166)
we get
; 2i hA(x)GAB (x ; y)B (y)i ;ihA (x)AB (x ; y)B (y)i
Z0 ] = e e (8.167)
with
AB = AB G (x ; y )
G (8.168)
It is then easy to read the Feynman's rules. For the propagators we get
.
k
µ, A ν, B
A B
202
.
µ, A
k1
k3
λ, C
ν, B k2
.
µ, A ρ, D
k1
k4
k3
ν, B k2 λ, C
.
µ, A
p q
B C
p p'
β, b γ, c
p p
p _k
Fig. 8.6.1 - One-loop fermion self-energy.
We will work in the Feynman-'t Hooft gauge, corresponding to the choice = 1 for
the gauge eld propagator (see eq. (8.169)). The Feynman rules for this diagram
are the same as in QED except for the group factors. In order to avoid group theory
complications, we will consider the case of a gauge group SU (2) with fermions in the
spinor representation, where all the group factors are easily evaluated. At the same
time we will exhibit also the general results for a theory SU (N ) with fermions in
the fundamental representation (that is the one of dimensions N ). Then, recalling
the expression for the electron self-energy in QED (see eq. (2.166)), we get
X X
1 (^p ; 4m) + f (p)
(p) = (T AT A)QED (p) = (T AT A) 8
2 QED (8.176)
A A
For SU (2) we have
X X A A
(T AT A)ab = 2 2 = 34 ab (8.177)
A A ab
205
.
= + +
a)
+ + + +
b) c) d)
+ +
e) f)
Fig. 8.6.2 - One-loop expansion of the vacuum polarization diagram in non-abelian
gauge theories.
The next task is the evaluation of Z3. To this end we need the one-loop expansion
of the gauge particle propagator (the vacuum polarization diagram). This is given
in Fig. 8.6.2.
Since we are using dimensional regularization we can see immediately that the last
three diagrams (diagrams d), e) and f)) of Fig. 8.6.2 are zero (this is not true in
other regularizations). In fact all these diagrams involve the integral
Z d2! k
(8.181)
k2
which, in dimensional regularization gives (including a mass term)
Z d2! k
k2 ; a2 = ;i
;(1 ; !)(a )
! 2 !;1 (8.182)
By taking the limit a ! 0, we see that for ! > 1 the integral vanishes.
Let us begin our calculation from the gauge particle contributions to the vacuum
polarization. The kinematics is specied in Fig. 8.6.3. We will evaluate the trun-
cated Green's function which diers by a factor ig2 from the vacuum polarization
vacuum as dened in Section 2.1. We have
a) 1 Z d2! k ;i ;i
ig2(AB = 2 (;g) f f
2 ADC DBC
(2
) 2 ! E
(p + k)2 k2 (8.183)
206
The factor 1=2 is a symmetry factor associated to the diagram and the tensor E
comes from the trilinear vertices. It is given by
E = g (p ; k) + g (2k + p) ; g (2p + k)
C, ρ
A, µ B, ν
p D, σ p
207
we get (by calling k02 with k2 )
a)
ig2(AB = ; g (;C2 (G))AB 2! dz !z(1 ; z)p2 ;(1 ; !)a + ;(2 ; !)b
2
2 (2
) 0
(8.192)
By taking only the 1= term ( = 4 ; 2!) in the expansion and integrating over z
we get
g 2 19 11
(a)
ig AB = i 16
2 C2 (G)AB 6 g p ; 3 p p
2 2 (8.193)
As we see this contribution is not transverse, that is it is not proportional to
(p p ; g p2 ), as it should be. in fact, we will see that adding to this diagram
the contribution of the ghost loop we recover the transverse factor. The ghost con-
tribution is the part b) of the expansion of Fig. 8.6.2. The relevant kinematics is
given in Fig. 8.6.4.
.
p+k
D
A, µ B, ν
p p
C
208
where we have eliminated the terms linear in k0. Then, we perform the integral over
k0
! Z1 1
(b)
ig AB = ;ig (2
)2! C2(G)AB dz z(1 ; z) 2 p ;(1 ; !) ; pp ;(2 ; !)
2 2 2
0
(8.196)
We perform now the integral in z. Then taking the limit ! ! 2, and keeping only
the leading term, we get
g 2 1 1
2 (b) 2
ig AB = i 16
2 C2(G)AB 6 p g + 3 p p (8.197)
Putting together this contribution with the former one we get
(a) (b) g 2 5
ig (AB + AB ) = ;i 8
2 3 C2 (G)AB p p ; g p2
2
(8.198)
The fermionic loop contribution is given in Fig. 8.6.5, and except for the group
factor is the same evaluated in Section 2.6.
.
p+k
A, µ B, ν
p p
2
ig2(AB 12
2 F AB (8.199)
where we have used the conventional normalization for the group generators in the
fermionic representation
Tr(T AT B ) = 12 nF AB (8.200)
where nF is the number of fundamental representations. For instance, in the case
of QCD, we have three dierent kind of quarks corresponding to dierent &avors.
Then, the one-loop leading term contribution to the vacuum polarization is given
by
a) + (b) + (c) )
ig2AB = ig2((AB
2 5
AB AB
g 2
= ;i 8
2 3 C2(G) ; 3 nF pp ; g p2
(8.201)
209
By comparison with Section 2.7 we get
g 2
Z3 = 1 + 8
2 53 C2(G) ; 32 nF (8.202)
We are now left with the vertex corrections. The fermion contribution is given by
the diagram of Fig. 8.6.6.
.
A
p' + k p+k
B B
p' k p
210
.
A, µ
p' - k p-k
B C
k
p' p
Fig. 8.6.7 - One-loop vertex correction from the trilinear gauge coupling.
Since we are interested only in the divergent piece, the calculation can be simplied
a lot by the observation that the denominator goes as (k2 )3, whereas the numerator
goes at most as k2 . Therefore the divergent piece is obtained by neglecting all the
external momenta. Therefore the expression simplies to
Z d2! k k^(g k ; 2gk + gk )
;ig g = ig f T T (2
)2!
3 A 3 ABC B C
(k2 )3
(8.207)
The group factor gives
f ABC T B T C = 2i f ABC f BCD T D = 2i C2(G)T A (8.208)
whereas the numerator gives simply ;3k2 . Then we have
Z d2! k
g
;ig g = ; (2
)2! 2 C2(G)T (k2 )2 = ;i 8
g 2 32 C2(G)T A (8.209)
3 3 3
3 A A
211
The evaluation of (g) goes as in the QED case (see Section 6.3), that is
() = ; 1 1 ; g d a = ; 1 (a ; 3a ) = a
(g) = @g@ 2 dg 1 2 1 1 1 (8.214)
that is
g 3
(g) = ; 16
2 113 C 2
2 (G) ; nF
3 (8.215)
In the case of QCD where the gauge group is SU (3) we have
C2(G) = 3 (8.216)
and therefore
QCD(g) = ; 16g
2 11 ; 23 nF
3
(8.217)
We see that QCD is asymptotically free ( (g) < 0) for
nF < 33 2
(8.218)
212
Chapter 9
Spontaneous symmetry breaking
9.1 The linear -model
In this Section and in the following we will study, from a classical point of view,
some eld theory with particular symmetry properties. We will start examining the
linear -model. This is a model for N scalar elds, with a symmetry O(N ). The
lagrangian is given by
XN XN
X
N !2
L = 2 @ i@ i ; 2 ii ; 4
1 1 2 ii (9.1)
i=1 i=1 i=1
This lagrangian is invariant under linear transformations acting upon the vector
~ = (1 N ) and leaving invariant its norm
X
N
j~j2 = ii (9.2)
i=1
Consider an innitesimal transformation (from now on we will omit the index of
sum over the indices which are repeated)
i = ij j (9.3)
The condition for letting the norm invariant gives
j~ + ~j2 = j~j2 (9.4)
from which
~ ~ = 0 (9.5)
or, in components,
iij j = 0 (9.6)
This is satised by
ij = ;ji (9.7)
213
showing that the rotations in N dimensions depend on N (N ; 1)=2 parameters. For
a nite transformation we have
j~0j2 = j~j2 (9.8)
with
0i = Sij j (9.9)
implying
SS T = 1 (9.10)
In fact, by exponentiating the innitesimal transformation one gets
S = e (9.11)
with
T = ; (9.12)
implying that S is an orthogonal transformation. The matrices S form the rotation
group in N dimensions, O(N ).
