Damage Evaluation and NDT: Linhas Aéreas Inteligentes

Linhas areas Inteligentes
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DAMAGE EVALUATION AND NDT
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DAMAGE TO COMPOSITE STRUCTURE GENERAL When damage is discovered on a composite structural part, and before any further repair work, a complete investigation of the affected area is to be carried-out. The investigation of damage is done using the related chapters and pages of the SRM (Structural Repair Manual) in order to determine whether the damage is repairable or not, and what is the applicable type of repair. DAMAGE DETECTION Damage can be discovered during scheduled inspections required by the maintenance program, or in un-scheduled inspections when the part has been subjected to accidental damage. DAMAGE EVALUATION A complete inspection of the damaged area or component will give the required information concerning the extent and the type of damage. According to the type, extent and the importance of the affected zone, the determination of the damage acceptance level can be conducted. ACCEPTANCE LEVEL In order to define the applicable repair type and its associated limits (time and size), it is necessary to determine first, whether the damage is allowable, repairable or not repairable. The acceptance level of damage is determined using the graphics and instructions contained in the affected component related SRM chapter (52 thru 57) and allowable damage section of the Structural Repair Manual.
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DAMAGE CLASSIFICATION For composite surfaces, as per the Structural Repair Manual, damage is split into two main categories: skin not perforated and skin perforated damage. Skin not-perforated damage includes: abrasion, scratches, gouges, nicks, debonding, delamination, dents Skin perforated damage includes lightning strike holes accidental impact of foreign object and needs investigation for delamination moisture contamination. EXTENT OF DAMAGE Close visual and nondestructive testing methods such as tap-testing, ultrasonic and X-Rays are used to determine the size of the damages. For delaminated/debonded area determination, a minimum inspection area is defined. In case of indication, the inspection area must be extended until the limits of the affected zone are located. The acceptance level of damage is determined using the graphics and instructions contained in the affected component related SRM chapter (52 thru 57) and allowable damage section of the Structural Repair Manual. SURFACE ZONES As damage is not of the same significance in each area of the component, each composite surface of the aircraft is divided into zones of different structural importance. For each component the corresponding zones are given in the related SRM chapter (e.g. spoiler SRM chapter 57) section allowable damage ALLOWABLE DAMAGE For each of the defined zones, a graphic is to be used to determine allowable damage limits, recommended repair types and repair associated limitations. Damage type and dimensions as well as initial thicknesses have to be known to select and work with these graphics. Visual inspection is the principal method for damage detection. Delamination or disbonding can be caused by an impact, an abnormal loading or an undetected manufacturing defect. NOTE: Such damages is not always visible on the material surface. The compression strength of the component is affected and water or fluid ingress is very likely to occur.
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SCRATCHES I GOUGES A scratch is due to contact with a sharp object, only surface fibers are affected. While a gauge is wider and deeper than a scratch, several plies are affected, but the edges of gauge are generally smooth.For scratches, in general only a surface restoration is necessary to prevent any water or fluid ingress. Gouges have consequences on the structural strength and have to be repaired by removing the damaged plies and performing a hand lay-up. ABRASION Abrasion is a surface damage due to scuffing, rubbing or scraping of the component. Fibers are not damaged and mechanical performances are not affected. Abrasion damage is repaired by restoration of the surface protection, in order to avoid any water or fluid ingress. CORROSION Galvanic corrosion may occur when an aluminium alloy part is in direct contact with carbon fiber surface in presence of a corrosive environment. In that case it is the aluminium alloy part which corrodes (fitting, lightning strike protection straps, .) and which has to be replaced or repaired if possible.
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LIGHTNING STRIKE DAMAGE Carbon Fiber is a conductive material while Glass or Aramid fibers are non- conductive materials. The effect of a lightning strike will not be the same. For non-conductive materials (Glass, Aramid) a large part of the component, if not completely protected, may be blown-out because both skins are affected and the core generally vaporised due to the extreme heat. Damage on Carbon fiber structures will be less significant (spots, small holes, or charring).
EROSION Erosion could affects all the leading edge surfaces, especially when initial surface protection system has first been damaged.Erosion, when undetected or unrepaired may generate composite deterioration, the component may be completely perforated and water or fluid ingress are likely to occur. Restore the protection in the area, install additional protection if necessary.
