Ultimate tensile strength

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Jump to: navigation, search Ultimate tensile strength (UTS), often shortened to tensile strength (TS) or ultimate strength,[1][2] is the maximum stress that a material can withstand while being stretched or pulled before necking, which is when the specimen's cross-section starts to significantly contract. Tensile strength is the opposite of compressive strength and the values can be quite different. The UTS is usually found by performing a tensile test and recording the stress versus strain; the highest point of the stress-strain curve is the UTS. It is an intensive property; therefore its value does not depend on the size of the test specimen. However, it is dependent on other factors, such as the preparation of the specimen, the presence or otherwise of surface defects, and the temperature of the test environment and material. Tensile strengths are rarely used in the design of ductile members, but they are important in brittle members. They are tabulated for common materials such as alloys, composite materials, ceramics, plastics, and wood. Tensile strength is defined as a stress, which is measured as force per unit area. In the SI system, the unit is pascal (Pa) or, equivalently, newtons per square metre (N/m). The customary unit is pounds-force per square inch (lbf/in or psi), or kilo-pounds per square inch (ksi), which is equal to 1000 psi; kilo-pounds per square inch are commonly used for convenience when measuring tensile strengths.

Contents
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1 Concept o 1.1 Ductile materials o 1.2 Brittle materials o 1.3 Liquids 2 Testing 3 Typical tensile strengths 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading

[edit] Concept
[edit] Ductile materials

Stress vs. Strain curve typical of aluminum 1. Ultimate strength 2. Yield strength 3. Proportional limit stress 4. Fracture 5. Offset strain (typically 0.2%)

Stress vs. strain curve typical of structural steel 1. Ultimate strength 2. Yield strength 3. Fracture 4. Strain hardening region 5. Necking region A: Engineering stress B: True stress Many materials display linear elastic behavior, defined by a linear stress-strain relationship, as shown in the figure up to point 2, in which deformations are completely recoverable upon removal of the load; that is, a specimen loaded elastically in tension will elongate, but will return to its original shape and size when unloaded. Beyond this linear region, for ductile materials, such as steel, deformations are plastic. A plastically deformed specimen will not return to its original size and shape when unloaded. Note that there will be elastic recovery of a portion of the deformation. For many applications, plastic deformation is unacceptable, and is used as the design limitation.

After the yield point, ductile metals will undergo a period of strain hardening, in which the stress increases again with increasing strain, and they begin to neck, as the cross-sectional area of the specimen decreases due to plastic flow. In a sufficiently ductile material, when necking becomes substantial, it causes a reversal of the engineering stress-strain curve (curve A); this is because the engineering stress is calculated assuming the original cross-sectional area before necking. The reversal point is the maximum stress on the engineering stress-strain curve, and the engineering stress coordinate of this point is the tensile ultimate strength, given by point 1. The UTS is not used in the design of ductile static members because design practices dictate the use of the yield stress. It is, however, used to for quality control, because of the ease of testing. It is also used to roughly determine material types for unknown samples.[3]

[edit] Brittle materials

Brittle materials, such as concrete and carbon fiber, are characterized by failure at small strains. They often fail while still behaving in a linear elastic manner, and thus do not have a defined yield point. Because strains are low, there is negligible difference between the engineering stress and the true stress. Testing of several identical specimens will result in different failure stresses, this is due to the Weibull Modulus of the brittle material. The UTS is a common engineering parameter when design brittle members, because there is no yield point.[3]

[edit] Liquids
Tensile strength can be defined for liquids as well as solids. For example, when a tree draws water from its roots to its upper leaves by transpiration, the column of water is pulled upwards from the top by capillary action, and this force is transmitted down the column by cohesion.[dubious discuss][citation needed]

[edit] Testing

Round bar tensile specimen after testing Main article: Tensile testing

Typically, the testing involves taking a small sample with a fixed cross-section area, and then pulling it with a controlled, gradually increasing force until the sample changes shape or breaks. When testing metals, indentation hardness correlates linearly with tensile strength. This important relation permits economically important nondestructive testing of bulk metal deliveries with lightweight, even portable equipment, such as hand-held Rockwell hardness testers.[4]