The Noether's theorem implies a conserved current for any symmetry of the
theory. In this case we will get N (N ; 1)=2 conserved quantities. It is useful for
further generalizations to write the innitesimal transformation in the form
i = ij j = ; 2i AB TijAB j i j = 1 N A B = 1 N (9.13)
which is similar to what we did in Section 3.3 when we discussed the Lorentz trans-
formations. By comparison we see that the matrices T AB are given by
TijAB = i(iAjB ; jAiB ) (9.14)
It is not dicult to show that these matrices satisfy the algebra
T AB T CD ] = ;iAC T BD + iAD T BC ; iBD T AC + iBC T AD (9.15)
This is nothing but the Lie algebra of the group O(N ), and the T AB are the in-
nitesimal generators of the group. Applying now the Noether's theorem we nd
the conserved current
j = @ (@@L ) i = ; 2i iAB TijAB j (9.16)
i
since the N (N ; 1)=2 parameters AB are linearly independent, we nd the N (N ;
1)=2 conserved currents
JAB = ;ii TijAB j (9.17)
In the case of N = 2 the symmetry is the same as for the charged eld in a real
basis, and the only conserved current is given by
J12 = ;J21 = 1 2 ; 21 (9.18)
214
One can easily check that the charges associated to the conserved currents close
the same Lie algebra as the generators T AB . More generally, if we have conserved
currents given by
jA = ;iiTijAj (9.19)
with
T A T B ] = if ABC T C (9.20)
then, using the canonical commutation relations, we get
QA QB ] = if ABC QC (9.21)
with Z Z
QA = d3x j0A(x) = ;i d3x _ iTijAj (9.22)
A particular example is the case N = 4. We parameterize our elds in the form
~ = (
1
2
3 ) = (~
) (9.23)
These elds can be arranged into a 2 2 matrix
M = + i~ ~
(9.24)
where ~ are the Pauli matrices. Noticing that 2 is pure imaginary, 1 and 3 real,
and that 2 anticommutes with 1 and 3, we get
M = 2 M 2 (9.25)
Furthermore we have the relation
j~j2 = 2 + j~
j2 = 21 Tr(M yM ) (9.26)
Using this it is easy to write the lagrangian for the -model in the form
;
L = 41 Tr(@M y @ M ) ; 14 2Tr(M yM ) ; 161 Tr(M yM ) 2 (9.27)
This lagrangian is invariant under the following transformation of the matrix M
M ! LMRy (9.28)
where L and R are two special (that is with determinant equal to 1) unitary matrices,
that is L R 2 SU (2). The reason to restrict these matrices to be special is that
only in this way the transformed matrix satisfy the condition (9.25). In fact, if A is
a 2 2 matrix with detA = 1, then
2AT 2 = A;1 (9.29)
215
Therefore, for M 0 = LMRy we get
2 M 0 2 = 2 L M RT 2 = 2 L 2 (2M 2 )2 RT 2 (9.30)
and from (9.29)
2L 2 = 2 LyT 2 = Ly;1 = L
2 RT 2 = R;1 = Ry (9.31)
since the L and R are independent transformations, the invariance group in this
basis is SU (2)L SU (2)R. In fact this group and O(4) are related by the following
observation: the transformation M ! LMRy is a linear transformation on the
matrix elements of M , but from the relation (9.26) we see that M ! LMRy leaves
the norm of the vector ~ = (~
) invariant and therefore the same must be true
for the linear transformation acting upon the matrix elements of M , that is on
and ~
. Therefore this transformation must belongs to O(4). This shows that the
two groups SU (2) SU (2) and O(4) are homomorphic (actually there is a 2 to 1
relationship, since ;L and ;R dene the same S as L and R).
We can evaluate the eect of an innitesimal transformation. To this end we
will consider separately left and right transformations. We parameterize the trans-
formations as follows
L 1 ; 2i ~L ~ R 1 ; 2i ~R ~ (9.32)
then we get
LM = (; 2i ~L ~ )M = (; 2i ~L ~ )( + i~
~
) = 21 ~L ~
+ 2i (~L ^ ~
; ~L ) ~ (9.33)
where we have used
i j = ij + iijk k (9.34)
Since
L M = L + iL~
~ (9.35)
we get
L = 21 ~L ~
L~
= 21 (~L ^ ~
; ~L) (9.36)
Analogously we obtain
R = ; 12 ~R ~
R~
= 12 (~R ^ ~
+ ~R ) (9.37)
The combined transformation is given by
= 21 (~L ; ~R ) ~
~
= 21 (~L + ~R ) ^ ~
; (~L ; ~R )] (9.38)
216
and we can check immediately that
+ ~
~
= 0 (9.39)
as it must be for a transformation leaving the form 2 + j~
j2 invariant. Of particular
interest are the transformations with ~L = ~R . In this case we have L = R and
M ! LMLy (9.40)
These transformations span a subgroup SU (2) of SU (2)L SU (2)R called the diag-
onal subgroup. In this case we have
= 0 ~
= ~ ^ ~
(9.41)
We see that the transformations corresponding to the diagonal SU (2) are the rota-
tions in the 3-dimensional space spanned by ~
. These rotations dene a subgroup
O(3) of the original symmetry group O(4). From the Noether's theorem we get the
conserved currents
jL = 21 ~L ~
+ 21 ~
(~L ^ ~
; ~L ) (9.42)
and dividing by L =2
J~L = ~
; ~
; ~
^ ~
(9.43)
and analogously
J~R = ;~
+ ~
; ~
^ ~
(9.44)
Using the canonical commutation relations one can verify that the corresponding
charges satisfy the Lie algebra of SU (2)L SU (2)R
QLi QLj] = iijk QLk QRi QRj ] = iijk QRk QLi QRj ] = 0 (9.45)
By taking the following combinations of the currents
J~V = 21 (J~L + J~R ) J~A = 12 (J~L ; J~R ) (9.46)
one has
J~V = ~
^ ~
(9.47)
and
J~A = ~
; ~
(9.48)
The corresponding algebra of charges is
QVi QVj ] = iijk QVk QVi QAj] = iijk QAk QAi QAj] = iijk QVk (9.49)
These equations show that QVi are the innitesimal generators of a subgroup SU (2)
of SU (2)L SU (2)R which is the diagonal subgroup, as it follows from
QVi
j ] = iijk
k QVi ] = 0 (9.50)
217
In the following we will be interested in treating the interacting eld theories
by using the perturbation theory. As in the quantum mechanical case, this is well
dened only when we are considering the theory close to a minimum the energy of
the system. In fact if we are going to expand around a maximum the oscillation of
the system can become very large leading us outside of the domain of perturbation
theory. In the case of the linear -model the energy is given by
Z Z "X
N # Z " X N #
H= d3x H = d3 x @ L i ; L = d x 2 (_ 2i + jr
_ 3 1 ~ ij2 ) + V (j~j2)
_
i=1 @ i i=1
(9.51)
Since in the last member of this relation the rst two terms are positive denite,
it follows that the absolute minimum is obtained for constant eld congurations,
such that
@V (j~j2) = 0 (9.52)
@i
Let us call by vi the generic solution to this equation (in general it could happen that
the absolute minimum is degenerate). Then the condition for getting a minimum is
that the eigenvalues of the matrix of the second derivatives of the potential at the
stationary point are denite positive. In this case we dene new elds by shifting
the original elds by