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WATER ABSORPTION Any detected moisture has to be dried to avoid further damage. During any repair procedure, make sure that repair parts are completely dry, in order to avoid any material delamination during heat application.Water ingress in sandwich structures is due to porosities in the skin. It reduces performances and increases the weight of the affected structure.Water absorption is a phenomenon due to resin properties. The absorption stops when the resin is saturated. CHEMICAL DEGRADATION Chemical degradation, principally affects the resin and is generally due to accidental contact with agressive chemical liquids or products.ln case of chemical degradation detection, the whole contaminated area must be repaired. DENT I DEPRESSION A depression or a dent is a deformation of the area in the direction of thickness. It may be caused by impact or depression.This type of defect requires further NDT investigations to detect delamination or debonding. On sandwich structure the honeycomb is generally damaged and requires a repair.
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NON DESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION (NDI) TECHNIQUES A variety of NDI techniques are available as inspection tools for documenting manufacturing and service-related defects in composites. However, as in metallic structures, no single nondestructive inspection method can locate and isolate all defects. The equipment and techniques utilized in the nondestructive inspection of composite structures ranges in complexity from the use of a coin tap test to the use of lasers in holographic equipment. A list of NDI techniques, proven to detect defects in composites, is presented below: Tap testing Visual or optical inspection Bondtester or Resonator Penetrant Thermography Holography Acoustic Emission Ultrasonics Radiography Among the listed techniques, the most commonly used methods are ultrasonics (pulse echo or through transmission) and radiography (xray).
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TAP TESTING Tap testing is widely used for a quick evaluation of any accessible aircraft surfaces to detect presence of disbonds. The tap testing procedure consists of lightly tapping the surface of the part with a coin, light hammer, or other suitable objects. The acoustic response is compared with that at a known good area. A flat or dead response is considered unacceptable. The acoustic response of a good part can vary dramatically with changes in geometry, in which case a standard of some sort is required. The entire area of interest must be tapped. The method is limited to finding relatively shallow defects. In a honeycomb structure, for example, the far side bondline cannot be evaluated. Thus, two-side access is required for a complete inspection of honeycomb structures. The method is portable, but no records are produced. The method is also highly dependent on the inspectors subjective interpretation of the test response. Internal flaws in composites, such as delaminations, disbonds and matrix crazing are not detectable. In addition, tight surface cracks and edge delaminations may not be detectable. Visual aids such as mirrors, borescopes and magnifiers are portable, and may be used to facilitate detection. Visual inspection results may be recorded in the form of photographs, if desired. The surface to be inspected should be clean and free of conditions that may mask or obscure defects.
VISUAL OR OPTICAL INSPECTION Visual or optical inspection procedure are used for a quick assessment of the aircraft surface conditions for presence of flaws or damage. Visual inspection is inexpensive, easy, and fast. However, if the inspected material is not transparent, like composites, it is only capable of finding flaws that are evident on the visible surface. 13
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HOLOGRAPHY Holography is used for rapid assessment of flaws in surfaces of composite structures. Optical holography is extremely sensitive in measuring small surface displacements. The part to be inspected is stressed by the application of heat, a static load or vibration, to bring out the effect of the flaw on the surface displacement. For internal flaws in composite parts, holograms are taken when the structure is unstressed and stressed. The applied stress is selected to cause no additional damage to the structure. The holograms corresponding to the stressed and unstressed states are reconstructed to form interference fringes. The fringe pattern is then analyzed to reveal the internal defects. The advantage of this technique is the high inspection speed. The disadvantages are the tedious set-up procedures related to the optical components, the caution to be exercised in proper stress application, and the difficulties in converting fringe patterns to a meaningful display (inspection image) of defects. ULTRASONICS Ultrasonic inspection technique is widely used for quick and inexpensive evaluation of flaws in composite parts. Portable inspection probes are used for on site inspection of areas with suspected damage or flaws. Ultrasonic waves travel through solids and liquids at relatively high speeds, but are rapidly attenuated in gases. The density and the elasticity of the medium affect the wave speed.