[edit] Typical tensile strengths

Typical tensile strengths of some materials Yield Ultimate strength Material strength (MPa) (MPa) first carbon nanotube ropes ? 3,600 Structural steel ASTM A36 steel 250 400 carbon steel 1090 841 [5] Steel, API 5L X65 448 531 Steel, high strength alloy ASTM A514 690 760 Steel, prestressing strands 1,650 1,860[citation needed] Steel (AISI 1060 0.6% carbon) Piano wire 2,200-2,482[6] High density polyethylene (HDPE) 26-33 37 Polypropylene 12-43 19.7-80 Stainless steel AISI 302 - Cold-rolled 520 860 Cast iron 4.5% C, ASTM A-48 130 200 [7] 4130 steel quench & temper at 1200F 703 814 [citation needed] "Liquidmetal" alloy 1723 550-1600 Titanium alloy (6% Al, 4% V) 830 900 [8] Beryllium 99.9% Be 345 448 [9] Aluminium alloy 2014-T6 414 483 Aluminium alloy 6063-T6 248 Copper 99.9% Cu 70 220 Cupronickel 10% Ni, 1.6% Fe, 1% Mn, 130 350 balance Cu Brass 200+ 550 Tungsten 1,510 Glass 33[10] E-Glass N/A 3,450 S-Glass N/A 4,710 [11] Basalt fiber N/A 4,840 Marble N/A 15 Concrete N/A 3(traction) Density (g/cm) 1.3 7.8 7.58 7.8 7.8 7.8 7.8 0.95 0.91 8.19 7.75 6.1 4.51 1.84 2.8 2.63 8.92 8.94 5.3 19.25 2.53 2.57 2.48 2.7 2.7

Carbon Fiber Carbon fiber (Toray T1000G[12]) Human hair Bamboo Spider silk (See note below) Darwin's bark spider silk[13] Silkworm silk Aramid (Kevlar or Twaron) UHMWPE UHMWPE fibers[14][15] (Dyneema or Spectra) Vectran Polybenzoxazole (Zylon[16]) Pine wood (parallel to grain) Bone (limb) Nylon, type 6/6 Epoxy adhesive Rubber Boron Silicon, monocrystalline (m-Si) Silicon carbide (SiC) Ultra-pure silca glass fiber-optic strands[18] Sapphire (Al2O3) diamond Graphene Colossal carbon tube

N/A

30(compression) 5,650 6,370 380 350-500 1,000

1.75 1.80 0.4 1.3 1.3 1.44 0.97 0.97 1.56 1.6 1.15 2.46 2.33

1,652 500 3,620 23

2,757 46 2,300-3,500 2,850-3,340 5,800 40 130 75 12 - 30 [17] 15 3,100 7,000 3,440 4100 1,900 2,800 130,000[19] 7,000

104-121 45 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A

3.9-4.1 3.5 1.0 1.0 0.037Carbon nanotube (see note below) N/A 11,000-63,000 1.34 [20] Carbon nanotube composites N/A 1,200 N/A ^a Many of the values depend on manufacturing process and purity/composition. ^b Multiwalled carbon nanotubes have the highest tensile strength of any material yet measured, with labs producing them at a tensile strength of 63 GPa[21], still well below their theoretical limit of 300 GPa[citation needed]. The first nanotube ropes (20mm) whose tensile strength was published (in 2000) had a strength of 3.6 GPa.[22] The density depends on the manufacturing method, and the lowest value is 0.037 or 0.55 (solid)[23]. ^c The strength of spider silk is highly variable. It depends on many factors including kind of silk (Every spider can produce several for sundry purposes.), species, age of silk, temperature, humidity, swiftness at which stress is applied during testing, length stress is applied, and way the silk is gathered (forced silking or natural spinning)[24]. The value shown in the table, 1000 MPa, is roughly representative of the results from a few studies involving several different species of spider however specific results varied greatly.[25]

^d Human hair strength varies by ethnicity and chemical treatments. Typical properties for annealed elements[26] Young's Offset or Ultimate Element modulus yield strength strength (GPa) (MPa) (MPa) silicon 107 50009000 tungsten 411 550 05500620 iron 211 080100 0350 titanium 120 100225 02400370 copper 130 033 0210 tantalum 186 180 0200 tin 047 009014 00150200 zinc (wrought) 105 01100200 nickel 170 014035 01400195 silver 083 0170 gold 079 0100 aluminium 070 015020 0040-0050 lead 016 0012

