Ch 10: Photosynthesis

Overview: process that feeds the biosphere Photosynthesis is the process that converts sunlight to chemical energy Directly or indirectly, photosynthesis nourishes almost entire living world Autotrophs sustain themselves without eating anything derived from other organisms Autotrophs are produces of biosphere, producing organic mol. From CO2 and other inorganic mol. Almost all plants are photoautotrophs, using sunlights energy to make organic mol. From H2O and CO2 C 10.1: Photosynthesis converts light energy to chem energy of food 10.2: The light reactions convert solar energy to the chem energy of ATP and NADPH 10.3: The Calvin cycle uses the chem energy of ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2 to sugar 10.4: Alternative mechanisms of carbon fixation have evolved in hot, arid climates Heterotrophs obtain their organic material from other organisms Heterotrophs are the consumers of the biosphere Almost all heterotrophy, including humans, depend on photoautotrophs for food and O2 Earths fossil fuels were formed remains of million old organisms In sense, fossil fuel represents solar energy from the past C10.1: Photosynthesis converts light energy to the chemical energy of food Chloroplasts: The site of photosynthesis in plants Chloroplast are structurally similar to and likely evolved from photosynthetic bacteria Structural organization of these cells allow for the chem reaction of photosynthesis Leaves are major part of photosynthesis Green color is from chlorophyll, the green pigments within chloroplast Light energy absorbed by chlorophyll drives synthesis of organic mol in chloroplast CO2 enters and O2 exits the leaf through microscopic pores called stomata Chloroplast are found in cell of the mesophyll, interior tissue of the leaf Typical mesophyll has 30-40 chloroplasts Chlorophyll is in membrane of hyaloids (connected sacs in the chloroplast); hyaloids may be stacked in columns called grana Chloroplast contain stroma, a dense fluid Photosynthesis is a complex series of rcn (with a +G) that can be summarized as the equation: 6 CO2 +12 H2O + light energy-> C6H2O6 + 6 O2 + 6 H2O Respiration is summarized as the following equation C6H12O6 + 6 O2 -> C6H1206 + 6 O2 + Energy(ATP + heat) Chloroplast split H2O into H & O, incorporating electrons of H into sugar mol and releasing O as by-product Photosynthesis reverses direction of electron flow compared to respiration Photosynthesis is a redox process in which H2O is oxidized and CO2 is reduced Photosynthesis is an endergonic process; the energy boost is provided by light Photosynthesis consist of the light reaction (photo) and the Calvin cycle (synthesis) Light reactions ( in hyaloids): Split H2O Release O2 Reduce NADP+ to NADPH Generate ATP from ADP by photosphosphorilation Calvin Cycle (in stroma) forms sugar from CO2 using ATP and NADH Calvin cycle begins with carbon fixation, incorporating CO2 into organic mol

Key Concepts

Tracking Atoms through photosynthesis

The splitting of Water

Photosynthesis as a Redox Reaction

The two stages of photosynthesis: Preview

C 10.2: The light reaction convert solar energy to the chem energy of ATP and NADPH

Photosynthetic Pigments: the Light Receptors

Chloroplast are solar-powered chem. factories Thylakoids transfom lignt energy to chem. energy of ATP and NADPH Nature of sunlight -ligt is form of electromagnetic energy, also called electromagnetic radiation -light travels in rhythmic wave -wavelength- distance between crest of wave, determine type of electromagnetic energy The electro magnetic spectrum is the entire rande of electromagnetic energy, or radiation Visible light consists of wavelengths (including those that drive photosynthesis) that show colors we can see Light also behaves though it consist of discrete particles, callede photons Pigments are substance that absorb visible light Different pigments absorb different wavelengths, the ones not absorbed are reflected or transmitted Leaves appear green because chlorophyll reflects and transmits green light Absorption spectrum is a graph plotting a pigments light absorption vs. wavelength Absorption spectrum of chlorophyll suggest that violet-blue and red light work best for photosynthesis Action spectrum profiles relative effectiveness of different wavelengths of radiation in driving a process Chlorophyll a is the main photosynthetic pigment Accessory pigments like chlorophyll b, broaden spectrum used in photosynthesis Accessory pigments called carotenoids absorb excessive light that would damage chlorophyll When pigment absorbs light, it goes from a ground state to an excited state, which is unstable When excited electrons go back to ground state, photons are given off, an afterglow called fluorescence If lighted, isolated solution of chlorophyll will fluoresces, given off light and heat photo system consist of a rcn-center complex (a type of protein complex) surrounded by lightharvesting complexes that funnel the energy of photons to the reaction center Primary electron acceptor (pea) in the rcn center accepts an excited electron from chlorophyll a Solar-powered transfer of a electron from chlorophyll a to pea is first step of light rcn Two types of photo systems in the hyaloids membrane Photosystem II (PS II, P680) functions first (numbers reflect order of discovery) and is best at absorbing a wavelength of 680 nm Photosystem I (PS I P700) is best at absorbing wavelength of 700nm