i ! 0i = i ; vi (9.53)
The lagrangian density becomes
L = 21 @ 0i@ 0i ; V (j~0 + ~vj2) (9.54)
Expanding V in series of 0i we get
1 @ 2 V
V = V (j~vj ) + 2 @ @ ~=~v 0i0j +
2 (9.55)
i j
This equation shows that the particle masses are given by the eigenvalues of the
second derivative of the potential at the minimum. In the case of the linear -model
we have
V = 21 2 j~j2 + 4 (j~j2)2 (9.56)
Therefore
@V = 2 + j~j2 (9.57)
i i
@i
In order to have a solution to the stationary condition we must have i = 0, or
j~j2 = ;
2
(9.58)
218
This equation has real solutions only if 2 = < 0. However, in order to have a
potential bounded from below one has to require > 0, therefore we may have non
zero solutions to the minimum condition only if 2 < 0. But, notice that in this
case, 2 cannot be identied with a physical mass, these are given by the eigenvalues
of the matrix of the second derivatives of the potential at the minimum and they
are positive denite by denition. We will study this case in the following Sections.
In the case of 2 > 0 the minimum is given by i = 0 and one can study the
theory by taking the term (j~j2)2 as a small perturbation (that is requiring that
both and the values of i, the &uctuations, are small). The free theory is given
by the quadratic terms in the lagrangian density, and they describe N particles of
common mass m. Furthermore, both the free and the interacting theories are O(N )
symmetric.
219
from which
h0jj0i = 0 (9.63)
Things change if the fundamental state is degenerate. This would be the case in the
example (9.60), if
V (2) = 2 2 + 4 4
2
(9.64)
with 2 < 0. In fact, this potential has two minima located at
r
v = ;
2
= v (9.65)
By denoting with jRi e jLi the two states corresponding to the classical congura-
tions = v, we have
P jRi = jLi 6= jRi (9.66)
Therefore
hRjjRi = hRjP ;1PP ;1P jRi = ;hLjjLi (9.67)
which now does not imply that the expectation value of the eld vanishes. In the
following we will be rather interested in the case of continuous symmetries. So let
us consider two scalar elds, and a lagrangian density with symmetry O(2)
L = 21 @ ~ @ ~ ; 21 2~ ~ ; 4 (~ ~)2 (9.68)
where
~ ~ = 21 + 22 (9.69)
For 2 > 0 there is a unique fundamental state (minimum of the potential) ~ = 0,
whereas for 2 < 0 there are innite degenerate states given by
j~j2 = 21 + 22 = v2 (9.70)
with v dened as in (9.65). By denoting with R() the operator rotating the elds
in the plane (1 2), in the non-degenerate case we have
R()j0i = j0i (9.71)
and
h0jj0i = h0jR;1RR;1 Rj0i = h0j j0i = 0 (9.72)
since 6= . In the case 2 < 0 (degenerate case), we have
R()j0i = ji (9.73)
where ji is one of the innitely many degenerate fundamental states lying on the
circle j~j2 = v2. Then
h0jij0i = h0jR;1()R()iR;1()R()j0i = hji ji (9.74)
220
with
i = R()iR;1() 6= i (9.75)
Again, the expectation value of the eld (contrarily to the non-degenerate state)
does not need to vanish. The situation can be described qualitatively saying that the
existence of a degenerate fundamental state forces the system to choose one of these
equivalent states, and consequently to break the symmetry. But the breaking is only
at the level of the solutions, the lagrangian and the equations of motion preserve
the symmetry. One can easily construct classical systems exhibiting spontaneous
symmetry breaking. For instance, a classical particle in a double-well potential.
This system has parity invariance x ! ;x, where x is the particle position. The
equilibrium positions are around the minima positions, x0 . If we put the particle
close to x0 , it will perform oscillations around that point and the original symmetry
is lost. A further example is given by a ferromagnet which has an hamiltonian
invariant under rotations, but below the Curie temperature exhibits spontaneous
magnetization, breaking in this way the symmetry. These situations are typical for
the so called second order phase transitions. One can describe them through the
Landau free-energy, which depends on two dierent kind of parameters:
Control parameters, as 2 for the scalar eld, and the temperature for the
ferromagnet.
Order parameters, as the expectation value of the scalar eld or as the
magnetization.
The system goes from one phase to another varying the control parameters, and the
phase transition is characterized by the order parameters which assume dierent
values in dierent phases. In the previous examples, the order parameters were zero
in the symmetric phase and dierent from zero in the broken phase.
The situation is slightly more involved at the quantum level, since spontaneous
symmetry breaking cannot happen in nite systems. This follows from the existence
of the tunnel eect. Let us consider again a particle in a double-well potential, and
recall that we have dened the fundamental states through the correspondence with
the classical minima
x = x0 ! jRi
x = ;x0 ! jLi (9.76)
But the tunnel eect gives rise to a transition between these two states and as a
consequence it removes the degeneracy. In fact, due to the transition the hamiltonian
acquires a non zero matrix element between the states jRi and jLi. By denoting
with H the matrix of the hamiltonian between these two states, we get
H= 0 1 1 0 (9.77)
221
The eigenvalues of H are
(0 + 1 0 ; 1) (9.78)
We have no more degeneracy and the eigenstates are
jS i = p1 (jRi + jLi) (9.79)
2
with eigenvalue ES = 0 + 1 , and
jAi = p1 (jRi ; jLi) (9.80)
2
with eigenvalue EA = 0 ; 1 . One can show that 1 < 0 and therefore the funda-
mental state is the symmetric one, jS i. This situation gives rise to the well known
eect of quantum oscillations. We can express the states jRi and jLi in terms of
the energy eigenstates
jRi = p12 (jS i + jAi)
jLi = p12 (jS i ; jAi) (9.81)
Let us now prepare a state, at t = 0, by putting the particle in the right minimum.
This is not an energy eigenstate and its time evolution is given by
1 ;iES t ; iE t 1 ;iES t ; it E
jR ti = p e jS i + e A jAi = p e jS i + e jAi (9.82)
2 2
with E = EA ; ES . Therefore, for t =
=E the state jRi transforms into the
state jLi. The state oscillates with a period given by
T = 2
E (9.83)
In nature there are nite systems as sugar molecules, which seem to exhibit sponta-
neous symmetry breaking. In fact one observes right-handed and left-handed sugar
molecules. The explanation is simply that the energy dierence E is so small that
the oscillation period is of the order of 104 ; 106 years.