[edit] See also

Flexural strength Specific strength Strength of materials Tensile structure Toughness Ultimate failure

[edit] References
1. ^ Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, p. 31 2. ^ Smith & Hashemi 2006, p. 223 3. ^ a b http://www.ndted.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Materials/Mechanical/Tensile.htm 4. ^ E.J. Pavlina and C.J. Van Tyne, "Correlation of Yield Strength and Tensile Strength with Hardness for Steels", Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, 17:6 (December 2008) 5. ^ USStubular.com 6. ^ Don Stackhouse @ DJ Aerotech 7. ^ Norton, Robert L. (2006). Machine Design An Integrated Approach 3ed, p. 949. Pearson Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-148190-8 8. ^ Beryllium I-220H Grade 2 9. ^ Aluminum 2014-T6 10. ^ Material Properties Data: Soda-Lime Glass 11. ^ Basalt Continuous Fibers, archived from the original on 2009-12-29, http://www.webcitation.org/5mO840Mwq, retrieved 2009-12-29. 12. ^ Toray Properties Document

13. ^ I Agnarsson, M Kuntner, T A Blackledge, Bioprospecting Finds the Toughest Biological Material: Extraordinary Silk from a Giant Riverine Orb Spider 14. ^ Tensile and creep properties of ultra high molecular weight PE fibres 15. ^ Mechanical Properties Data 16. ^ Zylon Properties Document 17. ^ Uhu endfest 300 epoxy: Strength over setting temperature 18. ^ http://www.fols.org/fols_library/white_papers/documents/Fiber%20Myths%20White%20Pap er%20final.pdf 19. ^ Lee, C. et al. (2008). "Measurement of the Elastic Properties and Intrinsic Strength of Monolayer Graphene". Science 321 (5887): 385. doi:10.1126/science.1157996. PMID 18635798. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/321/5887/385. Lay summary. 20. ^ IOP.org Z. Wang, P. Ciselli and T. Peijs, Nanotechnology 18, 455709, 2007. 21. ^ Yu, Min-Feng; Lourie, O; Dyer, MJ; Moloni, K; Kelly, TF; Ruoff, RS (2000). "Strength and Breaking Mechanism of Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes Under Tensile Load". Science 287 (5453): 637640. doi:10.1126/science.287.5453.637. PMID 10649994. 22. ^ F. Li, H. M. Cheng, S. Bai, G. Su, and M. S. Dresselhaus, "Tensile strength of single-walled carbon nanotubes directly measured from their macroscopic ropes". DOI:10.1063/1.1324984 23. ^ K.Hata. "From Highly Efficient Impurity-Free CNT Synthesis to DWNT forests, CNTsolids and Super-Capacitors" (PDF). http://nanocarbon.jp/english/research/image/review.pdf. 24. ^ Elices, et al.. "Finding Inspiration in Argiope Trifasciata Spider Silk Fibers". JOM. http://www.tms.org/pubs/journals/JOM/0502/Elices-0502.html. Retrieved 2009-01-23. 25. ^ Blackledge, et al.. "Quasistatic and continuous dynamic characterization of the mechanical properties of silk from the cobweb of the black widow spider Latrodectus hesperus". The Company of Biologists. http://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/content/full/208/10/1937. Retrieved 2009-01-23. 26. ^ A.M. Howatson, P.G. Lund, and J.D. Todd, Engineering Tables and Data, p. 41

[edit] Further reading

Giancoli, Douglas, Physics for Scientists & Engineers Third Edition (2000). Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall. Khler, T. and F. Vollrath, "Thread biomechanics in the two orb-weaving spiders Araneus diadematus (Araneae, Araneidae) and Uloboris walckenaerius (Araneae, Uloboridae)", Journal of Experimental Zoology 271:117. T Follett, Life without metals Min-Feng Yu et al., "Strength and Breaking Mechanism of Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes Under Tensile Load", Science 287:637640 (2000) George E. Dieter, Mechanical Metallurgy (1988). McGraw-Hill, UK

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