Also, depending on the type of particle movement induced by the ultrasonic transducer, a longitudinal wave, a shear wave, or a surface wave may be propagated in the medium. The refraction of an ultrasonic beam when it passes through the boundary between two media is comparable to the refraction of light beams in the same situation. Ultrasonic NDI techniques are widely used for quality control and flaw detection in composite laminates. The technique is based on the attenuation of high frequency (1 MHz to 30 MHz) acoustic waves passing through the composite part. The attenuation is generally a result of three causes- - dispersion due to viscoelastic effects in the resin matrix, geometric dispersion due to the heterogeneity in the composite material, and geometric attenuation due to internal defects such as delaminations, porosity, fiber and matrix cracks. Surface roughness and the shape or contour of the test specimen also affect the wave attenuation. The ultrasound is generally transmitted and received by ultrasonic transducer in a pulse-echo or a throughtransmission mode. The pulse-echo technique can be applied to both immersion and contact test set-ups, while the through-transmission method generally applies only to immersion and squirter test set-ups. In the pulse-echo mode, the ultrasound is transmitted by a transducer and the reflected signal is received by the same transducer, after the signal is reflected from
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ULTRASONICS (CONT) the back surface of the composite part. The attenuation of the reflected pulse is influenced by the presence of internal defects in the part, while the time delay of the reflected pulse is related to the depthwise location of defects in the composite part. Composite parts suspected of containing defects that are open to the outer surfaces should be handled with care. In these situations, water may infiltrate into the part through these defects, and make it difficult to detect the flaws. And, water contamination of a honeycomb core in sandwich constructions may lead to serious corrosion problems. Reference standards are required to calibrate the ultrasonic test equipment, and the inspectors should be experienced in operating them. Gamma rays are similar to X-rays in their characteristics, and are emitted from the disintegrating nuclei of radioactive substances like radium and cobalt 60. Both X-rays and gamma rays have extremely short wavelengths that provide them the ability to penetrate materials that absorb or reflect ordinary light. Radiography is a non-destructive test method that uses X-rays or gamma rays. A radiograph is a photographic record produced by the passage of these rays through a test object onto a film. The radiation proceeds in straight lines to the object; some of the rays pass through the object and the others are absorbed. The amount transmitted depends on the nature of the material and its thickness. The presence of a void in the material, for example, causes more radiation to pass through the section containing the void than through the surrounding region. A radiograph is like a shadow picture- -the darker regions on the film represent the more penetrable parts of the test specimen, and the lighter regions are more opaque to the radiation.
RADIOGRAPHY X-ray inspection technique is widely used for quick and low cost inspection of composite structures. X-ray equipment can be adopted to handle from small to relatively large parts. X-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation like light. They are produced when electrons, traveling at a high speed, collide with matter or change direction. In X-ray tubes, the electrons are accelerated by a difference of potential between the cathode (source of electrons) and the target.
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REPAIR TYPES Recommended repairs can be of three types temporary repairs, permanent cosmetic repairs and permanent structural repairs. Repair instructions are to be found in the SRM either in the related Chapter (52 thru 57) or in the general chapter 51. For damage exceeding graphic limits the assistance of Aircraft Manufacture is required.
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PREPARATION BEFORE REPAIR Before any repair action, it is necessary to make a correct surface preparation of the repair area. This will ensure the maximum bonding strength and durability.
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REMOVAL OF SURFACE PROTECTION All the surface protection (including paint and primer) is to be removed using mechanical methods only. Chemical strippers may cause deterioration of the resin.
WARNING: Do not use chemical strippers Do not erode laminates
NOTE Do not apply water directly to the surface, wet the cloth first.
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CLEANING AND DEGREASING The repair surface needs to be cleaned and degreased, in order to ensure the good bonding of the repair. NOTE : Do not apply cleaning agent directly on the repair surface, wet the cloth before. WARNING : Cleaning agents are dangerous.
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WATER BREAK TEST The correct cleaning and degreasing of the repair surface is to be checked by a water break test. The test consists of spraying a thin layer of demineralized water on the repair surface, and checking that the water remains in a thin continous coating.
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WET LAY-UP The wet lay-up consists of applying several layers of fabric material impregnated with resin onto repair surface, in order to restore the damaged skin. Previous to the lay-up operation the fabric material is hand impregnated with resin or adhesive. Repair layers (plies) are up on the surface following a specified sequence and the cured at Room Temperature (RT).
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APPLICABLE WET LAY-UP SEQUENCES There are two main options which be used for the lay-up operation. The applicable one is generally specified in the repair instructions.