The splitting of the fundamental states decreases with the height of the potential
between two minima, therefore, for innite systems, the previous mechanism does
not work, and we may have spontaneous symmetry breaking. In fact, coming back
to the scalar eld example, its expectation value on the vacuum must be a constant,
as it follows from the translational invariance of the vacuum
h0j(x)j0i = h0jeiPx(0)e;iPx j0i = h0j(0)j0i = v (9.84)
and the energy dierence between the maximum at = 0, and the minimum at
= v, becomes innite in the limit of innite volume
Z 2 4 Z
H ( = 0) ; H ( = v) = ; d x 2 v2 + 4 v4 = 4 d3x = 4 V (9.85)
4
3
V V
222
9.3 The Goldstone theorem
From our point of view, the most interesting consequence of spontaneous symmetry
breaking is the Goldstone theorem. This theorem says that for any continuous
symmetry spontaneously broken, there exists a massless particle (the Goldstone
boson). The theorem holds rigorously in a local eld theory, under the following
hypotheses
The spontaneous broken symmetry must be a continuous one.
The theory must be manifestly covariant.
The Hilbert space of the theory must have a denite positive norm.
We will limit ourselves to analyze the theorem in the case of a classical scalar eld
theory. Let us start considering the lagrangian for the linear -model with invariance
O(N )
L = 21 @ ~ @ ~ ; 2 ~ ~ ; 4 (~ ~)2
2
(9.86)
The conditions that V must satisfy in order to have a minimum are
@V = 2 + j~j2 = 0 (9.87)
l l
@l
with solutions r 2
l = 0 j~j = v v = ;
2 2 (9.88)
The character of the stationary points can be studied by evaluating the second
derivatives
@ 2 V = (2 + j~j2) + 2 (9.89)
@l @m lm l m
We have two possibilities
2 > 0, we have only one real solution given by ~ = 0, which is a minimum,
since
@ 2 V = 2 > 0 (9.90)
lm
@ @
l m
2 < 0, there are innite solutions, among which ~ = 0 is a maximum. The
points of the sphere j~j2 = v2 are degenerate minima. In fact, by choosing
l = vlN as a representative point, we get
@ 2 V = 2v2 > 0 (9.91)
lN mN
@l @m
223
Expanding the potential around this minimum we get
2 V
V (~) V minimum + 21 @@ @ (l ; vlN )(m ; vmN ) (9.92)
l m minimum
If we are going to make a perturbative expansion, the right elds to be used are
l ; vlN , and their mass is just given by the coecient of the quadratic term
20 0 0 3
2 V 6 7 (9.93)
Mlm = @ @ minimo = ;22 lN mN = 64 0 0 0 75
2 @
l m
0 0 ;22
Therefore the masses of the elds a, a = 1 N ; 1 , and = N ; v, are given
by
m2 a = 0 m2 = ;22 (9.94)
By dening
m2 = ;22 (9.95)
we can write the potential as a function of the new elds
r
NX;1 !
NX;1 !2
m4 + 1 m2 2 + m2
V = 16 2a + 2 + 4 2a + 2 (9.96)
2 2 a=1 a=1
In this form the original symmetry O(N ) is broken. However a P residual symmetry
O(N ; 1) is left. In fact, V depends only on the combination Na=1;1 2a, and it is
invariant under rotations around the axis we have chosen as representative for the
fundamental state, (0 v). It must be stressed that this is not the most general
potential invariant under O(N ; 1). In fact the most general potential (up to the
fourth order in the elds) describing N scalar elds with a symmetry O(N ; 1)
would depend on 7 coupling constants, whereas the one we got depends only on the
two parameters m and . Therefore spontaneous symmetry breaking puts heavy
constraints on the dynamics of the system. We have also seen that we have N ; 1
massless scalars. Clearly the rotations along the rst N ; 1 directions leave the
potential invariant, whereas the N ; 1 rotations on the planes a ; N move away
from the surface of the minima. This can be seen also in terms of generators. Since
the eld we have chosen as representative of the ground state is ijmin = viN , we
have
Tijab j jmin = i(iajb ; ib ja)vjN = 0 (9.97)
since a b = 1 N ; 1, and
TijaN j jmin = i(ia jN ; iN ja )vjN = ivia 6= 0 (9.98)
Therefore we have N ; 1 broken symmetries and N ; 1 massless scalars. The
generators of O(N ) divide up naturally in the generators of the vacuum symmetry
224
(here O(N ; 1)), and in the so called broken generators, each of them corresponding
to a massless Goldstone boson. In general, if the original symmetry group G of the
theory is spontaneously broken down to a subgroup H (which is the symmetry of
the vacuum), the Goldstone bosons correspond to the generators of G which are left
after subtracting the generators of H . Intuitively one can understand the origin of
the massless particles noticing that the broken generators allow transitions from a
possible vacuum to another. Since these states are degenerate the operation does
not cost any energy. From the relativistic dispersion relation this implies that we
must have massless particles. One can say that Goldstone bosons correspond to &at
directions in the potential.
L = 21 @ ~ @ ~ ; 2 ~ ~ ; 4 (~ ~)2
2
(9.99)
and let us analyze the spontaneous symmetry breaking mechanism. If 2 < 0 the
symmetry is broken and we can choose the vacuum as the state
r
v = ;
2
~ = (v 0) (9.100)
225
After the translation 1 = + v, with h0jj0i = 0, we get the potential (m2 = ;22 )
r
m4 + 1 m2 2 + m2 (2 + 2 ) ; (2 + 2)2
V = ; 16 (9.101)
2 2 2 4 2
In this case the group O(2) is completely broken (except for the discrete symmetry
2 ! ;2). The Goldstone eld is 2 . This has a peculiar way of transforming
under O(2). In fact, the original elds transform as
1 = ;2 2 = 1 (9.102)
from which
= ;2 2 = + v (9.103)
We see that the Goldstone eld undergoes a rotation plus a translation, v. This
is the main reason for the Goldstone particle to be massless. In fact one can have
invariance under translations of the eld, only if the potential is &at in the corre-
sponding direction. This is what happens when one moves in a way which is tangent
to the surface of the degenerate vacuums (in this case a circle). How do things change
if our theory is gauge invariant? In that case we should have invariance under a
transformation of the Goldstone eld given by
2(x) = (x)(x) + (x)v (9.104)
Since (x) is an arbitrary function of the space-time point, it follows that we can
choose it in such a way to make 2(x) vanish. In other words it must be possible
to eliminate the Goldstone eld from the theory. This is better seen by using polar
coordinates for the elds, that is
q2 2
= 1 + 2 sin = p 22 2 (9.105)
1 + 2
Under a nite rotation, the new elds transform as
! !+ (9.106)
It should be also noticed that the two coordinate systems coincide when we are close
to the vacuum, as when we are doing perturbation theory. In fact, in that case we
can perform the following expansion
q
= 22 + 2 + 2v + v2 v + v +2 v2 (9.107)
Again, if we make the theory invariant under a local transformation, we will have
invariance under
(x) ! (x) + (x) (9.108)
226
By choosing (x) = ;(x) we can eliminate this last eld from the theory. The only
remaining degree of freedom in the scalar sector is (x).