Excitation of Chlorophyll by light

A photo system: a rcn-center complex associated with light-harvesting complexes

Linear Electron Flow

During the light reaction, 2 possible routes for electron flow: linear & cyclic Linear electron flow- primary pathway, involves both photo systems and prodices ATP and NADPH using light energy Cyclic electric flow (later) Cyclic electron flow uses only photo system I and produces ATP but not NADPH No oxygen is released Cyclic electron flow generates surplus ATP, satisfying the higher demand in the Calvin cycle Some organisms like purple sulfur bacteria have PS I but not PS II Cyclic electron flow is thought to have evolved before linear electron flow Cyclic electron flow may protect cell form light-induced damage Chlorplast and mitochondra both generate ATP by chemiosmosis, but use diff. energy sources Mitochondrian transfer chem energy from food to ATP; chloroplast transform light energy to chem energy of ATP Spatial organization of chemiosmosis differ b/w chlorplast and mitochondria but show similarities too In mitochondria, protons are pumped to the intermembrane space and drive ATP synthesis as they diffuse back to mitochondrial matrix In chloroplast, protons are pumped to thylakoid space and drive ATP synthesis as they diffuse back to stroma

A comparison of Chemiosmosis in Chloroplast and Mitochondria

ATP and NADPH are produced on side facins stroma, where Calvin cycle takes place

C 10.3: Calvin cycle uses chem energy of ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2 to sugar

In summary, light rcn generate ATP and increase potential energy of electrons by moving them from H2O to NADPH Calvin cycle (CC), like citric acid cycle, regenerates its starting material after molecules enter and leave cycle Cycle builds sugars from smaller molecules by using ATP and the reducing power of electrons carried by NADPH Carbon enter CC as CO2 and leaves as sugar, glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P) Net synthesis of 1 G3P, cycle takes place 3 times, fixing 3 molecules of CO2 CC has 3 phases: Carbon fixation (catalyzed by rubisco) Reduction Regeneration of CO2 acceptor (RuBP) Dehydration is problem for plants, sometimes trade-offs with other metabolic process, especially photosynthesis On hot dry days, plants close stomata which conserves H2O but limits photosynthesis Closing of stomata reduces access to CO2 and causes O2 to build up These condition favor an apparently wasteful process called photorespiration Remember rubisco is a stupid enzyme that cant tell diff b/w CO2 and O2 (O2 of the time)

C10.4: Alternative mechanism of carbon fixation have evolved in hot, arid climates

Photorespiration: an evolutionary relic?

Most plants (C3 plants) initial fixation fo CO#, via rubisco, forms a three-carbon compound (3 phophoglycerate) In photorespiration, rubisco adds O2 indtead of CO2 in CC, producing 2 carbon compound Photrespiration consume O2 and organic fuel and releases CO2 without producing ATP or sugar In many plants, photorespiration is a problem because on a hot dry day it can drain as much as 50% of the carbon fixed by the CC Photorespiration may be evolutionary relic cause rubisco firs evolved at a time when atmosphere had far less O2 and more CO2 Photorespiration limits damaging products of light rcn that build up in absence of CC C4 plants (sugarcane, corn) minimize cost of photorespiration by incorporating CO2 into 4carbon compounds in mesophyll cells

 C4 Plants

Step requires enzyme PEP carboxylase PEP carboxylase has higher affinity for CO2 that rubisco ; fixes CO2 when CO2 levels are low 4-carbon compounds are exported to bundle-sheath cells, where releases CO2 that is used in C Some plants including succulents use crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) to fix carbon CAM plants (cacti, pineapple) open stomata at night, incorporating CO2 into organic acid Stomata close in day, CO2 is released from organic acids and use CC

Importance of Photosynthesis: a review

The energy entering chloroplasts as sunlight gets stored as chemical energy in organic compounds Sugar made in the chloroplasts supplies chemical energy and carbon skeletons to synthesize the organic molecules of cells Plants store excess sugar as starch in structures such as roots, tubers, seeds, and fruits In addition to food production, photosynthesis produces the O2 in our atmosphere Describe structure of chloroplast Describe relationship b/w action spectrum and absorption spectrum Trace movement of electrons in linear electron flow Trace movement of electrons in cyclic electron flow Describe similarities and diff b/w oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria and photophosphorylation in chloroplasts Describe role of ATP and NADPH in CC Describe major consequended of photorespiration Describoe 2 important photosynthetic adaptation that minimize photrespiationt

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