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VACUUM BAGGING The technique of vacuum bagging is used in advanced composite repair for several reasons: To use atmospheric pressure to consolidate the layers in the laminated repair To remove trapped air and gases produced during curing To hold heater blankets, thermocouples and other materials in place during the curing cycle To produce the desired surface finish on the repair There is no universally accepted method of vacuum bagging, aircraft manufacturers have a variety of methods, but you should be aware of the purpose of each of the materials used. If you understand why each layer is used you will not have to remember how to bag up a repair for each type of aircraft. Additionally it is necessary to ensure that none of the bagging materials adhere to the repair and that the heater blanket is protected from resin contamination. The figure below shows a typical vacuum bagging sequence specified by Boeing.
BAGGING PRINCIPLES Two main principles must be obeyed when vacuum bagging a repair: The air and gases inside a vacuum bag must have an easy path to the vacuum pump over the entire repair surface The amount of resin lost from the repair plies must be kept to a minimum 32
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PERFORATED PARTING FILM Also known as perforated FEP parting film, perforated release film. This is a thin, non-stick film placed directly on the surface of the repair to prevent the bagging materials sticking to the repair surface. The film is perforated with small holes to allow air and gases to escape from the repair piles. Hole size varies from pin-pricks to about 1mm diameter. Some resin will escape through the holes and so, for repair, it is best to choose a film with pin-pricks to reduce the resin loss. Perforated parting film will produce a shiny, resin rich surface on the repair. PEEL PLY Also known as release fabric. This is a thin, woven, nylon or polyester fabric which has a non-stick coating. It can be used instead of, or underneath a perforated parting film. Its main effect is on the surface finish of the repair. During the curing of the repair the peel ply becomes lightly bonded to the the surface resin. When it is removed it peels off the surface resin leaving a rough finish. This produces a surface which can be painted or bonded without further sanding. There are two possible disadvantages in using a peel ply It absorbs some resin, and may lead to a resin starved repair It may contaminate the repair surface with its non-stick coating
BLEEDER CLOTH Also known as surface bleeder, bleeder fabric. The function of this layer is to provide an easy path for air to escape and to absorb any resin which comes through the holes in the perforated parting film. The bleeder cloth should be larger than the perforated parting film. A number of types of bleeder material are available including woven glass fibres, non woven cloth and a felt type of material also known as breather fabric. The bleeder is placed directly on to the thin, perforated parting film and so the surface texture of the bleeder cloth will be reproduced on the surface of the repair. This has a major influence on the final surface finish of the repair. NON-PERFORATED PARTING FILM Also known as solid parting film, release film. This is placed on top of the bleeder fabric to prevent resin soaking through onto the other bagging materials and the heater blanket. This film should be larger than the heater blanket but must be smaller than the bleeder fabric or else air will be trapped underneath with no escape path. BREATHER FABRIC Also known as breather cloth, surface breather. This is a thick, porous, non-woven material and is used over the entire repair surface to allow an easy escape for air and gases. It must be larger than all the non-porous materials used in the vacuum bag. The breech units must be placed on the breather fabric so that the air and gases have a free path to the vacuum pump.
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CAUL PLATE Also known as a pressure plate, pressure intensifier. This is a thin metal plate which is place between the breather fabric and the heater blanket. Its purpose is To help to even out the temperature over the entire repair To help to even out the pressure over the whole repair To improve the flatness of the surface of the repair. Caul plates are suitable for flat or single curvature panels, but not for complex shapes, where special tooling should be used instead. In general thin caul plates (<0.0 16) work best because thicker plates tend to trap air in the repair. HEATER BLANKET Also known as heater mat. The heater blanket is a silicone rubber pad which contains an electrical heating element. It is used to control the temperature of the repair during the warm up, cure and cool down stages of the repair. They are flexible and will deform to gentle curves. They are suitable for cures up to 350F (175C). They are available in several power outputs, the most common being 3 and 5 watts per square inch. It is important to ensure that the voltage rating of the blanket matches the power source being used. The heater blanket must be at least 2 (50mm) larger than the repair all the way round to ensure that the whole repair area is at an even temperature.