Let us study the gauging of this model. It is convenient to introduce complex
variables
= p1 (1 + i2) y = p1 (1 ; i2) (9.109)
2 2
The O(2) transformations become phase transformations on
! ei (9.110)
and the lagrangian (9.99) can be written as
L = @ y@ ; 2y ; (y)2 (9.111)
We know that it is possible to promote a global symmetry to a local one by intro-
ducing the covariant derivative
@ ! (@ ; igA) (9.112)
from which
L = (@ + igA)y(@ ; igA) ; 2y ; (y)2 ; 14 F F (9.113)
In terms of the polar coordinates ( ) we have
= p1 ei y = p1 e;i (9.114)
2 2
By performing the following gauge transformation on the scalars
! 0 = e;i (9.115)
and the corresponding transformation on the gauge elds
A ! A0 = A ; g1 @ (9.116)
the lagrangian will depend only on the elds and A0 (we will put again A0 = A )
227
and we see that this generates a bilinear term in A , coming from the covariant
derivative, given by
1 g 2 v 2 A A (9.119)
2
Therefore the gauge eld acquires a mass
m2A = g2v2 (9.120)
It is instructive to count the degrees of freedom before and after the gauge trans-
formation. Before we had 4 degrees of freedom, two from the scalar elds and two
from the gauge eld. After the gauge transformation we have only one degree of
freedom from the scalar sector, but three degrees of freedom from the gauge vector,
because now it is a massive vector eld. The result looks a little bit strange, but
the reason why we may read clearly the number of degrees of freedom only after the
gauge transformation is that before the lagrangian contains a mixing term
A @ (9.121)
between the Goldstone eld and the gauge vector which makes complicate to read
the mass of the states. The previous gauge transformation realizes the purpose of
making that term vanish. The gauge in which such a thing happens is called the
unitary gauge.
We will consider now the further example of a symmetry O(N ). The lagrangian
invariant under local transformations is
L = 21 (D)ij j (D)ik k ; 2 ii ; 4 (ii)2
2
(9.122)
where
(D)ij = ij @ + i g (T AB )ij WAB (9.123)
2
where (T AB )lm = i(lAmB ; mA lB ). In the case of broken symmetry (2 < 0), we
choose again the vacuum along the direction N , with v dened as in (9.100)
i = viN (9.124)
Recalling that
Tijabj min = 0 TijaN j min = ivia a b = 1 N ; 1 (9.125)
the mass term for the gauge eld is given by
; 18 g2TijAB j min(T CD )ik k minWAB W CD
= ; 14 g2TijaN j (T bN )ik k WaN W bN
min min
1 1
= g2v2ia ibWaN W bN = g2v2WaN W bN (9.126)
4 4
228
Therefore, the elds WaN associated to the broken directions T aN acquire a mass
g2v2=2, whereas Wab , associated to the unbroken symmetry O(N ; 1), remain mass-
less.
In general, if G is the global symmetry group of the lagrangian, H the subgroup
of G leaving invariant the vacuum, and GW the group of local (gauge) symmetries,
GW 2 G, one can divide up the broken generators in two categories. In the rst
category fall the broken generators lying in GW they have associated massive vector
bosons. In the second category fall the other broken generators they have associated
massless Goldstone bosons. Finally the gauge elds associated to generators of GW
lying in H remain massless. From the previous derivation this follows noticing that
the generators of H annihilate the minimum of the elds, leaving the corresponding
gauge bosons massless, whereas the non zero action of the broken generators generate
a mass term for the other gauge elds.
The situation is represented in Fig. 9.4.1.
H GW
Fig. 6.1 -This gure shows the various groups, G, the global symmetry of the
lagrangian, H 2 G, the symmetry of the vacuum, and GW , the group of local sym-
metries. The broken generators in GW correspond to massive vector bosons. The
broken generators do not belonging to GW correspond to massless Goldstone bosons.
Th unbroken generators in GW correspond to massless vector bosons.
We can now show how to eliminate the Goldstone bosons. In fact we can dene
new elds a and as aN
i = e;iT a ( + v) (9.127)
iN
where a = 1 N ; 1, that is the sum is restricted to the broken directions. The
other degree of freedom is in the other factor. The correspondence among the elds
229
~ and (a ) can be seen easily by expanding around the vacuum
aN
e;iT a iN ; i(T aN )iN a = iN + iaa (9.128)
iN
from which
i (a + v) (9.129)
showing that the a's are really the Goldstone elds. The unitary gauge is dened
through the transformation
aN
i ! eiT a j = iN ( + v) (9.130)
ij
W ! eiT a We;iT a ; gi @ eiT a e;iT a
aN aN aN aN
(9.131)
This transformation eliminates the Goldstone degrees of freedom and the resulting
lagrangian depends on the eld , on the massive vector elds WaN and on the
massless eld Wab. Notice again the counting of the degrees of freedom N +2N (N ;
1)=2 = N 2 in a generic gauge, and 1 + 3(N ; 1) + 2(N ; 1)(N ; 2)=2 = N 2 in the
unitary gauge.
The rst term is the usual covariant gauge xing. The second term, after integration
by parts reads
+ gvW@ (9.157)
and we see that with the choice
= (9.158)
it cancels the unwanted mixing term. Finally the third contribution
; 12 g2v22 (9.159)
is a mass term for the Goldstone eld
m2 = g2v2 = m2W (9.160)
However this mass is gauge dependent (it depends on the arbitrary parameter )
and this is a signal of the fact that in this gauge the Goldstone eld is ctitious.
In fact remember that it disappears in the unitary gauge. We will see later, in an
example, that evaluating a physical amplitude the contribution of the Goldstone
disappears, as it should be. Finally we have to consider the ghost contribution from
the Faddeev-Popov determinant. For this purpose we need to know the variation of
the gauge xing f under an innitesimal gauge transformation
f (x) = g1 (x) + gv(x)((x) + v) (9.161)
giving
f (x) = 1 4 (x ; y) + gv ((x) + v)4(x ; y) (9.162)
(y) g
Therefore the ghost lagrangian can be written as
c c + g2v2cc + gvcc (9.163)
Notice that in contrast with QED, the ghosts cannot be ignored, since they are cou-
pled to the Higgs eld. We are now in the position of reading the various propagators
from the quadratic part of the lagrangian
233
Higgs propagator (): k2 ;i m2
Goldstone propagator (): k2 ; im2
W
236
The corresponding amplitude is
2
Mf = pf u!(p0)5u(p) q2 ; im2 u!(k0 )5u(k) (9.181)
2 W
where q = p ; p0 = k0 ; k. The Feynman rule for the W-fermion vertex is given in
Fig. 9.6.3.
.
(9.190)
The rst piece is the propagator in the unitary gauge, whereas the second piece is
cancelled by the Goldstone boson contribution.
238
Chapter 10
The Standard model of the
electroweak interactions
10.1 The Standard Model of the electroweak in-
teractions
We will dscribe now the Weinberg Salam model for the electroweak interactions.
Let us recall that the Fermi theory of weak interactions is based on a lagrangian
involving four Fermi elds. This lagrangian can be written as the product of two
currents which are the sum of various pieces.
LF = GpF J(+) J (;) (10.1)
2
Limiting for the moment our considerations to the charged current for the electron
and its neutrino (here e)), the current is given by
J(+) = !e (1 ; 5) J(;) = J(+) y = ! (1 ; 5)e (10.2)
To understand the symmetry hidden in this couplings it is convenient to introduce
the following spinors with 2 4 components
( ) 1 ;
L = ( )L = 2 5 (10.3)
e L e
where we have introduced left-handed elds. The right-handed spinors, projected
out with (1 + 5)=2, don't feel the weak interaction. This is, in fact, the physical
meaning of the V ; A interaction. By using
; ;
L! = (! )L (!e)L = ! !e 1 +2 5 (10.4)
239
we can write the weak currents in the following way
; 0
(+) ! 1 + 5 1 ; 5 ! !
J = 2e 2 2 = 2 ( )L (e)L ( )
; L
= 2 (! )L (!e)L 01 00 (( ))L = 2L! ;L (10.5)
e L
where we have dened
= 1 2 i2 (10.6)
the i 's being the Pauli matrices. Analogously
J(;) = 2L! + L (10.7)
In the fties the hypothesis of the intermediate vector bosons was advanced. Ac-
cording to this idea the Fermi theory was to be regarded as the low energy limit
of a theory where the currents were coupled to vector bosons, very much as QED.
However, due to the short range of the weak interactions these vector bosons had to
have mass. The interaction among the vector bosons and the fermions is given by
242
In this expression we recognize the charged interaction with W . We have also, as
expected, two neutral vector bosons W 3 and Y . The photon must couple to the
electromagnetic current which is a linear combination of j 3 and j Y . The neutral
vector bosons are coupled to these two currents, so we expect the photon eld,
A , to be a linear combination of W3 and Y . It is convenient to introduce two
orthogonal combination of these two elds, Z , and A. The mixing angle can be
identied through the requirement that the current coupled to A is exactly the
electromagnetic current with coupling constant e. Let us consider the part of Lint
involving the neutral couplings
0
LNC = gj3 W3 + g2 jY Y (10.34)
By putting ( is called the Weinberg angle)
W3 = Z cos + A sin
Y = ;Z sin + A cos (10.35)
we get
1
1
LNC = g sin j + g cos 2 j A + g cos j ; g sin 2 j Z (10.36)
3 0 Y 3 0 Y
Since QY and Qi commute, both the components of the doublet must have the same
value of QY , and using again eq. (10.45), we get
Qem(+) = 12 + 21 = 1 (10.47)
which justies the notation + for the upper component of the doublet.
244
The most general lagrangian for # with the global symmetry SU (2) U (1) and
containing terms of dimension lower or equal to four (in order to have a renormal-
izable theory) is
LHiggs = @ #y@ # ; 2#y# ; (#y#)2 (10.48)
where > 0 and 2 < 0. The potential has innitely many minima on the surface
2
j#jminimum = ; 2 = 2
2 v 2
(10.49)
with
v =;
2 2
(10.50)
Let us choose the vacuum as the state
0
h0j#j0i = v=p2 (10.51)
By putting
# = v=0p2 + (h + i)=p2 #0 + #0
+
(10.52)
with
h0j#0j0i = 0 (10.53)
we get
j#j2 = 12 v2 + vh + j+j2 + 21 (h2 + 2) (10.54)
from which
1 4 1
1 2
VHiggs = ; 4 + v h + 2vh j j + 2 (h + ) + j j + 2 (h + )
2 2 + 2 2 2 + 2 2 2
(10.55)
From this expression we read immediately the particle masses (; = (+)y)
m2 = m2 + = m2 = 0
; (10.56)
and
m2h = 2v2 = ;22 (10.57)
It is also convenient to express the parameters appearing in the original form of the
potential in terms of m2h e v (2 = ;2m2h, = 2m2h=v2). In this way we get
m2h h2 + m2h h j+j2 + 1 (h2 + 2) + m2h j+j2 + 1 (h2 + 2) 2
VHiggs = ;2m2h + 2 v 2 2v2 2
(10.58)
Summarizing we have three massless Goldstone bosons and , and a massive
scalar h. This is called the Higgs eld.
245
As usual, by now, we promote the global symmetry to a local one by introducing
the covariant derivative. Recalling that # 2 (2 1) of SU (2) U (1), we have
0
DH = @ ; i g2 ~ W
~ ; i g Y
2 (10.59)
and
LHiggs = (DH #)yDH # ; 2#y# ; (#y#)2 (10.60)
To study the mass generation it is convenient to write # in a way analogous to the
one used in eq. (9.127) 0
#=e i~ ~
=v p (10.61)
(v + h)= 2
According to our rules the exponential should contain the broken generators. In fact
there are 1 , and 2 which are broken. Furthermore it should contain the combination
of 1 and 3 which is broken (remember that (1 + 3 )=2 is the electric charge of the
doublet #, and it is conserved). But, at any rate, 3 is a broken generator, so the
previous expression gives a good representation of # around the vacuum. In fact,
expanding around this state
~
0 1 + i =v i( ; i )=v 0
i ~
=v p p
(v + h)= 2 i(1 + i2 )=v 1 ; i3=v
e 3 1 2
(v + h)= 2
1
i( ; i )
p (v +1h ; i2 3) (10.62)
2
p
and introducing real components for # (+ = (1 ; i2)= 2)
1
; i
# = p v +1 h + i 2 (10.63)
2
we get the relation among the two sets of coordinates
(1 2 h) (2 ;1 ;3 h) (10.64)
By performing the gauge transformation
# ! e;i~ ~ =v # (10.65)
~ ~ ! e;i~ ~ =v W
W ~ ~ ei~ ~ =v + i @ e;i~ ~ =v ei~ ~ =v (10.66)
2 2 g
Y ! Y (10.67)
the Higgs lagrangian
p remains invariant in form, except for the substitution of # with
(0 (v + h)= 2). We will also denote old and new gauge elds with the same symbol.
Dening 0 1
#d = 1 #u = 0 (10.68)
246
the mass terms for the scalar elds can be read by substituting, in the kinetic term,
# with its expectation value
# ! pv #d (10.69)
2
We get
g g 0 v g g g 0 v
~
;i 2 ~ W + 2 Y p #d = ;i p (; W + +W ) + 2 3 W + 2 Y p #d
; + 3
2 2
2
= ;i pv pg W +#u ; 1 (gW 3 ; g0Y )#d (10.70)
2 2 2
Since #d and #u are orthogonals, the mass term is
v2 g2 jW +j2 + 1 (gW 3 ; g0Y )2
2 2 4 (10.71)
From eq. (10.37) we have tan = g0=g, and therefore
0
sin = p 2g 02 cos = p 2g 02 (10.72)
g +g g +g
allowing us to write the mass term in the form
v2 g2 jW +j2 + g2 + g02 (W 3 cos ; Y sin )2 (10.73)
2 2 4
From eq. (10.35) we see that the neutral elds combination is just the Z eld,
orthogonal to the photon. In this way we get
g2v2 jW +j2 + 1 g2 + g02 v2Z 2 (10.74)
4 2 4
Finally the mass of the vector bosons is given by
MW2 = 14 g2v2 MZ2 = 41 (g2 + g02)v2 (10.75)
Notice that the masses of the W and of the Z are not independent, since their
ratio is determined by the Weinberg angle, or from the gauge coupling constants
MW2 = g2 = cos2 (10.76)
MZ2 g2 + g02
Let us now discuss the parameters that we have so far in the theory. The gauge
interaction introduces the two gauge couplings g and g0, which can also be expressed
in terms of the electric charge (or the ne structure constant), and of the Weinberg
angle. The Higgs sector brings in two additional parameters, the mass of the Higgs,
247
mh, and the expectation value of the eld #, v. The Higgs particle has not been yet
discovered, and at the moment we have only an experimental lower bound on mh,
from LEP, which is given by mh > 60 GeV . The parameter v can be expressed in
terms of the Fermi coupling constant GF . In fact, from eq. (10.9)
G
pF = 8Mg 2
2
(10.77)
2 W
using the expression for MW2 , we get
v2 = p 1 (246 GeV )2 (10.78)
2GF
Therefore, the three parameters g, g0 and v can be traded for e, sin2 and GF .