INSULATION Insulation in the form of breather fabric or glass cloth is normally placed on top of the heater blanket to reduce heat losses and to minimise the effects of draughts on the repair. It is often recommended that extra insulation on the outside of the vacuum bag is used to even out temperature variations on the repair surface. BAGGING FILM This is a nylon film which is sealed over the repair materials so that a vacuum can be applied. It is available in a variety of temperature resistance and elongation. The higher temperature resistant films normally stretch less. BAG SEATING TAPE Also known as bagging tape, extruded sealing compound This material is a high temperature mastic type of tape and is used to seal the vacuum bag to the surface of the item under repair. It is available in a number of temperature ranges.
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VACUUM BREECH UNITS Also known as through bag units, vacuum probes, sniffers. These are specially designed connectors which pass through the vacuum bag and make a seal, so that the pipe to the vacuum pump can be connected. There are several designs. Two breech units are normally used on a repair. One to remove the air from the vacuum bag and one to record the level of vacuum inside the bag. It is important that the breech units are placed on opposite sides of the repair, are placed directly on to breather fabric, and are not placed directly over any wires or heater blankets. THERMOCOUPLES Also known as T/Cs, temperature probes. A thermocoup]e consists of two wires, made from special alloys, which are welded together at one end. When the welded portion is heated it produces a small electrical current. By connecting the thermocouple to a hot bonder they can be used to record and control the temperature of a repair. Thermocouples come in a variety of types, depending on the alloys used and are distinguished by letters: J type, K type etc. The most commonly used thermocouples for hot bonding are J type. 36 A number of thermocouples should be place around the repair to record and control the temperature accurately during curing. They should be placed near to, but not on, the repair. Boeing recommend the use of up to eight thermocouples for a repair. Bad thermocouple connections are the most common cause of problems during the cure of a repair. FLASH BREAKER TAPE Also known as flash tape, pressure sensitive tape, high temperature tape, PS tape. This is a high temperature tape which can be used for a large number of functions inside the vacuum bag. It will not be affected by high temperatures. It is the only type of tape which should be used on the surface of the heater blanket.
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THERMOCOUPLE MAPPING Each cure cycle contains at least one ramp stage and dwell (soak) stage. The temperatures must be carefully controlled during these stages and maintained between predefined limits. Most modern hot bonders allow you to define upper and lower tolerance limits for each stage of the cure cycle and will sound an alarm or shut down if the limits are exceeded. In ideal conditions all points beneath a heater blanket will heat up at the same rate and maintain the same dwell temperature, but in reality there will be a variation of temperatures across the component. A variety of factors can lead to these variations, the most common being: Variations in thickness of the component Ribs, bosses etc. External draughts Inaccuracy of thermocouples Cold or hot areas within the heater blanket Leaks within the vacuum bag Lack of insulation in some areas of the repair There is a trend for manufacturers to call for a number of thermocouples to be placed around the repair to monitor these variations during repair of their components. Boeing repair documents, for instance, requires the continuous monitor and control of eight thermocouples during metal to metal bonded repairs.
CONTROL OF VARIATIONS IN TEMPERATURE In most cases a repair will be heated by a single heater blanket using a number of strategically placed thermocouples. Since the whole area of the blanket is controlled together there is no facility to increase or decrease the heat input to different areas of the repair. Control of local temperatures can only be achieved by increasing or decreasing heat loss from the area by addition or removal of insulation. Thus an accurate map of the placing of the thermocouples in a repair is essential so that when a thermocouple is recording a high or low temperature the exact location can be identified. Always make a habit of recording the positions and numbers of the thermocouples in a repair. This can be done on a separate map or on the vacuum bag itself.
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VACUUM BAGGING The technique of vacuum bagging is used in advanced composite repair for several reasons: To use atmospheric pressure to consolidate the layers in the laminated repair To remove trapped air and gases produced during curing To hold heater blankets, thermocouples and other materials in place during the curing cycle To produce the desired surface finish on the repair There is no universally accepted method of vacuum bagging, aircraft manufacturers have a variety of methods, but you should be aware of the purpose of each of the materials used. If you understand why each layer is used you will not have to remember how to bag up a repair for each type of aircraft. Additionally it is necessary to ensure that none of the bagging materials adhere to the repair and that the heater blanket is protected from resin contamination. The figure below shows a typical vacuum bagging sequence specified by Boeing.
BAGGING PRINCIPLES Two main principles must be obeyed when vacuum bagging a repair: The air and gases inside a vacuum bag must have an easy path to the vacuum pump over the entire repair surface The amount of resin lost from the repair plies must be kept to a minimum 38

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