Another possibility is to use the mass of the Z
MZ2 = 14 p 1 e2 =p
(10.79)
2
2GF sin cos 2 2GF sin2 cos2
to eliminate sin2 " s #
1
sin2 = 2 1 ; 1 ; p 4
(10.80)
2GF MZ2
The rst alternative has been the one used before LEP. However, after LEP1, the
mass of the Z is very well known
MZ = (91:1863 0:0020) GeV (10.81)
Therefore, the parameters that are now used as input in the SM are , GF and MZ .
The last problem we have to solve is how to give mass to the electron, since it is
impossible to construct bilinear terms in the electron eld which are invariant under
the gauge group. The solution is that we can build up trilinear invariant terms in
the electron eld and in #. Once the eld # acquires a non vanishing expectation
value, due to the breaking of the symmetry, the trilinear term generates the electron
mass. Recalling the behaviour of the elds under SU (2) U (1)
L 2 (2 ;1) R 2 (1 ;2) # 2 (2 +1) (10.82)
we see that the following coupling (Yukawian coupling) is invariant
+
! ! !
LY = geL#R + h:c: = ge ( )L (e)L ] 0 (e )R + h:c: (10.83)
In the unitary gauge, which is obtained by using the transformation (10.65) both
for # and for the lepton eld L, we get
0
LY = ge (! )L (!e )L ] (v + h)=p2 (e )R + h:c: (10.84)
248
from which
LY = gpev (!e)L(e )R + pge (!e)L (e)Rh + h:c: (10.85)
2 2
Since
(!e)L(e)R ]y = (!e 1 + 5 e)y = ey 1 + 5 0e = !e 1 ; 5 e = (!e)R (e)L
2 2 2
(10.86)
we get
LY = gpev !ee + pge !e eh (10.87)
2 2
Therefore the symmetry breaking generates an electron mass given by
me = ; gpev (10.88)
2
In summary, we have been able to reproduce all the phenomenological features
of the V ; A theory and its extension to neutral currents. This has been done with a
theory that, before spontaneous symmetry breaking is renormalizable. In fact, also
the Yukawian coupling has only dimension 3. The proof that the renormalizability
of the theory holds also in the case of spontaneous symmetry breaking (2 < 0)
is absolutely non trivial. In fact the proof was given only at the beginning of the
seventies by 't Hooft.
249
Phenomenologically, from the hyperon decays it was known that it was necessary a
further current involving the quark s, given by
Js() = 2+! 0L +0L (10.92)
with u
+0
L=
L
sL = 1 ; 5 us (10.93)
2
Furthermore the total current contributing to the Fermi interaction had to be of the
form
Jh = Jd cos C + Js sin C (10.94)
where C is the Cabibbo angle, and
sin C = 0:21 0:03 (10.95)
The presence of the angle in the current was necessary in order to explain why the
weak decays strangeness violating (that is the ones corresponding to the transition
u $ s, as K + ! +) where suppressed with respect to the decays strangeness
conserving. Collecting together the two currents we get
Jh() = 2Q! L QL (10.96)
with
QL = d cos u+L s sin duCL (10.97)
L C L C L
and
dCL = dL cos C + sL sin C (10.98)
This allows us to assign QL to the representation (2 1=3) of SU (2) U (1). In fact,
from
Qem = Q3 + 21 QY (10.99)
we get
QY (uL) = 2( 23 ; 21 ) = 13 (10.100)
and (Qem(s) = Qem(d) = ;1=3)
QY (dCL ) = 2(; 31 + 21 ) = 13 (10.101)
As far as the right-handed components are concerned, we assign them to SU (2)
singlets, obtaining
uR 2 (1 34 ) dCR 2 (1 ; 23 ) (10.102)
250
Therefore, the hadronic neutral currents contribution from quarks u d s are given
by
j3 = Q! L 23 QL (10.103)
jY = 13 Q! L QL + 43 u!R uR ; 32 d!CR dCR (10.104)
Since the Z is coupled to the combination j3 ; sin2 jY , it is easily seen that the
coupling contains a bilinear term in the eld dC given by
; cos2 Z d!CL dCL + 13 sin2 Z d!CR dCR
2
(10.105)
This gives rise to terms of the type ds ! and s!d which produce strangeness changing
neutral current transitions . However the experimental result is that these transitions
are strongly suppressed. In a more general way we can get this result from the simple
observation that W3 is coupled to the current j3 which has an associated charge Q3
which can be obtained by commuting the charges Q1 and Q2
Z Z
Q1 Q2 ] = d ~xd ~y QL1 QL QL 2QL ] = d3~x QyL 1 2 ]QL
3 3 y y
Z Z
= i d3~x QyL 3 QL = i d3~x(uyLuL ; dCL ydCL ) (10.106)
The last term is just the charge associated to a Flavour Changing Neutral Current
(FCNC). We can compare the strength of a FCNC transition, which from
dC ydC = dyd cos2 C + sys sin2 C + (dys + syd) sin C cos C (10.107)
is proportional to sin C cos C , with the strength of a &avour changing charged
current transition as u ! s, which is proportional to sin C . From this comparison
we expect the two transitions to be of the same order of magnitude. But if we
compare K 0 ! +; induced by the neutral current , with K + ! + induced by
the charged current (see Fig. 2.3), using BR(K 0 ! +;), we nd
;(K 0 ! +;) 6 10;5 (10.108)
;(K + ! + )
This problem was solved in 1970 by the suggestion (Glashow Illiopoulos and
Maiani, GIM) that another quark with charge +2/3 should exist, the charm. Then,
one can form two left-handed doublets
u c
QL = dC QL = sCL
1 L 2 (10.109)
L L
where
sCL = ;dL sin C + sL cos C (10.110)
251
d + u +
0 Z µ + W
+ µ
K K
–
– µ – νµ
s s
Fig. 10.3.1 - The neutral current avour changing process K 0 ! +; and he
charged current avour changing process K + ! + .
252
leptonic doublets
e
e; L ; L ; L (10.115)
there are three quark doublets
u c t
d L s L b L (10.116)
We will show later that experimental evidences for the quark b to belong to a doublet
came out from PEP and PETRA much before the discovery of top. Summarizing
we have three generations of quarks and leptons. Each generation includes two
left-handed doublets u
A A A = 1 2 3 (10.117)
e;A L d A L
and the corresponding right-handed singlets. Inside each generation the total charge
is equal to zero. In fact
X 2 1
tot
Qi = Qf = 0 ; 1 + 3 3 ; 3 = 0 (10.118)
f 2gen
where we have also taken into account that each quark comes in three colors. This
is very important because it guarantees the renormalizability of the SM. In fact, in
general there are quantum corrections to the divergences of the currents destroying
their conservation. However, the conservation of the currents coupled to the Yang-
Mills elds is crucial for the renormalization properties. In the case of the SM for
the electroweak interactions one can show that the condition for the absence of these
corrections (Adler, Bell, Jackiw anomalies) is that the total electric charge of the
elds is zero.
We will complete now the formulation of the SM for the quark sector, showing
that the mixing of dierent quarks arises naturally from the fact that the quark
mass eigenstates are not necessarily the same elds which couple to the gauge elds.
We will denote the last ones by
0 u0
0 0
`AL = e0 qAL = d0A A = 1 2 3
A (10.119)
A L A L
and the right-handed singlets by
e0AR u0AR d0AR (10.120)
We assume that the neutrinos are massless and that they do not have any right-
handed partner. The gauge interaction is then
X! ~
~+g Q Y (fL )
L = fAL i@ + g 2 W 0
2 Y fAL
X! Y (fR )
fL
+ fAR i@ + g 2 0 Q fAR (10.121)
fR
253
where fAL = `0AL qAL
0 , and fAR = e0 u0 d0 . We recall also the weak hyper-
AR AR AR
charge assignments
QY (`0AL) = ;1 QY (qAL0 )= 1
3
QY (e0AR ) = ;2 QY (u0AR) = 43
QY (d0AR ) = ; 23 (10.122)
Let us now see how to give mass to quarks. We start with up and down quarks, and
a Yukawian coupling given by
gdq!L #dR + h:c: (10.123)
wherep# is the Higgs doublet. When this takes its expectation value, h#i =
(0 v= 2), a mass term for the down quark is generated
gpd v ;d! d + d! d = gpdv dd
! (10.124)
2 LR R L 2
p
corresponding to a mass md = ;gd v= 2. In order to give mass to the up quark we
need to introduce the conjugated Higgs doublet dened as
(0)?
#~ = i2 #? = ; ( )
+ ? (10.125)
254
These matrices give mass respectively to the charged leptons and to the up and
down of quarks. They can be diagonalized by a biunitary transformation
Mdi = S yM i T (10.130)
where S and T are unitary matrices (depending on i) and Mdi are three diagonal
matrices. Furthermore one can take the eigenvalues to be positive. This follows
from the polar decomposition of an arbitrary matrix
M = HU (10.131)
p
where H y = H = MM y is a hermitian denite positive matrix and U y = U ;1 is a
unitary matrix. Therefore, if the unitary matrix S diagonalizes H we have
Hdi = S yHS = S yMU ;1 S = S yMT (10.132)
with T = U ;1 S is a unitary matrix. Each of the mass terms has the structure
!L0 MR0 . Then we get
!L0 MR0 = !L0 S (S yMT )T yR0 !LMd R (10.133)
where we have dened the mass eigenstates
L0 = SL R0 = TR (10.134)
We can now express the charged current in terms of the mass eigenstates. We have
0 q 0 = 2!u0 d0 = 2!
J+(h) = 2!qAL uAL((S u);1S d )AB dBL (10.135)
; AL AL AL
Dening
V = (S u);1S d V y = V ;1 (10.136)
we get
V)
Jh(+) = 2!uALd(AL (10.137)
with
V) = V d
d(AL (10.138)
AB BL
The matrix V is called the Cabibbo-Kobayashi-Maskawa (CKM) matrix, and it
describes the mixing among the down type of quarks (this is conventional we could
have chosen to mix the up quarks as well). We see that its physical origin is that,
in general, there are no relations between the mass matrix of the up quarks, M u,
and the mass matrix of the down quarks, M d . The neutral currents are expressions
which are diagonal in the "primed" states, therefore their expression is the same also
in the basis of the mass eigenstates, due to the unitarity of the various S matrices.
In fact
jh(3) u!0Lu0L ; d!0Ld0L = u!L(S u);1S uuL ; d!L(S d );1S ddL = u!LuL ; d!LdL (10.139)
255
For the charged leptonic current, since we have assumed massless neutrinos we get
J`(+) = 2!AL(S e)AB eBL 2!AL
0 e
AL (10.140)
where L0 = (S e)yL is again a massless eigenstate. Therefore, there is no mixing
in the leptonic sector, among dierent generations. However this is tied to our
assumption of massless neutrinos. By relaxing this assumption we may generate a
mixing in the leptonic sector producing a violation of the dierent leptonic numbers.
It is interesting to discuss in a more detailed way the structure of the CKM
matrix. In the case we have n generations of quarks and leptons, the matrix V ,
being unitary, depends on n2 parameters. However one is free to choose in an
arbitrary way the phase for the 2n up and down quark elds. But an overall phase
does not change V . Therefore the CKM matrix depends only on
n2 ; (2n ; 1) = (n ; 1)2 (10.141)
parameters. We can see that, in general, it is impossible to choose the phases in such
a way to make V real. In fact a real unitary matrix is nothing but an orthogonal
matrix which depends on
n(n ; 1) (10.142)
2
real parameters. This means that V will depend on a number of phases given by
number of phases = (n ; 1)2 ; n(n ; 1) = (n ; 1)(n ; 2) (10.143)
2 2
Then, in the case of two generations V depends only on one real parameter (the
Cabibbo angle). For three generations V depends on three real parameters and
one phase. Since the invariance under the discrete symmetry CP implies that all
the couplings in the lagrangian must be real, it follows that the SM, in the case
of three generations, implies a CP violation. A violation of CP has been observed
experimentally by Christensen et al. in 1964. These authors discovered that the
eigenstate of CP , with CP = ;1
;
jK20i = p1 jK 0i ; jK! 0i
(10.144)
2
decays into a two pion state with CP = +1 with a BR
BR(K20 !
+
;) 2 10;3 (10.145)
It is not clear yet, if the SM is able to explain the observed CP violation in quanti-
tative terms.
To complete this Section we give the experimental values for some of the matrix
elements of V . The elements Vud and Vus are determined through nuclear -, K ;
and hyperon-decays, using the muon decay as normalization. One gets
jVudj = 0:9736 0:0010 (10.146)
256
and
jVusj = 0:2205 0:0018 (10.147)
The elements Vcd and Vcs are determined from charm production in deep inelastic
scattering + N ! + c + X . The result is
jVcdj = 0:224 0:016 (10.148)
and
jVcsj = 1:01 0:18 (10.149)
The elements Vub and Vcb are determined from the b ! u and b ! c semi-leptonic
decays as evaluated in the spectator model, and from the B semi-leptonic exclusive
decay B ! D! ?`` . One gets
jVubj = 0:08 0:02 (10.150)
jVcbj
and
jVcbj = 0:041 0:003 (10.151)
More recently from the branching ratio t ! Wb, CDF (1996) has measured jVtb j
jVtb j = 0:97 0:15 0:07 (10.152)
A more recent comprehensive analysis gives the following 90 % C.L. range for the
various elements of the CKM matrix
0 0:9745 ; 0:9757 0:219 ; 0:224 0:002 ; 0:005 1
V = @ 0:218 ; 0:224 0:9736 ; 0:9750 0:036 ; 0:046 A (10.153)
0:004 ; 0:014 0:034 ; 0:046 0:9989 ; 0:9993
258
Appendix A
260